Introduction[edit]

Streamlines
around a NACA
0012 airfoil at
moderate angle of
attack

Lift and Drag curves for a t!ical airfoil

A fi"ed#$ing aircraft%s $ings& 'ori(ontal&
and vertical sta)ili(ers are )uilt $it' airfoil#
s'a!ed cross sections& as are 'elico!ter rotor
)lades* Airfoils are also found in !ro!ellers&
fans& com!ressors and tur)ines* Sails are
also airfoils& and t'e under$ater surfaces of
sail)oats& suc' as t'e center)oard and keel&
are similar in cross#section and o!erate on t'e
same !rinci!les as airfoils* S$imming and
fling creatures and even man !lants and
sessile organisms em!lo airfoils+'drofoils,
common e"am!les )eing )ird $ings& t'e
)odies of fis'& and t'e s'a!e of sand dollars*
An airfoil#s'a!ed $ing can create do$nforce on an automo)ile or ot'er motor ve'icle&
im!roving traction*
An o)-ect $it' an angle of attack in a moving fluid& suc' as a flat !late& a )uilding& or
t'e deck of a )ridge& $ill generate an aerodnamic force .called lift/ !er!endicular to t'e
flo$* Airfoils are more efficient lifting s'a!es& a)le to generate more lift .u! to a !oint/&
and to generate lift $it' less drag*
A lift and drag curve o)tained in $ind tunnel testing is s'o$n on t'e rig't* 0'e curve
re!resents an airfoil $it' a !ositive cam)er so some lift is !roduced at (ero angle of
attack* 1it' increased angle of attack& lift increases in a roug'l linear relation& called t'e
slo!e of t'e lift curve* At a)out 12 degrees t'is airfoil stalls& and lift falls off 3uickl
)eond t'at* 0'e dro! in lift can )e e"!lained ) t'e action of t'e u!!er#surface)oundar
laer& $'ic' se!arates and greatl t'ickens over t'e u!!er surface at and !ast t'e stall
angle* 0'e t'ickened )oundar laer%s dis!lacement t'ickness c'anges t'e airfoil%s
effective s'a!e& in !articular it reduces its effective cam)er& $'ic' modifies t'e overall
flo$ field so as to reduce t'e circulation and t'e lift* 0'e t'icker )oundar laer also
causes a large increase in !ressure drag& so t'at t'e overall drag increases s'ar!l near
and !ast t'e stall !oint*
Airfoil design is a ma-or facet of aerodnamics* 4arious airfoils serve different flig't
regimes* Asmmetric airfoils can generate lift at (ero angle of attack& $'ile a smmetric
airfoil ma )etter suit fre3uent inverted flig't as in an aero)atic air!lane* In t'e region
of t'e ailerons and near a $ingti! a smmetric airfoil can )e used to increase t'e range
of angles of attack to avoid s!in5stall* 0'us a large range of angles can )e used $it'out
)oundar laer se!aration* Su)sonic airfoils 'ave a round leading edge& $'ic' is
naturall insensitive to t'e angle of attack* 0'e cross section is not strictl circular&
'o$ever, t'e radius of curvature is increased )efore t'e $ing ac'ieves ma"imum
t'ickness to minimi(e t'e c'ance of )oundar laer se!aration* 0'is elongates t'e $ing
and moves t'e !oint of ma"imum t'ickness )ack from t'e leading edge*
Su!ersonic airfoils are muc' more angular in s'a!e and can 'ave a ver s'ar! leading
edge& $'ic' is ver sensitive to angle of attack* A su!ercritical airfoil 'as its ma"imum
t'ickness close to t'e leading edge to 'ave a lot of lengt' to slo$l s'ock t'e su!ersonic
flo$ )ack to su)sonic s!eeds* 6enerall suc' transonic airfoils and also t'e su!ersonic
airfoils 'ave a lo$ cam)er to reduce drag divergence* 7odern aircraft $ings ma 'ave
different airfoil sections along t'e $ing s!an& eac' one o!timi(ed for t'e conditions in
eac' section of t'e $ing*
7ova)le 'ig'#lift devices& fla!s and sometimes slats& are fitted to airfoils on almost
ever aircraft* A trailing edge fla! acts similarl to an aileron8 'o$ever& it& as o!!osed to
an aileron& can )e retracted !artiall into t'e $ing if not used*
A laminar flo$ $ing 'as a ma"imum t'ickness in t'e middle cam)er line* Anal(ing t'e
Navier5Stokes e3uations in t'e linear regime s'o$s t'at a negative !ressure gradient
along t'e flo$ 'as t'e same effect as reducing t'e s!eed* So $it' t'e ma"imum cam)er
in t'e middle& maintaining a laminar flo$ over a larger !ercentage of t'e $ing at a 'ig'er
cruising s!eed is !ossi)le* 9o$ever& $it' rain or insects on t'e $ing& or for -etliner
s!eeds& t'is does not $ork* Since suc' a $ing stalls more easil& t'is airfoil is not used on
$ingti!s .s!in#stall again/*
Sc'emes 'ave )een devised to define airfoils 5 an e"am!le is t'e NACA sstem*
4arious airfoil generation sstems are also used* An e"am!le of a general !ur!ose airfoil
t'at finds $ide a!!lication& and !redates t'e NACA sstem& is t'e Clark#:* 0oda&
airfoils can )e designed for s!ecific functions using inverse design !rograms suc' as
;<=>=IL& ?>=IL and Aero>oil* ?>=IL is an online !rogram created ) 7ark Drela
t'at $ill design and anal(e su)sonic isolated airfoils*[@]