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_ _
0 :44
Re
0: 44
t
if
r
s
r
g
Re
p
_ 2050
(8 : 4)
In these eq uations, d
t
is the column diameter (m) , r
s
is
the particle den sity (kg/m
3
), r
g
is the gravi tation al
accele ration (m/s
2
), m
g
is the g as viscos ity (Ns /m
2
),
is the void fraction, and Re is the Reynold s numb er
dened by
Re
t
=
d
t
r
g
u
g
m
g
(8 : 5)
and
Re
p
=
d
p
r
g
u
g
m
g
(8 : 6)
The radiant heat transfer coefcient, h
r
(W /m
2
K) ca n be
estim ate d u sing the following e quation among o the rs [8 ]:
h
r
=
e
b
e
w
e
b
e
w
e
b
e
w
_ _
s ( T
4
b
T
4
w
)
( T
b
T
w
)
(8 : 7)
where s is the StefanBoltzmann constant. Radiative
heat transfer is insignicant at temperatures, T, lower
than 7008C. Typically bed emissivity,
b
, is approxi-
mately 0.9 and wall emissivity,
w
, is between 0.9 and
1.125 [8]. Since most drying processes are carried out
at temperatures lower than 7008C, radiant heat trans-
fer can be neglected.
The effect of various operating parameters on the
heat trans fer co efcient is given in Tabl e 8.2.
8.4 MATHEMATICAL MODELS
OF FLUIDIZED BED DRYING
Many mathematical models of uidized bed drying
have been proposed in the literature and veried with
experimental data. These models have been developed
based on different assumptions.
8.4.1 DIFFUSION MODEL
This model assumes that drying of single particles in a
uidized bed is totally controlled by diffusion of
moisture inside the particle. For the analysis of par-
ticulate drying, diffusion equation for spheres of an
equivalent diameter can be used. Zahed and Epstein
[23] developed a diffusion model for spout bed drying
and later Martinez-Vera et al. [24] applied the same
model for uidized bed drying.
This model assumes
.
Solids are spherical, isotropic, uniform size, and
homogeneous. They are perfectly well mixed in
uidized bed.
.
Physical properties of the dry solids remain
constant with time.
.
Solids shrinkage and temperature gradient in-
side the solid are negligible.
.
Drying kinetics is governed by internal moisture
diffusion. Thus, moisture at the solid surface is
in equilibrium with the bed air humidity.
.
Air is perfectly mixed. Exhaust air is in thermal
equilibrium with bed.
.
The dryer is perfectly insulated.
The diffusivity is assumed constant. The following
diffusion equation denes moisture transport:
@X
@t
= D
@
2
X
@r
2
_ _
2
r
@X
@r
_ _ _ _
(8:8)
2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
where X is the free mois ture content , i.e., that in
excess of the equilib rium value, D is the diffusiv ity
(m
2
/s), and r is radial dimens ion (m).
If diffusiv ity is varia ble and depend ent on the
radial dist ance of drying bounda ry from the center
of the so lids, the foll owing diffusion equatio n is used
instead :
@ X
@ t
= D
@
2
X
@ r
2
_ _
2
r
@ X
@ r
_ _ _ _
@ D
@ X
@ X
@ r
_ _
2
(8 : 9)
Once the diffu sivity is know n, numerica l an alysis is
applie d to the diffusion eq uation in order to nd
moisture content pro le insid e the so lid. Dif fusivity
of various food products can be obtaine d from
Sablani et al. [25] . Average moisture con tent, X , can
be obtaine d from the followin g eq uation:
X =
4p
V
p
_
r
p
0
r
2
X d r (8 : 10)
where V
p
is the parti cle volume (m
3
). Note that mois -
ture content and temperatur e-depen dent diffusiv ity
values can be used to solve the equati on num erically.
8.4.2 E MPIRICAL MODEL
In this model, the drying pro cess is divided into dif-
ferent periods wher e drying mechani sms in each dry-
ing pe riod are different .
The general solution of Fick s diffu sion express es
the mois ture content in terms of the drying time in
exponen tial functi on. The solut ion for spheri cal solid s
is given in the folowing the eq uation [2628 ]:
Sphere:
X X
eq
X
o
X
eq
=
6
p
2
n = 1
1
n
2
e
n
2
(p
2
D
eff
t= r
2
sph
)
(8 : 11)
where r
sph
is the sphere radius (m), D
eff
i s t he e ff ec ti ve
di ff us iv it y ( m
2
/s ) a nd L is slab half thickness. Subscript
eq denotes equilibrium and o indicates initial state.
Since the general solution of the diffusion equa-
tion is expressed as a series of exponential functions,
experimental data obtained from uidized bed drying
can be correlated as an exponential function. Many
empirical exponential equations have been proposed.
Equat ion 8.12 is a simp le exponenti al equati on. It
assumes that the drying rate is proportional to the
TABLE 8.2
Effect of Operating Parameters on Particle Heat Transfer Coefcient
Parameter Effect on Heat Transfer Coefcient, h Reference
Particle
Diameter, d
p
For ne particles, h is higher; for coarse particles, h is lower 9
Shape Higher for rounded and smooth surface particles 10,11
Specic heat, c
p
h c
p
n
, where 0.25 < n < 0.8 12,13
Thermal conductivity, k
p
No inuence for small Biot number 14,15
Gas
Velocity, u
g
Increases above u
mf
to a maximum value at an
optimum velocity, u
opt
and decreases thereafter
9
Density, r
g
Increases with increasing, r
g
10,11
Viscosity, m
g
Increases with decreasing, m
g
Specic heat, c
g
At moderate pressure and velocity, no information available 16,17
At high pressure, increases with increasing c
g
Thermal conductivity, k
g
h k
g
n
, where 0.5 < n < 0.66 14,18
h Increases as bed temperature increases, due to increasing of k
g
Fluidized bed
Bed height, H
b
No inuence 12,19
Bed diameter, d
b
No information available
Bed temperature, T
b
Gas-convective: increases for small particles; decreases for coarse particles 20
Bed pressure, P
b
No inuence on particle-convective heat transfer 21
Gas-convective heat transfer increases
Heat transfer surface
Length, L No inuence 22
Tube diameter, d
tube
Increases with decreasing d
tube
17
2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
difference between the average mois ture content and
the eq uilibrium mo isture content [29] :
X X
eq
X
ind
X
eq
= e
kt
(8 : 12)
where subscri pt in d denotes inductio n pe riod.
Equation 8.13 is a modied version of Equation
8.12 by Henders on and Pabi s [30] . This equ ation is
also an alogous to the theoret ical diffusion equ ation
solution for an inn ite slab [26,31]. Com paring Equa-
tion 8.13 and Equation 8.11, b = D
eff
p
2
/r
2
sph
[32]:
X X
eq
X
ind
X
eq
= ae
bt
(8 : 13)
Equation 8.12 tends to overpredi ct the early stage and
underp redict the late r stage of drying. Equation 8.14
is an empirical modicat ion of Equation 8.12 by
introd ucing an expo nent y [33]. It ha s been used
most commonl y because most exp erimental data can
be tted very well with the follo wing equati on:
X X
eq
X
ind
X
eq
= e
xt
y
(8 : 14)
Equation 8.15 uses the rst two term s from Fi cks
second law of diff usion. This eq uation has be en used
regardl ess of solids geomet ry [34] :
X X
eq
X
ind
X
eq
= a
1
e
b
1
t
a
2
e
b
2
t
(8 : 15)
It should be noted that drying constant s in the models
mentio ned ab ove are empirical and dep end on the
type of material s, ope rating co ndition s as wel l as
dryer dimens ions. If one of these models is used for
uidized be d dryer design, experi mental invest igation
on drying kineti cs has to be condu cted to obt ain the
drying constant for the particu lar mate rial prior to
the dr yer design.
8.4.3 K INETIC MODEL
Chandr an et al. [35] developed a kin etic model for
uidized be d drying of solid s. For a batch uidized
bed kinetic model, it is assum ed that the drying pr o-
cess ha s bot h constant and falling rate pe riods. Dry-
ing rate in the falling rate period falls linearly wi th
decreas ing mois ture content . Feed conditio ns and
total contact area betwee n soli ds and hot a irstream
remain the same throughou t the whol e drying pr o-
cess. In the batch drying operation, there is little
interaction between the particles (wet and dry par-
ticles) in the system. Thus, data on drying kinetics is
sufcient to estimate the residence time of solids in
order to achieve the desirable nal moisture content.
Moisture content of solids in different drying periods
can be estimated from the following equations.
In the constant rate period,
X = X
o
at (8:16)
In the falling rate period,
X = X
eq
(X
cr1
X
eq
)e
a(tt
cr1
)=(X
cr1
X
eq
)
(8:17)
where subscript cr1 denotes the rst critical point
that distinguishes constant and falling rate periods.
For a single-stage continuous uidized bed kinetics
model, solids exit the uidized bed system with a
distribution of moisture content due to the wide
residence time distribution. An average value of the
moisture content and residence time is used.
The average moisture content of solids in a con-
tinuous uidized bed drying is given by
X
X
o
=
_
X
X
o
_ _
b
E(u) du (8:18)
where (X/X
o
)
b
is the moisture ratio in batch uidized
bed dryer, E(u) is the residence time density for the
solids, and E(u) = e
u
. u = t/t
cr1
is dimensionless
time. Subscript b denotes batch process [36].
In the constant rate period,
X
X
o
= 1
a
tt
X
o
(8:19)
In the falling rate period,
X
X
o
= 1
a
tt
(bt 1)X
o
(8:20)
For a continuous uidized bed that exhibits both
constant and falling rate periods, the moisture content
is then given by the following equation:
X
X
o
= 1
a
tt
X
o
b
tte u
c
b
tt 1
1
_ _
(8:21)
where b = a/(X
cr1
X
eq
), u
c
= t/t
cr1
, X is the average
moisture content,
bb
dY
bb
dt
r
g
V
gbb
V
b
t
(Y
bb
Y
in
)
=
6K
c
r
g
bb
d
bb
(Y
d
Y
bb
) (8:24)
where subscript bb denotes bubble phase and d
denotes dense phase. The rate of change of mass in
the bubble phase can be assumed to be negligible [38]
and Equation 8.24 can be rearranged to express hu-
midity in the bubble phase, Y
bb
in terms of humidity
in the dense phase, Y
d
. In the equation, V
gbb
/V
b
is the
gas ow rate in bubble phase per unit volume of bed.
Inlet drying air
Y
in
, T
in
, G
g
Outlet drying air
Y
out
, T
out
Solid particles
m
s
, T
s
, c
s
FIGURE 8.4 Schematic diagram of the single-phase model
of uidized bed dryer.
Dense phase
particulate solids
Dilute phase
bubbles
Gas crossflow
Gas flow
FIGURE 8.5 Schematic diagram of a two-phase model for
uidized bed drying.
2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
K
c
is the mass transfer coefci ent across the bubble
bounda ry.
M ass balance of liquid in the interstiti al gas in the
dense phase gives the followi ng equatio n:
6K
c
r
g
bb
d
bb
( Y
bb
Y
d
) r
g
V
g d
V
b
t
( Y
d
Y
in
) _ mm
= r
g
mf
(1
bb
)
DY
d
dt
(8 : 25)
Likew ise, the rate of change of mass in the interstiti al
gas can be assum ed to be negligible . In this equatio n,
_ mm is the mass rate of evap oration of wat er per unit
volume of bed, which in turn can be obtaine d from
mass balance on de nse phase. V
g d
/V
b
is the gas ow
rate in dense phase per unit volume of bed.
M ass ba lance of liquid in the dense-phas e pa rticles
yields the followin g eq uation:
_ mm = r
p
(1
mf
)(1
bb
)
dX
dt
(8 : 26)
The coupled mass and energy balance in dense pha se
that consis ts of parti cles and interstiti al gas pha ses is
given in the followin g eq uation:
r
p
(1
mf
)(1
bb
)(c
ps
c
pl
X )
dT
p
d t
= r
g
V
g d
V
b
t
( c
pg
Y
in
c
pv
)( T
g in
T
p
) DH
evap
r
g
V
g d
V
b
t
( Y
d
Y
in
)
6K
c
r
g
bb
d
bb
( Y
bb
Y
d
)
_ _
(8 : 27)
The above equa tion express es the change of parti cle
tempe rature in the dense phase in terms of average
moisture content , X , whi ch can be determ ined from
any one equ ation from Equation 8.8 through Equa-
tion 8.21 depen ding on the ope rating con ditions and
the drying model, humidi ty of dense and bubble
phases, Y
d
, Y
bb
, en thalpy of evaporat ion, DH
evap
,
bubble diame ter, d
bb
, and mass transfer co efcien t
of bubble bounda ry. Solving Equat ion 8.27 yield s
the so lids temperatur e at diff erent drying times.
8.5 EFFECT OF OPERATING PARAMETERS
ON FLUIDIZED BED DRYING
8.5.1 E FFECT OF B ED HEIGHT
For mate rials wi th high mobil ity of inter nal mois ture
such a s iron ore, ion-ex chan ge resin s, silica gel, most
drying takes place close to the dist ributo r plate . Bed
height has no effect on its drying rate that increasing
bed height beyond a particular value leads to no
differences in drying rates. For materials with main
resistance to drying within the material, e.g., grains,
drying rate decreases with increasing bed height.
8.5.2 EFFECT OF PARTICLE SIZE
For group B particles (sandlike particles, according
to Geldart Classication of Powdes), drying time that
is required to remove a given amount of moisture
increases as the square of the particle diameter pro-
vided that all other conditions remain unchanged.
However, this effect is much smaller for group A
(aertable particles, according to Geldart Classica-
tion of Powdes) particles because these particles are
ner than group B and it exhibits smooth uidization
before entering bubbling uidization regime.
8.5.3 EFFECT OF GAS VELOCITY
Gas velocity has a dominant effect on removing sur-
face moisture. Increasing the gas velocity increases
the drying rate. However, gas velocity has no effect
at all for particles with high internal resistance to
moisture transfer. High internal moisture resistance
dominates at the end of the falling rate period.
8.5.4 EFFECT OF BED TEMPERATURE
Bed temperature is increased by high external heat
uxes. This in turn leads to higher moisture diffusiv-
ities and hence higher drying rate. This effect is com-
plex and depends on the relative signicance of
external and internal resistances to moisture transfer.
8.6 TYPES OF FLUIDIZED BED DRYERS:
CLASSIFICATION AND SELECTION
Various types of uidized bed dryers have been studied,
developed, and operated in many industrial processes
according to the respective process, product, oper-
ational safety, and environmental requirements. It is
important to become familiar with the specic charac-
teristics of different uidized bed types in order to make
a logical and cost-effective selection. It should be noted
that in many instances several different types may pro-
vide similar performance at the same cost.
Some novel uidized bed dryers, which have not
found application in industrial drying, are used to
overcome disadvantages and difculties that may
occur in conventional uidized bed dryers. It should
be noted that not all modied uidized bed dryers
are necessarily better than the conventional dryers
in terms of product quality, or energy efciency, or
drying performance.
2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
TABLE 8.3
Classication of Fluidized Bed Dryers
Criterion Type of Dryer Subclassication
Processing mode/feed
and discharge
.
Batch FBDs (well-mixed)
.
Semicontinuous FBDs
.
Continuous
.
Well-mixed FBDs
.
Plug ow FBDs or
.
Single stage
.
Multistage FBDs
.
Hybrid/combined FBDs
Particulate ow regime
.
Well-mixed FBDs
.
Plug ow FBDs
.
Circulating FBDs
.
Hybrid
.
Multistage FBDs (well-mixedplug ow)
.
Hybrid/combined FBDs
Operating pressure
.
Low (for heat-sensitive products,
low pressure strategy)
.
Near atmospheric (most common)
.
High (5 bars, superheated steam FBDs)
Fluidization gas ow
.
Continuous
.
Pulsed FBDs
Fluidizing gas temperature
.
Constant
.
Time-dependent
.
Step down
.
Step up
.
Periodic (zigzag)
.
Combined
Heat supply
.
Convective
.
Convective/conduction (immersed FBDs)
or
.
Continuous
.
Intermittent (multiple variable strategy)
Fluidization action
.
By gas ow (pneumatic)
.
Ordinary FBDs
.
Circulating FBDs
.
By jet ow
.
Spouted FBDs
.
Recirculating FBDs
.
Jetting FBDs
.
With mechanical assistance
.
Vibration (vibrated FBDs)
.
With external eld
.
Agitation (agitated FBDs)
.
Rotation (centrifugal FBDs)
.
Microwaveradio frequency eld (MWRF FBDs)
.
Acoustic eld
.
Magnetic eld
Fluidized material
.
Particulate solid (most common)
.
Group A and B (most common, conventional FBDs)
.
Group C (vibrated FBDs, agitated FBDs)
.
Group D (vibrated FBDs, bafed FBDs, spouted FBDs)
.
Paste/slurry
.
Spray onto a bed of inert particles (inert solids FBDs)
.
Spray onto absorbent particles (silica gel, biomass)
.
Spouted FBDs
Fluidizing medium
.
Heated air/ue gases/direct combustion gas
.
Superheated steam/vapor
.
Dehumidied cool air (heat pump FBDs)
.
Air below freezing point of liquid being
removed (uidized bed freeze dryers)
2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
Tabl e 8.3 class ies the divers e varia nts of uid ized
bed dryers according to various criteria.
8.7 CONVENTIONAL FLUIDIZED
BED DRYERS
8.7.1 BATCH FLUIDIZED BED DRYERS
A batch uidized bed dryer is used when production
capacity required is small (normally 50 to 1000 kg/h)
or several products are to be produced in the same
production line. It is preferable to operate batchwise
if upstream and downstream processes are operated
in batch mode, or several processes are to be carried
out in sequence (e.g., mixing, drying, granulation/
coating, cooling) in the same processing unit.
Drying air temperature and ow rate are normally
xed at a constant value. However, by adjusting the
airow rate and its temperature, it is possible to save
energy and reduce attrition. Mechanical assistance
such as agitation or vibration is normally applied
for processing materials that are difcult-to-uidize.
Figure 8.6 shows a typical batch uidized bed dryer
with expanded freeboard and built-in internal bag l-
ters. Expanded freeboard is used to reduce elutriation
of ne particles.
8.7.2 SEMICONTINUOUS FLUIDIZED BED DRYERS
In semicontinuous uidized bed drying system, the
drying chamber consists of a series of subprocessors.
The wet product is accurately dosed and charged into
the batches. The product is either transported batch-
wise from one processor to another processor or the
batches (the processors with the batches of product)
rotates along the process line [39]. This gives uninter-
rupted continuous operation over a long period.
Figure 8.7 shows a schematic diagram of a semicon-
tinuous uidized bed dryer where the batches are
rotated. In addition, gas temperature and velocity at
different batches can be varied.
8.7.3 WELL-MIXED, CONTINUOUS FLUIDIZED
BED DRYERS
The well-mixed continuous uidized bed dryer
(Figure 8.8) is one of the most common uidized
bed dryers used in the industry. As the bed of particles
is perfectly mixed, the bed temperature is uniformand
is equal to the product and exhaust gas temperatures.
However, particle residence time distribution is neces-
sarily wide, thus resulting in wide range of product
moisture content. On the other hand, as the feed
material is continuously charged into the uidized
bed of relatively dry particles, this gives the added
advantage of enhanced uidizability and better uid-
ization quality. In some cases, a series of well-mixed
continuous dryers may be used with variable operat-
ing parameters. In addition, a well-mixed continuous
Bag
filters
Fluidized
bed
FIGURE 8.6 Batch uidized bed dryer.
Rotation
Wet solids
Exhaust
air
Dry solids
Heated air
FIGURE 8.7 Semicontinuous uidized bed dryer.
lot air or
flue gas
Exhaust air
Dry solids
Wet solids
FIGURE 8.8 Well-mixed uidized bed dryers.
2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
uidized bed dryer can be incorpora ted with othe r
types of dryers su ch as plug ow uidized be d dryers
to give bette r drying perfor mance.
8.7.4 P LUG FLOW F LUIDIZED BED DRYERS
In plug ow uidized be d dryers , verti cal ba fes are
inserted to create a narrow pa rticle ow path, thu s
giving relative ly narrow parti cle residen ce time distri-
bution. Particles ow co ntinuous ly a s a plug from the
inlet toward the outlet through the path. This en sures
nearly equ al residen ce time for all particles irre s-
pective of their size and ensures unifor m produ ct
moisture content . Various paths can be de signed such
as straight or spiral paths. Length-to -width ratio is
normal ly in the range of 5:1 to 30:1. Figu re 8.9
shows a plug ow uidized be d dr yer of stra ight and
reverse paths.
Opera tional problem s might occu r at the feed inlet
because wet feedsto ck must be uidized direct ly ra-
ther than when mixe d with drier mate rial as in the
case of a well-mixe d unit. To ov ercome the pr oblem of
uidiza bility at the feed inlet , the inlet region may be
agitated with an agitator, or by applying backmixing of
solids, or by using a ash dryer to remove the surface
moisture prior to plug ow uidized bed drying.
8.8 MODIFIED FLUIDIZED BED DRYERS
Various types of modied uidized bed dryers have
been developed an d ap plied in many indust rial pr o-
cesses. M odied uidized bed dryers are app lied to
overcome some of the prob lems and disadva ntages
encoun tered in conven tional uidized beds.
8.8.1 MULTISTAGE AND MULTIPROCESS FLUIDIZED
B ED DRYERS
As uidized beds offer many dist inct features and
advantag es for process ing of parti culate mate rials,
two or more process es can be carri ed out a nd accom-
plished in a uid ized bed column. Thi s can be
achieve d by sim ply ch anging the operati ng co ndition s
of uidized bed to mix, dry, gran ulate, or coat [40] , or
cool in a singl e unit without dischar ging the material
from the unit.
In a uidized bed spray dryer, spray drying is
carried out in the upper part of the ch amber fol-
lowed by uidized bed drying or agglom erati on (Fig-
ure 8.10a). The large -scale uidized bed coal dryer is
also a particle class ier (Figure 8.10b). Dryi ng and
classicat ion (separati on of ne s) are ca rried out in
the same uid ized bed. By chan ging the uidizi ng g as
velocity, cut size (part icle size that separat es ne and
coarse particles ) can be adjust ed in the class ication
process . Anothe r examp le is upper stage of uidized
bed drying that can be follo wed by a low er stage
of uidized bed cooling (Figure 8.11a). A uidized
bed dryer or cooler consists of rst-stage uidized bed
dryer followed by second-stage uidized bed cooling
(Figure 8.11b).
In add ition, diff erent types of uidized bed sys-
tems can be incorpo rated in a process ing uni t as well.
For inst ance, rst-st age well- mixed uidized bed pre-
drying can be incorpora ted with second-s tage plug
ow uidized be d drying (Figur e 8.11a) . By inco rpor-
ating different process es an d co mbinin g diffe rent
types of uid ized beds, sp ace requir ement , install a-
tion costs, an d energy co nsumpt ion can be reduced
appreci ably.
8.8.2 HYBRID F LUIDIZED BED DRYERS
Hybrid uidized bed dryers are useful for through
drying of solids that con tain surface and intern al
moistures . Surface mois ture can be remove d in the
rst-st age drying using a ash or cyclone dryers . Se c-
ond-stage drying is then carried out in uidized
bed dryers in which residence time can be easily
control led. Figure 8.12 sh ows an exampl e of hyb rid
(a) (b)
Exhaust gas Wet solid
Hot air
Perforated
distributor
Perforated
distributor Dry solid
Exhaust gas Wet solid
Hot air
Dry solid
Partition plate/
internal baffle
FIGURE 8.9 Plug ow uidized bed dryers. (a) Straight path; (b) reversing path.
2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
cyclone uidized bed dryer [39]. Wet solids are rst
charged into the cyclone dryer by exiting ui dizing
gas from uidized bed dryer. Surface mois ture
content of soli ds is quickly remove d with the gas
in the c yclone dryer. Solids and gas are separat ed in
the cyclone. Par tially dried soli ds are then pne uma-
tically co nveyed into the uidized bed for second -
stage drying. Othe r types of hybrid uidized bed
dryers include ash-ui dized bed dryer, lter-u idized
bed dryer [41] .
A mult istage spray uidized bed dryer con sists of
a spray chamb er followe d by rst- stage uidized bed
drying a nd second-s tage uidized bed coo ling (Fig-
ure 8.13). When soli d powder s a re form ed in the sp ray
dryer, these powder s still con tain some intern al mois -
ture. It is costl y to use a spray dryer to remove all of
the inter nal mois ture. Instead, using a second-s tage
uidized bed dryer is mo re co st-effecti ve. Lisbo a et al.
[42] applie d uidiza tion techniq ue in a con ventio nal
rotary. The dryer is known as roto- uidized dryer.
It was foun d that the roto- uidized dryer perfor ms
better than the co nventi onal rotar y dryer.
8.8.3 P ULSATING F LUIDIZED BED DRYE RS
Pulsating uidized bed dryers are used to overcome the
problems of restricted particle size and size distribu-
tion, as well as aggregative uidization and channeling
that occur in a conventional uidized bed dryer when
processing certain types of powders. By pulsating the
uidizing gas stream, the uidized bed either the whole
bed or part of the bed is subjected to variable uidizing
gas velocity (Figure 8.14) [4346]. This contributes to
effective energy costs saving and enhanced drying per-
formance without affecting the uidization quality and
process performance or added extra capital costs. For
larger particles (group D particles), intermittent spout-
ing of the bed with a rotating spouting jet has been
shown to reduce energy consumption with only a mar-
ginal increase in drying time for batch drying.
(a) (b)
Exhaust gas
Liquid
Hot gas
Dry solids
Solids
inlet
Exhaust gas
Fluidized bed
coal dryer
Solids outlet
Heated air
FIGURE 8.10 (a) Spray uidized bed dryer; (b) uidized bed coal dryer and classier.
(a) (b)
Hot air
Product
Heated air
Lower
stage
Upper
stage
Inlet solids
Wet solids
Exhaust air
Exhaust air
Cooling air Cooling air
Exhaust air
FIGURE 8.11 Two-stage uidized bed dryers. (a) Upper stage well-mixed uidized bed followed by lower stage plug ow
uidized bed; (b) rst-stage dryer followed second-stage cooler.
2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
8.8.4 F LUIDIZED BED DRYERS WITH IMMERSED
HEAT EXCHANGERS
Fluidi zed beds equipped with inter nal heater s or im-
mersed tubes transfer he at indire ctly to the drying
material . Hori zontal tube bundl es (Figur e 8.15) are
used extens ively compared to vertical type. Tube
pitch is an important design parame ter. Fluidizing
gas stream uidizes the material and carries over the
evaporat ed moisture. As a resul t, total sensible he at
of gas and thus qua ntity of ga s require d are redu ced.
Immersed tubes or intern ally heated uidized bed
dryers are use d to dr y smaller size or ne powder s.
This is because he at trans fer coefcie nt decreas es wi th
increa sing pa rticle size. Inste ad of tubes, verti cal
plates are also used as immersed heater s.
Heat transfer is highly dep endent on the parti cle
heat capacity an d mixing. Vigorous bubbl e action
gives bette r pa rticle circul ation an d mixi ng, an d thu s
increa ses the co ntacting efcien cy betw een the bed
and the he at trans fer surface. However, heat trans fer
coefci ent reaches a maxi mum value. Bey ond this
point, increa sing superci al gas veloci ty will hind er
heat transfer betw een the bed and the heati ng surfa ce.
This is be cause of increa sing prepon derance of bubble
(not pa rticles ) at the heatin g surface, which de crease s
particle- to-wal l heat transfer.
8.8.5 MECHANICALLY ASSISTED FLUIDIZED
B ED DRYERS
Fluidi zation quality of ne and large pa rticles can be
enhance d by the assistanc e of extern al means such as
vibration or agitati on. Mo reover, these pa rticles can
be imm ersed in a bed of uidiza ble inert pa rticles to
impro ve their uidiza tion qua lity [47] .
8.8.6 V IBRATED FLUIDIZED B ED DRYERS
Vibratio n co mbined wi th upwar d ow of air in an
aerated bed enables particles to pseudo uidize
smoot hly. The gas velocity requ ired for minimum
uidiza tion is consider ably lower than the mini -
mum uidiza tion veloci ty in conventi onal uidized
bed dryer. Attri tion due to vigorou s acti ons between
particlepa rti cle and pa rticlewal l is thus mini mized
appreci ably. Hence, application of uid ized bed can
be extende d to fragile, abrasi ve, and heat-sensi tive
material s. The problem of ne particle entrain ment
is also avoided. For pol ydisperse powder s, low g as
velocity uid izes the ne particles gentl y wherea s
vibration keeps the coarse parti cles in a mobil e stat e.
Vi brating uidized beds are gen erally plug ow
type (Figur e 8.16). Vi brating uidized beds are rela-
tively shallow as the effect of vibration imparted by
the vibrating grid decays with distance from the grid.
Wet
solid
Exhaust
gas
Cyclone
dryer
Fluidized
bed dryer
Pneumatic
conveyor
Air
Dry
solid
Hot gas
FIGURE 8.12 Hybrid cyclone uidized bed dryer.
Feed
Liquid
Heated air
Aglomeration
chamber
Exhaust gas Exhaust gas
Vibro-fluidizer
Cyclone
Particles
Sieve
Fine Coarse
Desirable
product
Cool air Heated air
Recycled fine, crushed coarse
FIGURE 8.13 Multistage uidized bed spray dryer.
2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
There are some acoustic noise issue s associ ated wi th
such devices . Thes e units can ope rate in batch as well
as co ntinuous modes.
8.8.7 A GITATED FLUIDIZED B ED DRYERS /SWIRL
F LUIDIZERS
Anothe r way to impr ove uidiza tion quality of ne
particles is to impar t mechani cal agit ation to the bed
(Figur e 8.17) . By agit ation, a hom ogeneou s uidized
bed is form ed withou t chan neling or form ation of
large bubbles. Mo reover, agitated uid ized bed dryers
are useful for drying pastes or cakes con sisting of ne
particles [48] . In this case, agit ation helps to disi nte-
grate an d disperse the pasty feed. The agitator serves
as a mixer in the dryer [49]. Moreover, deeper bed
depth is possibl e if the bed is ag itated wher eas its
uidiza tion qua lity is maintained.
8.8.8 F LUIDIZED BED DRYERS OF INERT P ARTICLES
In recent years, the app lication of uidized bed drying
has be en extended to drying of ne powder s, pastes ,
slurries, suspen sions, pulp, an d enzymes -containing
aqueou s med ium [5055 ]. Thi s is accompl ished by
using inert pa rticles of high he at capacit y (Figur e
8.18) [56] . Inert pa rticles must be able to uidize
well in a uidized bed . By mixi ng the inert pa rticles
whose uidiza tion qua lity is gen erally good wi th the
material s men tioned ab ove, the uid ization qua lity of
the mate rials is impr oved ap preciab ly [57,58]. In ad d-
ition, the inert particles with high heat ca pacity serve
as energy carriers that enhance he at trans fer [59,60].
Drying on inert particles can be performed in a var-
iety of uidized be ds namel y ordinar y uidized bed ,
spouted bed, spouted uidized bed , jetting- spouted
bed, as well as v ibrated uidized bed [61].
The liquid to be dried is sprayed into the uidized
bed; it coats the inert particle surfaces. The coated
layer dries as a result of combined convective heat
transfer from hot air and contact heat transfer due to
sensible heat of the particles. When the thin layer is
Wet
feed
Exhaust air
Product
Perforated
distributor
Inlet gas distributor
Hot air
FIGURE 8.14 Pulsating uidized bed. Parts of the bed are uidized periodically.
Exhaust gas
Solids
inlet
Solids flow
Gas flow
Immersed tube
Hot gas
Solids out
Heating
fluid
FIGURE 8.15 Immersed tubes uidized bed dryer.
2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
dry, it becomes brittle , cracks, and is pe eled off
due to attrit ion by particlepa rticle an d parti clewal l
collisions . As a resul t, a ne powder is formed and is
carried over by the exh aust gas to be collected
and separat ed in suitable gas-c leaning de vices such
as cyc lones or bag lters.
8.8.9 S POUTED B ED DRYERS
Spouted be d dryers are useful for drying of large
(Geldart s group D) pa rticles ( >5 mm), which exhibi t
sluggin g unde r nor mal uidiza tion. In a spo uted be d,
a high gas veloci ty jet of gas pe netrates throu gh an
opening at the bottom of the bed of parti cles and
transp orts the parti cles to the bed surfa ce. Ener getic
spouti ng at the be d surfa ce thrust s the parti cles
into the freeboa rd region at the center of the bed
(Figur e 8.19) . After losi ng their momen tum, these
particles fall back onto the bed surfa ce. Thr ough
this fountain-l ike acti on, good solid mixin g is in-
duced. A cyc lical ow of particles is thus created .
Details of spou ted bed dr ying are discus sed elsewh ere
in this handbo ok.
The spout bed has be en applie d to drying, gran u-
lation, co ating as well as to dr ying of pastes , solu-
tions, slurr ies, and su spensio ns. M ujumdar [62] ha s
classied spouted beds into at least 30 different vari-
ants, each with a specic set of advantages and limi-
tations. Periodically spouted beds, multiple spouted
Exhaust air
Flexible
couplings
Wet solids
Dry solids
Hot air
Vibrator
FIGURE 8.16 Vibrating uidized bed.
Exhaust
air
Solids inlet
Rotation
Agitator
Heated air
Product
FIGURE 8.17 An agitated uidized bed dryer.
Exhaust gas
Liquid
Fluidizing gas
FIGURE 8.18 Inert solids uidized bed.
2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
beds, two -dimensiona l sp outed be ds, and oscillat ing
spouted be ds are some of the ideas introd uced by
Mujumdar in 1985, which have been examin ed in
the lite rature in recent years.
8.8.10 RECIRCULATING FLUIDIZED B ED DRYERS
Insertion of a tubular draft tube into an ordinar y
spouted uidized bed changes its ope ration al and
design characteris tics. This type of uidized bed is
known as recircu lating uidized bed (or inter nally
circulati ng uid ized bed, see Figure 8.20) . Unlike
spouted beds, recir culating uidized beds do not
have limitation of maxi mum spoutabl e be d height
and minimum spouti ng veloci ty. As spouti ng gas
stream passes throu gh the draft tub e, it is co nned
within the tube and does not leak out horizont ally
toward the downcom er. After passin g throug h the
draft tube, particles foll ow a certa in ow patte rn in
the be d and ow down ward in downcom er region.
Sinc e there is more exibility in ope rating recir cu-
lating uidized bed , it is applic able to ha ndle all
groups of powder s and particles . Its a pplication in
drying has been repo rted in co ating of table ts in
pharmac eutic al indust ries, and in drying of dilute
solutions co ntaining soli ds. How ever, it is not a
common dryer type now.
8.8.11 JETTING FLUIDIZED B ED DRYERS
In an ord inary ui dized bed, inlet gas is passed
through noz zles, which are perfora ted e venly across
the distribut or plate . Jett ing regions appea r above
every nozzle. In a spouted bed , inlet gas stre am is
suppli ed through a cen trally located jet, spout in di-
lute pha se is thus created, and pe netrates the center
region of the spo uted bed (Figur e 8.19). How ever, if a
fairly large jet replaces the co nical centra lly located jet
in a spou t bed , a jetting uidized bed is form ed. One
distinct ive featu re of jetting ui dized bed is that
bubbles are formed inst ead of dilut e pha se spout
(Figur e 8.21). Small-s cale jetting uidized beds have
been applie d in co ating and granula tion process es.
8.8.12 FLUIDIZED B ED DRYERS WITH
INTERNAL BAFFLES
Internal bafes can be inserted into a uidized bed to
divide the bed into several compartments. Various
types of bafes can be used, e.g., wire mesh, perfor-
ated plate, turn plate, louver plate, and ring [63]. In
Bed surface
Spout
Conical
base
Spouting gas
FIGURE 8.19 Spouted bed dryers.
Exhaust gas
Draft tube
Solids out
Downcomer
Solids flow
Gas flow
Gas and
solid feed
FIGURE 8.20 Recirculating uidized bed dryer.
2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
additio n, the internals can be placed horizont ally or
vertical ly (Figur e 8.22) . Horizo ntal ba fes are fre-
quently used. The object ive of inserting bafes (hori -
zontal and vertical ) is to limit bubbl e grow th and
coales cence [64,65]. Hen ce, the bafed uidized bed
is useful to proce ss group B an d D particles becau se
large bubbl es a re form ed with such partic les. The
effect of bafes on the ga s and so lids ow is v ery
complex and is de pendent on bed diame ter, distance
between bafes, bafe opening and operati ng co ndi-
tions. The optim um co ndition s for operatin g an
efcien t bafed uidized bed dryer can only be deter-
mined by carryin g out pilot test ing.
8.8.13 SUPERHEATED S TEAM F LUIDIZED BED DRYERS
Superhe ated steam as the uidizin g medium offers a
number of advan tages, e.g. , no re or explosi on ha z-
ards, no oxidat ive damage, bette r operatio n perfor m-
ance (highe r drying rate) and prod uct qua lity,
environm ental friend liness, high en ergy consu mption
efcien cy, suitabil ity for drying of prod ucts contai n-
ing toxic or expensi ve or ganic liqui ds, abili ty to per-
mit pa steurizat ion, sterilizati on, and deod orization of
food products [66,67]. Details are available elsewhere
in this handbook.
The application of superheated steam uidized
bed dryer has been reported for drying of paper and
pulp, wood- based biofuels (F igure 8.23), sugar be et
pulp, and paddy [65,66]. Superheated steam uidized
bed drying of foodstuff, coal, bagasse, sludges, spent
grains from breweries, lumber, tortilla, vegetables,
herbs, and spice is also possible [67,70].
8.8.14 FLUIDIZED BED FREEZE DRYER
Freeze-drying is one of the low-temperature drying
techniques suitable for drying of highly heat-sensitive
materials such as drugs, pharmaceutical, biological,
and food products. Freeze-drying removes mois-
ture captured inside the solids by sublimation of
moisture from solid state (ice) to vapor state.
Ordinary freeze-drying is carried out in vacuum.
Over the years, new developments showed that freeze-
drying can be carried out at atmospheric pressure
and as well as in a uidized bed (e.g., Refs. [7173]).
Here the drying rate is very slow. Wolff and Gibert
[74] showed that uidized bed freeze-drying at
Exhaust
gas
Jet
Solids out
Gas inlet
FIGURE 8.21 Jetting uidized bed dryer.
(a) (b)
Solids out
Gas
in
Solids in
Gas in
Gas distributor
Horizontal
baffles
Bubbles
FIGURE 8.22 (a) Horizontal bafed uidized bed dryer; (b) vertical bafed uidized bed dryer.
2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
atmosp heric pre ssure wi th the use of adsorben ts can
increa se the drying rate ap preciab ly (abo ut seven fold
compared to that without ad sorbent ). In this case,
adsorbent particles play a dua l role as transfer ag ent
for both heat and mass trans fers. But there is dif-
culty in separat ing adso rbent pa rticles and frozen
dried pr oducts at the en d of the process . It is thu s
suggest ed to use parti cles that are edible or compat -
ible with human consumpt ion su ch as starch. Fluid-
ized be d freeze-dryi ng assisted by adsorbent involv es
three stage s, namel y freez ing of pr oduct, subli ma-
tion of free-fr ozen water, and secondary dehy dration
by desorpt ion.
W olff and Giber t [75] suggested that uidized bed
freeze-dryi ng sho uld be carried out at higher tempe ra-
ture, but low er than the freez ing point. They sho wed
that uidized bed freez e-dryin g wi th ab sorbent co n-
tributes to about 35% saving in heat requir ement ,
respect ively, althoug h much longer drying tim e is
needed as compared to vacuum freeze-dryi ng.
8.8.15 HEAT P UMP F LUIDIZED B ED DRYER
An ord inary uidized bed drying system consis ts of a
blower, heater , de humidi er (opti onal), uidized be d-
chamber, and cyclone, whereas an ord inary he at
pump drying system consists of evapo rator, compres -
sor, conden ser, and an exp ansion valve. By combin-
ing uid ized bed and heat pump drying syst ems,
where the evaporat or acts as a de humidi er an d the
conden ser as a heater , a hea t pum p uid ized bed
dryer is formed .
The worki ng uid (refrigerant) at low pr essure is
vaporiz ed in the evaporat or by heat draw n from the
exhaust humid air. At the same time, cond ensation of
moisture oc curs as the exhaust air temperatur e go es
below dew poi nt tempe rature . Thus, the proce ss air
is deh umidi ed. The working uid then goes to
compres sor. The co mpresso r raises the enthal py of
the workin g uid an d dischar ges it as superheat ed
vapor at high pressur e. Heat is remove d from the
working uid and retur ned to the process air, which
has been dehumidied previously at the condenser.
As a result, the process air temperature increases. The
working uid is then throttled using an expansion
valve to the low-pressure line and enters the evapor-
ator to complete the cycle, whereas the dehumidied
and heated process air is charged into the uidized
bed drying chamber to remove moisture of solids.
Details on heat pump drying are available elsewhere
in this handbook.
Figu re 8.24 shows a typical he at pum p uidized
bed dryer. The uidized bed drying chamber receives
wet solids and discharges dried product whereas de-
humidied and heated air is charged into the chamber
fromthe bottomof the chamber. The drying tempera-
ture can be adjusted by monitoring the capacity of
condenser, whereas the desired humidity of inlet air
can be obtained by controlling the motor frequency
of compressor.
The advantages offered by heat pump uidized
bed dryer are: low energy consumption due to high
specic moisture extraction rate (SMER), high coef-
cient of performance (COP), wide range of drying
temperature (20 to 1108C), environmental friendli-
ness, and high product quality. Thus this type of
dryer is suitable for heat-sensitive products such as
food and products of bio-origin.
As chlorourocarbons (CFC) and hydrochloro-
urocarbons (HCFC) are to be phased out very soon,
working uids such as carbon dioxide, ammonia,
R717, and R744 can be used as substitutes [76].
Many products have been tested at the Norwegian
Institute of Technology, such as food products, sh,
fruits, and vegetables [77,78].
8.9 DESIGN PROCEDURE
Design procedures for batch and continuous dryers in
constant and falling rate periods vary widely. The
discussion here is restricted to particulate solids drying.
8.9.1 DESIGN EQUATIONS
8.9.1.1 Residence Time
If the particles are small, very porous, and sufciently
wet to contain free moisture, the drying rate remains
constant throughout the drying process. On the other
hand, if the solid particles initially contain surface
moisture, falling rate period will occur after a short
period of constant rate period. In this case, the design
calculation should include two steps: one for the
Steam
from dryer
Heat exchanger
Pressurized screws
Wet product
Condensate
Distributor plate
Impeller
Screw conveyor
Dry product
Fluidized bed
Steam supply
Cyclone
FIGURE 8.23 Pressurized superheated steam uidized bed
dryer.
2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
constant rate and the other for the falling rate. Table
8.4 sho ws the equ ations for calculati ng residence time
at different operating conditions.
8.9.1.2 Sizing of Bed
Sizing of bed is based on simple hold-up mass bal-
ance. Cross-sectional area of the uidized bed can be
determined from the following equation after solids
ow rate (dry basis), F
s
, bed density, r
b
, and bed
height, H
b
, are specied, and particle residence time,
t
R
, is determined:
A =
F
s
t
R
r
b
H
b
(8:28)
8.9.1.3 Gas Flow Rate
Gas ow rate (dry basis) is calculated from the fol-
lowing equation. The operating gas velocity, u
g
, is
specied as a multiple of the minimum uidization
velocity, normally it is 23u
mf
for uidized bed
drying. Anyway, the suitable operating gas velo-
city can be determined fromlaboratory-scale uidized
bed testing as long as the gas velocity yields good
uidization quality during the operation:
G
g
= r
g
u
g
A (8:29)
where r
g
is the density of gas.
8.9.1.4 Mass Balance, Continuous
Drying, Well-Mixed Bed
F
s
(X
in
X
out
) = G
g
(Y
out
Y
in
) (8:30)
In this equation, F
s
is the solids ow rate (kg/s), X is
the moisture content (kg/kg), G
g
is the gas ow rate
(kg/s), and Y is the absolute humidity (kg/kg).
8.9.1.5 Heat Balance, Continuous
Drying, Well-Mixed
Heat balance for the single-phase model gives the
following energy balance:
F
s
H
sin
G
g
H
gin
Q
h
= F
s
H
sout
G
g
H
gout
Q
w
(8:31)
In this equation, Q
h
is the rate of heat input from
immersed tubes (kJ/s), Q
w
is the rate of heat loss from
wall (kJ/s), and H is the enthalpy (kJ/kg). Enthalpy of
solids at the inlet and outlet can be obtained from
Equation 8.32 and Equation 8.33, respectively:
H
sin
= (c
ps
X
in
c
l
)T
sin
(8:32)
H
sout
= (c
ps
X
out
c
l
)T
sout
(8:33)
Dry solids
Wet solids
External
condenser
Compressor
Condenser
Three way valve
Receiver
Expansion valve
Evaporator
Condensation
FIGURE 8.24 Heat pump uidized bed dryer.
2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
For a gasvapo r system, H
g in
and H
gout
can be
obtained from Mollier di agram and f or organic vapor
inert gas systems, H
g in
an d H
gout
can be obtaine d
from the followi ng eq uations :
H
g in
= (c
pg
Y
in
c
1
)T
g in
Y
in
l (8 : 34)
H
g out
= ( c
pg
Y
out
c
1
)T
g out
Y
out
l (8 : 35)
A summ ary of steps for uidized bed dryer de sign is
given in Figure 8.25, wher eas a sim ple g uide for
selecting suit able uidized bed dryers (FBD) based
on mate rial propert ies is given in Fig ure 8.26.
TABLE 8.4
Equations to Determine Residence Time Required for Drying
Remarks Drying Time Required
Batch Drying
1. Constant rate period Only surface moisture present t
R
=
(X
o
X)M
s
l
G
g
c
pg
(T
in
T
out
)
2. Falling rate period (i) From diffusion model
X X
eq
X
o
X
eq
=
6
p
2
n=1
1
n
2
e
[(np)
2
Dt=R
2
]
t
R
is obtained by trial and error
(ii) Simplied equation t
R
=
M
s
c
ps
G
g
c
pg
ln
T
p
T
in
T
po
T
in
_ _
(iii) Empirical formulation t
R
=
1
k
ln
X
cr1
X
eq
X X
eq
_ _
Continuous drying
(a) Well-mixed Design curve: X =
_
0
X(t)E(t)dt [79]
1. Constant rate period Only surface moisture t
R
=
X
o
X
k
2. Falling rate period t
R
=
1
k
X
in
X
eq
X
out
X
eq
1
_ _
[80]
3. Batch drying curve (1) Obtain a record of the changing bed temperature T
b
during constant inlet air temperature run
(2) Divide the constant inlet air temperature batch drying curve X(t) into increments of length, DX. For each
increment note the time Dt
T
1
required to accomplish that amount of drying at constant bed
temperature of T
1
(3) Calculate the time Dt
T
2
required to accomplish the same increment of drying at constant bed temperature,
T
2
by the use of the following equation:
Dt
T1
Dt
T2
=
[(p
sat
p
in
)(X X
e
)]
T1
[(p
sat
p
in
)(X X
e
)]
T2
[81,82]
(4) Build up the constant bed temperature batch drying curve by increments
(5) Obtain drying equation for each curve
(6) Obtain residence time from design curve
t
R
=
SA
f *Gb
X
in
X
out
X
out
X
eq
_ _
[83,84]
where S is the bed loading, A is the bed area, f* is ratio of bed loading (S) and ux of gas ow rate (G/A)
at constant be temperature, T
1
(b) Plug ow
1. Batch drying curve Residence time distribution function is E(t) =
1
2
pB
_ exp
(1 t=t
m
)
2
4B
_ _
where
B =
Dt
m
L
2
and D =
3:71 10
4
(u u
mf
)
u
1=3
mf
[82];
D =
1:49[0:01(H
b
0:05) 0:00165r
s
(u u
mf
)]u
0:23
u
2=3
mf
[83]
Note that validity of Reays correlation for particle diffusivity has only been conrmed for bed depths up
to 0.10 m. There is some evidence in the literature that D may be an order of magnitude larger in much
deeper beds [50]. Shallow bed is recommended if the objective is a close approach to plug ow behavior
of solid particles in the bed
2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
8.9.2 A SAMPLE DESIGN C ALCULATION
Wet particu late solid s (6000 kg/h) with an initial
moisture con tent of 20% (db) at 20 8 C are to be dr ied
to na l mois ture co ntent of 4% (db). Inlet air at
125 8 C with humidi ty of 0.005 kg/kg is used. Bed
depth is 20 cm.
Un der these conditi ons, bed de nsity is 500 kg/m
3
and equili brium mois ture co ntent is zero . Specic
heat of the dry soli ds and liquid water are 1.0 and
4.2 kJ/kg 8 C, respect ively. Figu re 8.27 gives the sum-
mary of all available data on this problem . Heat loss
at the wal l of the dryer is estimat ed as 5% of the heat
content of inlet air. Batch drying curve was obtaine d
at the co nditions mention ed abo ve; the relation ship
between dr ying rate and mois ture content is given by
the foll owing equ ation:
dX
dt
= 0: 005 X
Calculat e
(a) Mean pa rticle resi dence time
(b) Bed area
(c) Mass ow rate of air
(d) Absol ute humidity of e xhaust air
(e) Temp erature of exhaust air
(f) Check wheth er co ndensati on will occ ur in
cyclone
Check the requirement for:
Cooling
Good distributor design
Efficient gas cleaning
Reduction of entrainment
High heat demand
Justification due to low drying rate
Stringent requirement for final
moisture content
Recovering of valuable solvent
Explosion hazard
Toxic hazard
Ignition hazard
Setup laboratory-scale FBD
Determine fluidization characteristics
Set u
g
, z, T
g
, perform batch drying
Calculate constant bed temperature
batch drying curve
Determine design curve
Estimate residence time, t
R
Fix bed geometry, A and
gas flowrate, G
g
Determine outlet gas humidity, Y
out
and dew point
Check RH, satisfactory? No
No
Optimize?
Yes
No
Change G
g
Change
z, T
Check for risk of condensation
Yes
Yes
Change A, G
g
FIGURE 8.25 Design steps starting from laboratory tests.
2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
WM-FBD Well-mixed FBD SBD Spouted bed P-FBD Pulsating FBD H-FBD Hybrid FBD
PF-FBD Plug flow FBD M-FBD Multistage FBD IT-FBD Immersed tubes FBD IS-FBD Inert Solids FBD
V-FBD Vibrated FBD A-FBD Agitated FBD B-FBD Baffled FBD SD Spray drying
Group A, B
good fluidizability particles
Group C, D
poor fluidizability particles
Crystalline
surface moisture
Fragile Colloidal/porous
surface + internal moisture
Surface + internal
moisture
Heat-sensitive Heat-resistant Heat-sensitive Heat-resistant
Mono
sized
Mono
sized
Poly
disperse
Poly
disperse
Liquids; pastes
Liquids Group C
fine particles
Group D
large particles
Pastes
slurries
Surface
moisture
V-FBD
PF-FBD V-FBD WM-FBD
M-FBD
V-FBD
SBD
WM-FBD
V-FBD
SBD
V-FBD
A-FBD
IT-FBD
SBD
V-FBD
H-FBD
(spray-
FBD)
M-FBD
H-FBD
(SD-slow),
(FED-slow)
P-FBD
A-FBD
SBD
IS-FBD
B-FBD
V-FBD
SBD SBD
FIGURE 8.26 Dryer selection.
2
0
0
6
b
y
T
a
y
l
o
r
&
F
r
a
n
c
i
s
G
r
o
u
p
,
L
L
C
.
Solution
For continuous, well-mixed dryer operation in the
linear falling period, the residence time is given by
t
R
=
1
k
X
o
X
eq
X X
eq
1
_ _
t
R
=
1
0:005
0:20 0
0:04 0
1
_ _
t
R
= 800 s
Dry solid mass ow rate is calculated from wet solid
mass ow rate, wet solid has initial moisture content
of 20%,
F = 6000
kg wet solid
h
1 kg dry solid
1:20 kg wet solid
1 h
3600 s
F = 1:389 kg dry solid=s
Bed area is given by
A =
F
s
t
R
r
b
H
b
A =
1:389 800
500 0:20
A = 11:11 m
2
Mass ow rate of air is calculated from the equation
G
g
= r
g
u
g
A
G
g
= 1:0 0:70 11:11
G
g
= 7:777 kg=s
Outlet air humidity can be obtained fromthe equation
F
s
(X
in
X
out
) = G
g
(Y
out
Y
in
)
Y
out
=
F
s
G
g
(X
in
X
out
) Y
in
Y
out
=
1:389
7:777
(0:20 0:04) 0:005
Y
out
= 0:0336 kg H
2
O=kg dry air
Outlet air temperature can be obtained from the
equation
F
s
H
sin
G
g
H
gin
Q
h
= F
s
H
sout
G
g
H
gout
Q
w
Q
h
= 0 since there is no immersed tube.
Q
w
= 0.05G
g
H
gin
assumes that heat loss to wall is
taken as 5% of the enthalpy of inlet air:
H
sin
= (c
ps
X
in
c
1
)T
sin
H
sin
= (0:84 0:20 4:2) 20
H
sin
= 33:60 kJ=kg
H
sout
= (c
ps
X
out
c
1
)T
sout
H
sout
= (0:84 0:04 4:2)T
H
sout
= 1:008T kJ=kg
H
gin
= (c
pg
Y
in
c
1
)T
gin
Y
in
l
Dry solids
X = 0.04 kg/kg
Bed
H
b
= 20 cm
r
b
= 500 kg/m
3
t
R
= ???
A = ???
T
b
= ???
Wet solids
F
s
= 6000 kg/h
T
s,in
= 208C
X
o
= 0.20 kg/kg
r
s
= 2000 kg/m
3
c
ps
= 0.84 kJ/kgK
Hot air
u
g
= 0.70 m/s
Y
g,in
= 0.005 kg/kg
r
g
= 1 kg/m
3
c
pg
= 1.00 kJ/kgK
T
g,in
= 125 8C
G
g
= ???
Exhaust air
Wet solid
Hot air or
flue gas
Dry solid
FIGURE 8.27 Sample calculation.
2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
H
gin
= (1:00 0:005 4:2) 125 0:005 2370
H
gin
= 139:5 kJ=kg
H
gout
= (c
pg
Y
out
c
1
)T
gout
Y
out
l
H
gout
= (1 0:0336 4:2)T 0:0336 2370
H
gout
= 1:141T 79:63
F
s
H
sin
G
g
H
gin
Q
h
= F
s
H
sout
G
g
H
gout
Q
w
F
s
H
sin
G
g
H
gin
Q
h
= F
s
H
sout
G
g
H
gout
0:05G
g
H
gin
F
s
H
sin
0:95G
g
H
gin
Q
h
= F
s
H
sout
G
g
H
gout
1:389 33:6 0:95 7:777 139:5 0
= 1:389 (1:008T) 7:777 (1:141T 79:63)
T = 44:6
C
From the psychrometric chart, air at absolute humid-
ity of 0.0336 kg/kg has a dew point of 33.58C and
relative humidity is 55%. Since the outlet air leaves
the dryer at 44.68C (108C higher than the dew point),
there is no risk of condensation.
8.10 CONCLUSION
Fluidized bed dryers have replaced some of the con-
ventional dryers, e.g., rotary or conveyor dryers in
many instances. Among some of the recent develop-
ments in uidized bed drying is the idea of applying
microwave energy eld continuously or intermittently
in a uidized or spouted bed. Use of superheated
steam will probably become more popular in some
applications in the future.
The presence of moisture on particle surface can
cause major changes to uidization quality as com-
pared with that of dry particles to which most of the
available literature is applicable. Also, there are nu-
merous variants of the uidized bed that require dif-
ferent design information and design strategies. For
example, drying using a time-dependent heat input or
drying under low-pressure conditions or using super-
heated steam as the drying medium, etc. must be
handled with some modications and new data sets
and models.
NOTATION
a, b, x, y, k drying constant, drying coefcient
A area, m
2
c heat capacity, J/(kg K)
c
p
heat capacity at constant pressure
J/(kg K)
d diameter, m or mm
D diffusivity, m
2
/s
e emissivity
E(u) residence time density
F solids mass ow rate, kg/s
g gravity acceleration = 9.80665m/s
2
, m/s
2
G gas mass ow rate, kg/s
H height, m
h heat transfer coefcient, W/(m
2
K)
K
c
mass transfer coefcient across bubble
boundary, m/s
k thermal conductivity, W/(m K)
L length, m
M mass, kg
_ mm mass rate of evaporation of water per
unit volume of bed, kg/(m
3
s)
n integer
Nu Nusselt number
p partial pressure, Pa
P pressure, Pa
Pr Prandtl number
q rate of heat transfer, W
Q
h
heat input from immersed tubes, kJ/s
Q
w
heat loss to column wall, kJ/s
r radius, m
Re Reynolds number
t time, s
T temperature, 8C, K
u velocity, m/s
V volume, m
3
X moisture content, kg/kg
Y absolute humidity, kg/kg
GREEK SYMBOLS
b root of Bessel function
void fraction
l latent heat of vaporization, J/kg
m viscosity, Ns/m
2
r density, kg/m
3
s StefanBoltzmann constant = 5.6710
8
W/
(m
2
K
4
), W/(m
2
K
4
)
f sphericity
SUBSCRIPT
b bed
bb bubble
c convective component
cr1 rst critical
cyl cylinder
d dense
2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
eff effective
eq equilibrium
evap evaporation
g gas
in inlet
ind induction
l liquid
mf minimum uidization
o initial
opt optimum
out outlet
p particle
r radiant component
R residence
s solids
sat saturated
sph sphere
t column
v vapor
w wall
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