Most of the essays in this anthology have observed change, i.e.

the
transformation of identity amongst the Kiranti people in the rugged hills of
eastern Nepal. Their ethnic, linguistic, cultural and sociopolitical metamorphosis A Focus on Kiranti-Kõits
seems like that of Gregor Samsa's physical metamorphosis in Franz Kafka's
fiction. All their original ethno-identity has been metamorphosed into exo(ethno)
-nyms like Mukhiya (Mukhia, Sun(u)war, Bhujuwar, Pirthwar, Surel), Rai
(Jimee, Jimi), Subba and Dewan (Majhiya) and so on. Almost for 200 years of
service (since the Anglo-Nepal War 1814-16) for the British Queen, Country,
People and the Union Jack, they have another new metamorphosis of identity,
e.g., the imperial term 'Gurkha' from Gorakhnath and Gorkha(li). Recently, a
road's neonym has also been born as 'Gurkha Road' at Blandford Forum, UK.
Their linguistic identity is also metamorphosed into Indo-Aryan Nepali
(formerly known as Khas, Parbate or sometimes Khariboli) and obviously the
'Gurkha Road' generation will tomorrow transform themselves into British
English. Back home to the hills, it is reported that 73% of the Kiranti-Kõits
speakers have lost their beautiful mother tongue; while the remaining 27%
speakers are, also gradually disowning mainly due to the thinning sociolinguistic
ecology. There are many such examples amongst other ethnic communities in the
hilly regions of Nepal from east to west. Correspondingly, their cultural-religious
faiths and practices such as shamanism, local pantheism and pantheons too have
been transforming into the powerful ones mainly yielding economic gains. Their
marginalized sociopolitical role, if any too has no sufficient voice to make a
difference in those spheres of nation till this day. Thus, this anthology is an –emic
tale (narrated from –emic perspective) on the vanishing ethnicity, languages and
cultures of Nepal or metaphorically that of Gregor Samsa. My role as Grete Samsa
(sister of Gregor) here is to narrate those vanishing but caring tales of the
metamorphosed subaltern IPs in Nepal.
Lal-Shyãkarelu Rapacha

Lal-Shyãkarelu Rapacha
9 78 9937 2 16708
 Contemporary Essays on
Vanishing Ethnicity, Cultures Published by

and Languages of Nepal

A Focus on Kiranti-Kõits Research Institute for Kirãtology
................................................................................................................................
G P O Box: 5569
Kathmandu, Nepal

© Copyright
Author 2009

First published AD 2009

Yalamba (Yele) Thotse 5069
Vikram Samvat 2066
Nepal Samvat 1130
All rights reserved. Except for the quotation of short passages for the
purposes of criticism and review, no part of this book may be
Lal-Shyãkarelu Rapacha, PhD reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form
or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or
otherwise, without the prior permission of the author.
For information e-mail to
kiranti.muru@hotmail.com
shyakarelurapacha@yahoo.com
kiranti.rapachalal@gmail.com
Contemporary Essays on
Vanishing Ethnicity, Cultures and Languages of Nepal
A Focus on Kiranti-Kõits
ISBN 978 9937 21670 8
Logo concept and design
Lal Rapacha, Uttam Katicha and Sameer Kyabacha (Mukhiya)
Typing/layout
Research Institute for Kirãtology Lal Rapacha/Sahadev Maharjan
Kathmandu, Nepal Cover concept, illustration and design
Lal Rapacha, Lokpriya Khanal and Debendra Khapung
Maa Tara Offset Press
Jorpati, Kathmandu
Tel: 4912692
Printed in Nepal
 Contents
................................................................................................................................

Preface vi
for Abbreviations, Terms and Symbols used xiv
My and our tami Animon Rapacha, tau Aristocha Humboldt Plates xvi
Rapacha Figures xvi
and the rest Kiranti future generations, Tables xvi
who will one day certainly ask themselves about their Boxes xvii
identity
PART ONE
Also in memoriam Ethnoidentity and Sociopolitical Crisis 1-68
of our Kiranti ancestors 1 Sunkosi’s phantom in ethnoidentity 2
Sirijanggahang Thebe (Rupihang Raya), 2 Seeking the Sunuwar identity 5
Lalsor Sendang, 3 Toni Hagen misunderstood Sunuwar 10
Imanxing Chemjong, 4 Evidence for Sunuwar as Kiranti 14
Falgunanda Lingden, 5 Demystifying the myths of Sunuwar 28
Lasahang, Bajhang Limbu, Kangsore, 6 Saroza's Sunuwar-Jirel revisited 31
Additional Chief Secy. RB Rujicha-Mukhia, 7 Ethnofederalism on its deathbed 37
Naradmuni Thulung, Buddhikarna Kebang (Raya), 8 Mismatching antiques and identity 44
Devi Jẽ:ticha, Karna Jẽ:ticha et al. 9 Kiranti-Kõits identity crisis 50

P A R T TW O
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Books are the windows through
Issues on Historical and Cultural Identity 69-110
which the soul looks outside. 10 A look on Chemjong's contributions 70
A home without books is a room without windows. 11 Writing unwritten ethnohistory 71
No man has right to bring up his/her children 12 Past, present and future of Kiranti-Kõits 74
without surrounding them with books 13 Age-old socio-anthropology of Nepal 88
If s/he has no means to buy them, it is wrong to his/her family. 14 Guardian angels of Sakela Sili 91
15 Three deities in Kiranti-Kõits lore 95
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 16 The restoration of Sakela Sili 97
Books are good enough in their own way, but they are a mighty 17 Semantic aspects of Salaku in Sunuwar 100
bloodless substitute for life.
Robert Louis Stevension, Virginibus Puerisque
PART THREE
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Languages, Grammars, Criticism and Folklore 111-276
18 Nepali language matters 112
19 A preliminary sociolinguistic Survey of Sunuwar 113
20 Language planning for peace building 126
21 Sunuwar as an endangered language 129
22 Kiranti-Yamphu grammar's face 137
iv
23 Model of linguistic autonomy
24 Commercialization of lesser-known languages
25 Notes on the typology of T-B Kiranti languages
26 Overcoming linguistic discrimination
27 Moribund linguospecies of Nepal
28 Gurkha's sleepwalk Nagarchi's madness
29 Lt. Sunuwar as Kiranti-Kõits textbook
30 Poet Bhattachan's creative anarchism
31 Of understanding Kiranti grammars
32 Whisper on poetry and identity
33 Ethnocentrism in BP Koirala's Sumnima
34 Kiranti-Bayung language vitality
35 Aspects of pedagogy in Kiranti-Sunuwar textbooks
36 On multitongues of Nepal
37 Case suffixes in Kiranti-Kõits
38 Folklore studies in Nepal
39 Teaching Kiranti-Kõits with lexicosyntactic approach
40 Kiranti unity in ethnofolklore
41 Vanishing languages and knowledge of Nepal
42 Inclusion through multilingual education
Appendices
Appendix A: Genetically related Kiranti languages
Appendix B: Sikkim Government Gazette No. 60
Appendix C: Sikkim Government Gazette No. 141
References
Index of languages
Subject index
Index of names
v vi
140 Preface
143 ................................................................................................................................
146
170 In a sense, this anthology of essays is an ancillary
173 publication to my research project 'Kiranti-Bayung Grammar,
176 Texts and Lexicon' since the Kiranti-Bayung spoken by less than
179 2 thousand speakers, is one of the vanishing languages of the
190 eastern hills of Nepal due to sociopolitical and economic
193 pressures. Sociolinguistic survey on Bayung (Lee et al 2005),
201 however, clearly indicates that the language attitude and vitality
204 are still hopeful amongst the speakers irrespective of adverse
207 and monolithic language policy imposed during the Panchayati
210 Raj till 1990. The post-1990 situation also has not improved
223 much better yet.
225 My present research project has also been directly
239 complemented by last year's work Indo-Nepal Kiranti
243 Bhashaharu [Indo-Nepal Kiranti Languages (2008)] which has
253 surveyed 27 Kiranti languages, their literature, vitality, creative
256 and literary activities including sociolinguistic ecology in Nepal
271 and across the border in north-east India. Most of the Kiranti
languages in contemporary Nepal except for some bigger
languages (see Appendix A) like Yakthung (Limbu), Kirawa
274
(Bantawa) and Rodung (Chamling) have been facing the danger
275
of extinction mainly because of thinning sociolinguistic ecology.
276
The essays in the present anthology have discussed several
277-303 factors responsible for the tapering sociolinguistic ecology of
304-306 Nepal. In order to explicate such factors here, I have organized
307-313 this work in three parts, viz. Part One–Ethno-identity and
314-322 Sociopolitical Crisis, Part Two–Issues on Historical and
Cultural Identity and Part Three–Languages, Grammars,
Criticism and Folklore. A total of 42 essays in three parts
written from –emic perspective after the mid 1990s and until
recently have been amalgamated in 'Contemporary Essays on
Vanishing Ethnicity, Cultures and Languages of Nepal:
a Focus on Kiranti-Kõits' for exploring and highlighting the
local and the subaltern realities in Nepal not so important to the
mainstream socio-politics, media and academia.
Most of these essays included here had appeared
previously in several dailies, journals, magazines, periodicals,
books in Nepal and India. Some of them are personal and some
impersonal some short in length and some long as well.
However, almost all of them though written in different span of
time after the fall of 30 year long-Panchayati Raj in the country,
to some extent, are based on research of considerable degree
along with life experiences rather than purely literary essays
alone.
All these essays, therefore selected for this title have dealt
with several problematic and frustrating issues of indigenous or
ethnic peoples ('nationalities' in NEFIN and NFDIN's adoption),
cultures and languages of Nepal in general and focused on the
Kiranti-Kõits people's endangerment of ethnicity, ethno-
identity, languages and cultures in particular.
'Ethnicity' as such in some sense can be understood as
belonging to a group that shares the same characteristics, such
as country of origin, language, religion, ancestry and culture. To
some extent, it can be a matter of biological and historical fact
and that cannot be changed by the culture in which a person
grows up. However, sometimes it is difficult to pin point a clear
cut boundary.
What is 'culture' then? Culture simply depicts what people
develop to enable them to adapt to their world, e.g. language
including gestures, tools to enable them to survive and prosper,
customs and traditions that define values and organize social
interactions, religious beliefs and rituals, and dress, art, and
music to make symbolic and aesthetic expressions. It
determines the practices and beliefs that become associated
with an ethnic group and provides its distinctive identity. Again
in a multi-ethnic country like Nepal, often 'distinctiveness' is a
matter of complexity to be observed easily due to several
factors.
But then 'identity' for social anthropologists is a 'volatile,
flexible and abstract thing'. Its manifestations and the ways in
which it is exercised are often open to view. 'Identity' is made
evident through the use of elements or indicators such as
language (an interdisciplinary social scientist like Parker (1991:
55 and 267) also has focused on 'language' as an element of
ethnic identity and as an indicator of the character of cultural
negotiation, however it cannot be used as a measure of change
vii
in ethnic identity in a multi-ethnic context of Nepal), dress,
behaviour and choice of space, whose effect depends on their
recognition by other social beings.
Those elements or markers help to create the boundaries
that define similarities or differences between the marker
wearer and the marker perceivers; their effectiveness depends
on a shared understanding of their meaning. In a social context,
misunderstandings can arise due to a misinterpretation of the
significance of specific markers. Equally, an individual can use
markers of identity to exert influence on other people without
necessarily fulfilling all the criteria that an external observer
might typically associate with such an abstract identity.
Some sociologists examine 'social identity' from the
perspective of social and historical changes. Postmodernists
view it as a function of historical and cultural circumstances.
They argue that all aspects of social reality are actually social
constructions created by historical facts and these constructs
have real consequences upon the lives and behaviors of human
beings. Specifically, in the case of Nepal, manipulated myths
rather than "historical facts" have real consequences upon the
lives and behaviours of the marginalized, excluded and
downtrodden Indigenous Peoples or Nationalities.
In general 'social identity' is how people(s) function within
many different social situations and relate to a range of other
people. Social groups may involve family, ethnic communities,
cultural connections, nationality, friends and work. They are an
important and valued part of our daily life. How one sees
himself/herself in relation to our social groupings defines ones
social identity. We will here reiterate Buff and Diaro's stories of
mainly socio-cultural identity from Armstrong and Slaytor
(2001: 58 and 90) as follows:
Buffy's story
"I wish my parents had encouraged me to learn about my
culture. They occasionally took me to Chinese restaurants to
have fried ice-cream. Chinese, Vietnamese - it was all the same
to them. They never talked to me about the fact that I am
Vietnamese. Maybe they could forget, but I couldn't because I
viii
am yellow and they are white. It would have made a difference if
I had met someone who looked like me before the age of 15."
Dairo's story
"My parents have tried to give my sister and I an
understanding of our culture in their own little ways. When I
was younger, we used to go to picnics with other families who
have adopted children from Colombia. Our house got its share
of wall hangings and ornaments from Colombia. I always liked
having these bits and pieces around me. They were a reminder
of my roots, and there for my sister and I. Sure, my parents got
them because they liked them, but I know that they got them so
that there would be a piece of where I came from for myself."
The stories from Nepal also differ in their own ways. I am
here particularly concerned about the linguistic, social and
ethnic identity including ethonyms of the voiceless Kiranti
people of eastern Nepal– their languages, their cultures, their
history and issues regarding their interrelated roots and observe
how their multiple identities have been metamorphosed and
mainly affected by sociopolitical factors.
In Part One, I have included nine collected essays which
have focused on the ethnic identity crisis of one particular group
known as Kiranti-Kõits in their autoethnonym including the
federal system desired by several ethnic groups. The Kiranti-
Kõits have several exonyms like Sunuwar, Sunwar, Bhujuwar,
Pirthwar, Mukhiya, Mukhia, Marpache etc following many
misnomers in Hindu misinterpretations. Such misnomer-
constructs have had real consequences (viz. identity crisis) upon
their lives in Nepal, where 'Nepal' does not mean only a
country's name but also 'a high caste Hindu Brahman (>Bahun
born from Brahma's mouth)' and 'Nepali' (mainstream media
does not prefer the 'Nepalese' spelling) does not signify the
citizens of Nepal only but also 'the same Hindu untouchable
caste/Dalit' born from Brahma's feet. Till this dichotomy still
persists, the critical condition of ethno-identity and
discriminations will also prolong. And also the ongoing debates
of state restructuring in federal framework on the basis of
ethnic peoples' identity has drawn less attention of the
mainstream political parties– hence sociopolitical crisis. Such
ix
crises have also been well-documented in my work Nepalko
Adivasi Kiranti Jati Serophero: Wallo, Majh ra Pallo Kirant
[The Sphere of Indigenous Kiranti People of Nepal: Near,
Central and Far Kirant] (2009 in press) and in Indo-Nepal
Kiranti Bhashaharu [Indo-Nepal Kiranti Languages (2008)]
both written in Nepali.
Eight essays in Part Two have focused on the main theme
of historical and cultural identity of the Kiranti ethno-
indigenous people from all three Kirant areas of the past–
Wallo 'near/hither', Majh 'mid/central' and Pallo 'far' Kirant.
The essays in this part also address some shared historical and
cultural identity problems by IPs (indigenous peoples) or
nationalities in the country in general. Cultural symbols of
Salaku, Surom, Sed, Nimlo and Sakela have been brought to
introductory descriptive discourse along with ethnohistory and
Imanxing Chemjong in this part before they disappear into
oblivion.
Some long and some short essays on languages,
grammars, criticism, folklore and related issues have been
included in Part Three. This part comprises twenty-five such
essays dealing from lesser-known languages and their
grammatical features, typology, endangerment, discrimination,
textbook writing, literary-criticism, pedagogy, Kiranti folklore
characters, vanishing indigenous knowledge (IK) to
participatory inclusion of those unfortunate lots in nation-
building through multilingual education.
To sum up, in most of these essays what I have observed is
their change, i.e. the transformation of identity amongst the
Kiranti people in those rugged hills of eastern Nepal. Their
ethnic, linguistic, cultural and sociopolitical
metamorphosis seems like that of Gregor Samsa's physical
metamorphosis in Franz Kafka's fiction. All their original
ethno-identity has been metamorphosed into exo(ethno)nyms
like Mukhiya (Mukhia, Sun(u)war, Bhujuwar, Pirthwar, Surel),
Rai (Jimee, Jimi), Subba and Dewan (Majhiya) and so on in
Nepal and around the world. Almost for 200 years of service
(since the Anglo-Nepal War 1814-16) for the British Queen,
Country, People and the Union Jack, they have another new
metamorphosis of identity, e.g. the imperial term 'Gurkha' from
x
Gorakhnath and Gorkha(li). Recently, a road's neonym has also
been born as 'Gurkha Road' at Blandford Forum, Dorset or
'Gurkha Square' Fleet Hampshire, UK.
Their linguistic identity also has metamorphosed into
Indo-Aryan Nepali (formerly known as Khas, Parbate or
sometimes Khariboli) and obviously the 'Gurkha Road' or
'Gurkha Square' generation(s) will tomorrow transform
themselves into British English. Back home to the hills, it is
reported that 73% of the Kiranti-Kõits speakers have lost their
beautiful mother tongue; while the remaining 27% are also
gradually giving it up mainly due to the thinning sociolinguistic
ecology. This trend extends to several other ethnic hill
communities, e.g. amongst the Gurung (Parker 1991) of
Siddhapokhari eastern Nepal. My own observation is in my own
village Katunje and in Rumjatar, Okhaldhunga district, where
the Gurungs have given up their mother tongue. There are many
such examples amongst other ethnic communities in the hilly
regions of Nepal from east to west.
Correspondingly, their cultural-religious faiths and
practices such as shamanism, local pantheism and pantheons
too have been transforming into the powerful ones mainly
yielding economic gains. Their marginalized sociopolitical role,
if any too has no sufficient voice to make a difference in those
spheres of nation till this day. This anthology is an –emic tale
(from –emic perspective) on the vanishing ethnicity, languages
and cultures of Nepal or metaphorically that of Gregor Samsa.
My role as Grete Samsa (sister of Gregor) here is to narrate
those vanishing but caring tales of the metamorphosed
subalterns which readers and the future researchers will find it
worth listening and reading as well as beneficial for analyzing
how disowning occurs. Hopefully, these Gregor tales will amuse
them.
In this effort many institutions and individuals have
assisted me. My sincere acknowledgement and thanks first of
all, go to the AvH Stiftung (Foundation) for providing me the
opportunity of postdoctoral fellowship to carry out research on
a vanishing language like Kiranti-Bayung of Nepal under the
broader field of study– Asian Studies, Asian Languages and
Cultures and linguistics as its additional field and to my host
xi
institute (University of Leipzig), Deutschland (Germany). Some
other institutions from where I am benefitted directly or
indirectly are– National Foundation for Development of
Indigenous Nationalities (NFDIN), Nepal Federation of
Indigenous Nationalities (NEFIN), Chumlung, Yayokkha,
Chumma, Kõitsbu, Kirãt Welfare Society (Kirãt Federation or
Bakulochana Movement), Central Library of Tribhuvan
Univeristy, Kirtipur and Jawaharlal Nehru University, New
Delhi.
Many scholarly individuals to whom I am indebted to are–
Prof Dr Balthasar Bickel (my host professor, University of
Leipzig), Prof Dr Novel Kishor Rai (CNAS, Tribhuvan
University), Prof Nirmalman Tuladhar (CNAS, Tribhuvan
University), Associate Prof Vishnu S Rai (IOE, Tribhuvan
University), poet-novelist and critic DB Gurung, Prof Dr
Madhav Pokharel (CDL, Tribhuvan University), Dr Dörte
Borchers (Himalayan Languages Project, Leiden University),
Visiting Prof Sueyoshi-Ingrid Toba and Prof Dr Werner M Egli
(Universität Luzern). Lately, Associate Prof Dr Anne Parker
(Naropa University, USA), a Fulbrighter mainly focused on
Tibet, eastern Nepal and South Asia has enlightened me by
providing her unpublished PhD work 'Multi-ethnic Interface in
Eastern Nepal: Culture Change in Sidha Pokhari' (1991) in PDF-
digital format promptly. I owe a debt of gratitude to her.
I sincerely have to thank Bag-Ayagyami Yalungcha, MA
(Linguistics, Kirtipur), MA (English, Ratna Rajya) and Prem
Phyak, MEd (English, Tribhuvan University), MA (TESOL,
Institute of Education, University of London), for reading the
earlier manuscript-drafts of this anthology and pinpointing its
errors with an eagle eye. Er Shyan Kirat Yalungchha, MTech
(Computer Science, NIT-TN), Dr J Homibhaba Fellow) also has
assisted me in computer-related technical field. Sameer
Kyabacha (Mukhiya) was also initially involved very temporarily
in my efforts. Mokusu Kormocha, MA (IDCE, Clark University,
Worcester, Massachusetts, USA) had attached me some useful
photographs for the purpose of this work. Samala Badacha, BA
(Journalism and English Literature), Nila Yalungchha and again
Prem Phyak are my logistic supporters in Kathamadu, Nepal
while I am still engaged in my research works in Leipzig.
Sahadev Maharjan of Sahadev Computer Service, Kirtipur has
xii
professionally worked for page layout and Lokpriya Khanal and Abbreviations, Terms and Symbols used
Debendra Khapung have designed its cover. I extend my deep
appreciation to all of you. 1 = first person
Finally, I express my fatherly love to our children tami 2 = second person
Animon Rapacha, tau Aristocha Humboldt Rapacha for their 3 = third person
patience when I was entirely engaged in this work since I could AD = Anno Domini
not play fun-games with them and go sightseeing in this adj = adjective
beautiful city of music and love– and also scarcely had time for adv = adverb
going to the Opera and the Theatre for enjoying orchestra in the AGT = agentive
later life's career home of Johann S Bach from 1723 to 1750. ALL = allative
And my sincere thanks go for this peaceful Bach city Leipzig and AUX = auxiliary
the Leipziger(in) for providing me their world class academic b. = born
ecology. BSN = Bible Society of Nepal
ca. = circa
CAUS = causative
Lal-Shyãkarelu Rapacha CBS = Central Bureau of Statistics
Beethovenstr. 15 cf. = compare
Institute for Linguistics CNAS = Center for Nepal and Asian Studies
University of Leipzig conj = conjunction
04107 Leipzig DAT = dative
Deutschland (Germany) DU = dual
September 2009 ELJ = executive, legislative & judicial
ERG = ergative
EXT = existential
f/m (m/f) = female/male
GEN = genitive
HES = Higher Education Supplement
HON = honorific
I-A = Indo-Aryan
IAS = Indian Administrative Service
i.e. = that is
IMP = imperative
INF= infinitive
INST = instrumental
INTER =interrogative
IP = Indigenous People
Kõits = autoethnoym for exonym Sunuwar/Mukhiya
L1 = first or native language
L2 = second or foreign language
LSN = Linguistic Society of Nepal

xiii xiv
Lt. = lieutenant § = section
Majh = mid(dle), central ŋ = ng
MAN = manner - = morpheme break
Mongoloid = no connotation of 'Down syndrome' here ε=e
N/Nep. = Nepali ã = AN
n = noun ɂ = glottal stop
NFDIN = National Foundation for Development of Nationalities ā=A
NEFIN = Nepal Federation of Indigenous Nationalities c = ts
NPST = non-past ә=a
Pallo = far, thither ( ) = optional
p/c = personal communication ɽ = flap
PART = particle ƥ (pw) = implosive stop
PCPL = participle
ɓ (bw) = implosive stop
PL = plural
N = in orthography means (˜) nasal
prn = pronoun
PSN = possession
Plates
PST = past
Plate 1: Kiranti-Kõits IP of eastern Nepal 5
PUR = purposive
Plate 2: Image ID: 1125293, Sunwar 45
QGO = Queen's Gurkha Officer
Plate 3: Image ID: 1125294 Sunwar female 46
REC = reciprocity
Plate 4: Image ID: 1125295 Sunwar family 46
Retd = retired
Plate 5: Trident painted on Guĩduwa and Turung 105
R-G = Roman-Gorkhali
Plate 6: Lotus painted on Guĩduwa and Turung 105
SASON = Sociological/Anthropological Society of Nepal
SCS = Sikkim Civil Service
Figures
SEQ = sequential
Figure 1: Phylogenetic family tree of Kiranti languages 75
Sg or SG = singular
Figure 2: Human existence as envisaged in Kiranti-Kõits
SIL = Summer Institute of Linguistics
Guĩduwa and Turung 106
SOAS = School of Oriental and African Studies
Figure 3: Intersecting isogloss and dialect areas of Kiranti-
Tamu = autoethnoym of Gurung
Kõits 116
T-B = Tibeto-Burman
Figure 4: Genetically related Kiranti languages 274
TEMP = temporal
Text source: forthcoming (Rapacha)
Tables
TKP= The Kathmandu Post
Table 1: Summary of Nepali influence and
TRN = The Rising Nepal
loan words in Kiranti-Kõits 120
TU = Tribhuvan University
Table 2: The consonants of Proto-Tibeto-Burman 148
UNESCO = United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Table 3: Intransitive agreement affixes in
Organization
Gyarong (Suomo dialect) 150
Wallo = near, hither
Table 4: Transitive verb affixes in Gyarong
/ / = phonemic/broad transcription
(Suomo dialect) 151
< > = morpheme

xvi
xv
 Table 5: A and B. Vowel and consonant phonemes of
Kiranti-Bayung 155
Table 6: A and B. Vowel and consonant phonemes of
Kiranti-Kõits 156
Table 7: A and B. Vowel and consonant phonemes of
Kiranti-Hayu 157
Table 8: A and B. Vowel and consonant phonemes of
some Kiranti languages 158
Table 9: Case markers in Kiranti-Kõits 236
Table 10: Case marking suffixes in Sunwar (Kõits) from
Borchers 237

Boxes
Box 1: Language and ethnicity 40
Box 2: Lt. Kyabacha (Sunwar) as chairperson in bold 182
Box 3: A dismal e-message conveyed to Hong Kong 184
Box 4: First two news on Kiranti-Kõits Lo 186
Box 5: Kiranti-Kõits identity and
glory conveyed to Hong Kong 187
Box 6: Second news on Kiranti-Kõits Lo 188
Box 7: Regional distribution of Kiranti languages in
eastern Nepal 200
Box 8: The number of Nepal’s minority languages % 268

xvii