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Lesson 1 Computer
I Reading
1.1. Read, translate and make the summary of the text below.
COMPUTER
A computer is a machine that manipulates data according to a list of instructions.
The first devices that resemble modern computers date to the mid-20th century (around 1940 -
194!" although the computer concept and various machines similar to computers e#isted earlier.
$arly electronic computers %ere the si&e of a large room" consuming as much po%er as several
hundred modern personal computers. 'odern computers are based on tiny integrated circuits and
are millions to billions of times more capable %hile occupying a fraction of the space. Today"
simple computers may be made small enough to fit into a %rist%atch and be po%ered from a
%atch battery. (ersonal computers in various forms are icons of the )nformation Age and are
%hat most people thin* of as +a computer+, ho%ever" the most common form of computer in use
today is the embedded computer. $mbedded computers are small" simple devices that are used to
control other devices - for e#ample" they may be found in machines ranging from fighter
aircraft to industrial robots" digital cameras" and children.s toys.
The ability to store and e#ecute lists of instructions called programs ma*es computers e#tremely
versatile and distinguishes them from calculators. The /hurch0Turing thesis is a mathematical
statement of this versatility1 any computer %ith a certain minimum capability is" in principle"
capable of performing the same tas*s that any other computer can perform. Therefore" computers
%ith capability and comple#ity ranging from that of a personal digital assistant to a
supercomputer are all able to perform the same computational tas*s given enough time and
storage capacity.
History of computing
)t is difficult to identify any one device as the earliest computer" partly because the term
+computer+ has been sub2ect to varying interpretations over time. 3riginally" the term
+computer+ referred to a person %ho performed numerical calculations (a human computer!"
often %ith the aid of a mechanical calculating device. $#amples of early mechanical calculating
devices included the abacus" the slide rule and arguably the astrolabe and the Anti*ythera
mechanism (%hich dates from about 10-100 4/!. The end of the 'iddle Ages sa% a re-
invigoration of $uropean mathematics and engineering" and 5ilhelm 6chic*ard.s 1728 device
%as the first of a number of mechanical calculators constructed by $uropean engineers.
9o%ever" none of those devices fit the modern definition of a computer because they could not
be programmed. A succession of steadily more po%erful and fle#ible computing devices %ere
constructed in the 1980s and 1940s" gradually adding the *ey features that are seen in modern
computers. The use of digital electronics (largely invented by /laude 6hannon in 198:! and
more fle#ible programmability %ere vitally important steps" but defining one point along this
road as +the first digital electronic computer+ is difficult (6hannon 1940!.
How computers wor
A general purpose computer has four main sections1 the arithmetic and logic unit (A;<!" the
control unit" the memory" and the input and output devices (collectively termed )=3!. These parts
are interconnected by busses" often made of groups of %ires.
The control unit" A;<" registers" and basic )=3 (and often other hard%are closely lin*ed %ith
these! are collectively *no%n as a central processing unit (/(<!. $arly /(<s %ere composed of
1
many separate components but since the mid-19:0s /(<s have typically been constructed on a
single integrated circuit called a microprocessor.
Contro! unit
The control unit (often called a control system or central controller! directs the various
components of a computer. )t reads and interprets (decodes! instructions in the program one by
one. The control system decodes each instruction and turns it into a series of control signals that
operate the other parts of the computer. /ontrol systems in advanced computers may change the
order of some instructions so as to improve performance.
A *ey component common to all /(<s is the program counter, a special memory cell (a register!
that *eeps trac* of %hich location in memory the ne#t instruction is to be read from. The control
system.s function is as follo%s-note that this is a simplified description" and some of these steps
may be performed concurrently or in a different order depending on the type of /(<1
1. >ead the code for the ne#t instruction from the cell indicated by the program counter.
2. ?ecode the numerical code for the instruction into a set of commands or signals for each of
the other systems.
8. )ncrement the program counter so it points to the ne#t instruction.
4. >ead %hatever data the instruction re@uires from cells in memory (or perhaps from an input
device!. The location of this re@uired data is typically stored %ithin the instruction code.
. (rovide the necessary data to an A;< or register.
7. )f the instruction re@uires an A;< or speciali&ed hard%are to complete" instruct the
hard%are to perform the re@uested operation.
:. 5rite the result from the A;< bac* to a memory location or to a register or perhaps an
output device.
A. Bump bac* to step (1!.
6ince the program counter is (conceptually! 2ust another set of memory cells" it can be changed
by calculations done in the A;<. Adding 100 to the program counter %ould cause the ne#t
instruction to be read from a place 100 locations further do%n the program. )nstructions that
modify the program counter are often *no%n as +2umps+ and allo% for loops (instructions that
are repeated by the computer! and often conditional instruction e#ecution (both e#amples of
control flo%!. )t is noticeable that the se@uence of operations that the control unit goes through to
process an instruction is in itself li*e a short computer program - and indeed" in some more
comple# /(< designs" there is another yet smaller computer called a microse@uencer that runs a
microcode program that causes all of these events to happen.
"rit#metic$!ogic unit %"LU&
The A;< is capable of performing t%o classes of operations1 arithmetic and logic. The set of
arithmetic operations that a particular A;< supports may be limited to adding and subtracting or
might include multiplying or dividing" trigonometry functions (sine" cosine" etc! and s@uare
roots. 6ome can only operate on %hole numbers (integers! %hilst others use floating point to
represent real numbers-albeit %ith limited precision. 9o%ever" any computer that is capable of
performing 2ust the simplest operations can be programmed to brea* do%n the more comple#
operations into simple steps that it can perform. Therefore" any computer can be programmed to
perform any arithmetic operation-although it %ill ta*e more time to do so if its A;< does not
directly support the operation. An A;< may also compare numbers and return boolean truth
values (true or false! depending on %hether one is e@ual to" greater than or less than the other (+is
74 greater than 7C+!.
Memory
A computer.s memory can be vie%ed as a list of cells into %hich numbers can be placed or read.
$ach cell has a numbered +address+ and can store a single number. The computer can be
instructed to +put the number 128 into the cell numbered 18:+ or to +add the number that is in
2
cell 18: to the number that is in cell 247A and put the ans%er into cell 19+. The information
stored in memory may represent practically anything. ;etters" numbers" even computer
instructions can be placed into memory %ith e@ual ease. 6ince the /(< does not differentiate
bet%een different types of information" it is up to the soft%are to give significance to %hat the
memory sees as nothing but a series of numbers.
)n almost all modern computers" each memory cell is set up to store binary numbers in groups of
eight bits (called a byte!. $ach byte is able to represent 27 different numbers, either from 0 to
2 or -12A to D12:. To store larger numbers" several consecutive bytes may be used (typically"
t%o" four or eight!. 5hen negative numbers are re@uired" they are usually stored in t%o.s
complement notation. 3ther arrangements are possible" but are usually not seen outside of
speciali&ed applications or historical conte#ts. A computer can store any *ind of information in
memory as long as it can be someho% represented in numerical form. 'odern computers have
billions or even trillions of bytes of memory.
The /(< contains a special set of memory cells called registers that can be read and %ritten to
much more rapidly than the main memory area. There are typically bet%een t%o and one
hundred registers depending on the type of /(<. >egisters are used for the most fre@uently
needed data items to avoid having to access main memory every time data is needed. 6ince data
is constantly being %or*ed on" reducing the need to access main memory (%hich is often slo%
compared to the A;< and control units! greatly increases the computer.s speed.
/omputer main memory comes in t%o principal varieties1 random access memory or >A' and
read-only memory or >3'. >A' can be read and %ritten to anytime the /(< commands it" but
>3' is pre-loaded %ith data and soft%are that never changes" so the /(< can only read from it.
>3' is typically used to store the computer.s initial start-up instructions. )n general" the contents
of >A' is erased %hen the po%er to the computer is turned off %hile >3' retains its data
indefinitely. )n a (/" the >3' contains a speciali&ed program called the 4)36 that orchestrates
loading the computer.s operating system from the hard dis* drive into >A' %henever the
computer is turned on or reset. )n embedded computers" %hich fre@uently do not have dis*
drives" all of the soft%are re@uired to perform the tas* may be stored in >3'. 6oft%are that is
stored in >3' is often called firm%are because it is notionally more li*e hard%are than
soft%are. Elash memory blurs the distinction bet%een >3' and >A' by retaining data %hen
turned off but being re%ritable li*e >A'. 9o%ever" flash memory is typically much slo%er than
conventional >3' and >A' so its use is restricted to applications %here high speeds are not
re@uired.
)n more sophisticated computers there may be one or more >A' cache memories %hich are
slo%er than registers but faster than main memory. Fenerally computers %ith this sort of cache
are designed to move fre@uently needed data into the cache automatically" often %ithout the need
for any intervention on the programmer.s part.
Mu!titasing
5hile a computer may be vie%ed as running one gigantic program stored in its main memory" in
some systems it is necessary to give the appearance of running several programs simultaneously.
This is achieved by having the computer s%itch rapidly bet%een running each program in turn.
3ne means by %hich this is done is %ith a special signal called an interrupt %hich can
periodically cause the computer to stop e#ecuting instructions %here it %as and do something
else instead. 4y remembering %here it %as e#ecuting prior to the interrupt" the computer can
return to that tas* later. )f several programs are running +at the same time+" then the interrupt
generator might be causing several hundred interrupts per second" causing a program s%itch each
time. 6ince modern computers typically e#ecute instructions several orders of magnitude faster
than human perception" it may appear that many programs are running at the same time even
8
though only one is ever e#ecuting in any given instant. This method of multitas*ing is sometimes
termed +time-sharing+ since each program is allocated a +slice+ of time in turn.
4efore the era of cheap computers" the principle use for multitas*ing %as to allo% many people
to share the same computer.
6eemingly" multitas*ing %ould cause a computer that is s%itching bet%een several programs to
run more slo%ly - in direct proportion to the number of programs it is running. 9o%ever" most
programs spend much of their time %aiting for slo% input=output devices to complete their tas*s.
)f a program is %aiting for the user to clic* on the mouse or press a *ey on the *eyboard" then it
%ill not ta*e a +time slice+ until the event it is %aiting for has occurred. This frees up time for
other programs to e#ecute so that many programs may be run at the same time %ithout
unacceptable speed loss.
1.2 Answer the following comprehension questions:
1. 9o% can the computer memory be vie%edC
2. 5hat does The /hurch0Turing thesis representC
8. 9o% are the lists of instructions calledC
4. 9o% many numbers can a byte representC
. 5hat is the function of 4)36 programC
7. 5hat %as multitas*ing aimed forC
:. 5hich are the boolean truth valuesC
A. 5hat %as originally GcomputerH referred toC
9. 5hat is the function of the control unitC
10. 5hen did one attest the first devices resembling modern computersC
1. !tate "#rue$ or "%alse$
1. Today" simple computers may be made big enough to fit into a %rist%atch.
2. A computer.s memory can be vie%ed as a list of cells into %hich numbers can be placed or
read.
8. A general purpose computer has five main sections1 the arithmetic and logic unit (A;<!" the
control unit" the memory" the input and output devices" and the /(<.
4. $#amples of early mechanical calculating devices included the abacus" the slide rule and
arguably the astrolabe and the Anti*ythera mechanism (%hich dates from about 100-1000
4/!.
. The /(< contains a special set of memory cells called registers that can be read and %ritten
to much more rapidly than the main memory area.
II 'oca(u!ary
2.1 &i'e definitions to the following words.
1. >3' 7./(<
2. >A' :.'emory cell
8. A;< A.?evice
4. 'ultitas*ing 9.6oft%are
. /omputer 10.9ard%are
2.2 (ake)up sentences with the terms from 2.1
2. (atch the words with their definitions
1. 4yte a!memory used %hen the computer is on
2. (rogrammer b!a group of A binary digits
8. ?ata c!digital information
4. >A' d! to do many things at the same time
. 'ultitas*ing e!a person %riting computer programs
4
2.* %ill in the gaps with the most appropriate terms. +se the words from 2.1 and 2.
1. /?s are used to store different types of interesting IIIIIIIII . 2.'odern IIIIIIIIII
represent an efficient means to do calculations and %rite documents. 8. IIIIIIIIII is one of the
indispensable features of computers allo%ing to perform different operations simultaneously by
the computer. 4. IIIII is the base of calculation function of the processor. . IIII stands for
>andom Access 'emory. 7. 3perating systems" applications" programs are e#amples of
IIIIIIIIII. :. The physical part of the computer is called IIIIIIIIII. A. /omputer is an
electronic IIIIIIIII %hich allo%s performing different calculations. $ 9. The IIIIIIIIIII is
a special program counter. 10. IIIIIIIIIII is used to store computerJs start-up instructions.
2., Retain these expressions and try to use them more frequently
)to (e su(*ect to 0 ad2. 1 (foll. by to! conditional upon (sub2ect to your approval!. 2 (foll. by to!
liable or e#posed to (sub2ect to infection!. 8 (often foll. by to! o%ing obedience to a government
etc.
)to fit 0 to match smth.
)since 0 because
)concurrent!y - (often foll. by %ith! e#isting or in operation at the same time or together
)prior to - before
)so t#at 0 in order that=to
2.- %ill in the blank spaces with the correspondent word. .hoose words from 2.,
1. ) had seen 9elen IIIIIIII the events that happened that night. 2. The %or* must be done
IIIIIIIIIIIII in order to arrive at the same time. 8. ) havenJt seen him IIIIIIIIIII he hangs
some%here. 4. These features perfectly IIIIIIII our criteria. . 9elen must do her %or* faster
IIIIIIIIII she finishes earlier. 7. Eiber optic is not IIIIIIIIIII electromagnetic interference.
III +riting
,-1 +rite an essay on t#e fo!!owing topic. /Computers in our 0ai!y Life1
N-2- )$nglish sentence has got a strict %ord-order 6ub2ectDpredicateDob2ect1 e.g. Mary (subject)
goes (predicate) to school (object)
-sometimes %e can encounter comple# nouns such as1 low orbit satellite, new advanced
techniques, my pretty girlfriend" etc.
e.g. /ew ad'anced techniques were developed by the Moldovan scientists.
,-3- Here are some ru!es of 2usiness !etter writing-
The basics of good business letter %riting are easy to learn. The follo%ing guide provides the
phrases that are usually found in any standard business letter. These phrases are used as a *ind of
frame and introduction to the content of business letters.
T#e 4tart
-?ear (ersonnel ?irector"
-?ear 6ir or 'adam1 (use if you don.t *no% %ho you are %riting to!
-?ear ?r" 'r" 'rs" 'iss or 's 6mith1 (use if you *no% %ho you are %riting to" and have a
formal relationship %ith - 'ER5 IMPORT"NT use 's for %omen unless as*ed to use 'rs or
'iss!
-?ear Eran*1 (use if the person is a close business contact or friend!
T#e Reference
-5ith reference to your advertisement in the Times, your letter of 28
rd
'arch"
your phone call today"
-Than* you for your letter of 'arch
th
.
T#e Reason for +riting