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The Indian Dental Academy is the Leader in continuing dental education , training dentists in all aspects of dentistry and offering a wide range of dental certified courses in different formats.
Indian dental academy provides dental crown & Bridge,rotary endodontics,fixed orthodontics,
Dental implants courses. for details pls visit www.indiandentalacademy.com ,or call
0091-9248678078
Originaltitel
Applied Science / orthodontic courses by Indian dental academy
The Indian Dental Academy is the Leader in continuing dental education , training dentists in all aspects of dentistry and offering a wide range of dental certified courses in different formats.
Indian dental academy provides dental crown & Bridge,rotary endodontics,fixed orthodontics,
Dental implants courses. for details pls visit www.indiandentalacademy.com ,or call
0091-9248678078
The Indian Dental Academy is the Leader in continuing dental education , training dentists in all aspects of dentistry and offering a wide range of dental certified courses in different formats.
Indian dental academy provides dental crown & Bridge,rotary endodontics,fixed orthodontics,
Dental implants courses. for details pls visit www.indiandentalacademy.com ,or call
0091-9248678078
The principle goal of dentistry is to maintain or improve the oral
health of the patient. A wide variety of dental materials are involved in the clinical application. Material shold !e careflly selected. Throgh nderstanding and e"perimentation it is possi!le to ma"imi#e any one property$ !t in no application is it possi!le to select a material for one property a!ove. It is precisely in the !alance of one factor against another that the materials are sed sccessflly. %ence it is essential to &now$ the properties of the dental materials$ to !e a!le to nderstand the properties and reactions of the material and predict the otcome. 'TRUCTUR( O) MATT(R AND *RINCI*+(' O) AD%('ION All matter is made p of atoms and these atoms are frther held together !y atomic interactions to form larger particles called molecles. Atom, It Is The 'mallest particle of a chemical element. Molecle, Is a grop of atoms. (g, -hen % . O vapor condenses to form a li/id$ energy in the form of heat is released$ &nown as the heat of vapori#ation. One can conclde that the gaseos state possesses more energy than does the li/id state. Althogh the molecle in the gaseos state e"erts a certain amont of mtal attraction$ they can diffse readily and need to !e confined in order to &eep the gas intact. Althogh the atoms may also diffse in the li/id state$ their mtal attractions are greater$ and energy is re/ired for separation as descri!ed. If the energy of the li/id decreases sfficiently !y virte of a decrease in temperatre$ a second transformation is state may occr and the li/id changes to a solid or free#es. Again energy is released in the form of heat. In this case the energy evolved is &nown as the latent heat of fsion. In as mch energy is re/ired from a change of solid to li/id one can conclde that the attraction !etween the atoms 0or molecles1 in the solid state is greater than li/id or gas. If this were not tre the metal wold deform readily and gasify at low temperatre. Change can also ta&e place from a solid to a gas !y a process &nown as s!limation$ !t this phenomenon is not li&ely to !e of practical importance so far as the dental materials are concerned. INT(RATOMIC 2OND' )orces that hold atoms together are of the cohesive type. These inter atomic !onds may !e classified as *rimary 'econdary a1 Ionic a1 %ydrogen !onding !1 Covalent !1 3an der waals forces C1 Metallic Ionic !onds, Are simple chemical type !onds reslting from mtal attraction of positive and negative charges. Classic eg. Na and Cl. These types of !onds e"ist in certain crystalline phases of some dental materials sch as gypsm and #inc phosphate cement. Covalent !onds, In many chemical componds$ two valence electrons are shared. It occrs mainly in dental resins. % . is an e"ample of this type of !ond. Metallic !onds, One of the chief characteristics of a metal is its a!ility to condct heat and electricity. 'ch energy condction is de to the mo!ility of free electrons present in metals. The oter valence shell can !e removed easily from the metallic atom$ leaving the !alance of the electrons tied to the ncleons$ ths forming a positive ion. The free valence electrons are a!le to move a!ot in the metal space lattice to form what is sometimes descri!ed as an electron 4clod5 or 4gas5. The electrostatic attraction !etween this electron clod and the positive ions in the lattice provides the force that !onds the metal atoms together as a solid. The free electrons act as condctors of !oth thermal energy and electricity. They transfer energy !y moving readily from areas of higher energy to those of lower energy$ nder the inflence of either a thermal gradient or an electrical field. Deforma!ility is associated with slip along crystal planes$ and ths the a!ility to easily regrop and still retain the cohesive natre of the metal as deformation occrs. INT(R ATOMIC '(CONDAR6 2OND' In contrast to primary !onds secondary !onds do not share electrons. Instead$ charge variations among molecles or atomic grops inclde polar forces that attract the molecles. %ydrogen !onding, This !ond can !e nderstood !y stdying a water molecle. The single o"ygen atom is attached to two hydrogen atoms. These !onds are covalent !ecase the o"ygen and hydrogen atoms share electrons. As a reslt the electrons do not shield the protons of the hydrogen atoms pointing away from the o"ygen atoms effectively. Ths the proton side of the water molecle !ecomes positively charged. On the opposite side of the water molecle$ the electrons that fill the oter or!it of the o"ygen provide a negative charge. Ths a permanent dipole e"ists that represents an asymmetric molecle. % . !ond$ associated with the positive charge of hydrogen cased !y polari#ation is an important e"ample of this type of secondary !onding. -hen a % . O molecle intermingles with other water molecles$ the hydrogen 07ve1 portion of one molecle is attracted to the o"ygen portion of its neigh!oring molecle$ and the hydrogen !ridge is formed. 3AN D(R -AA+' )ORC(' It is more physical than chemical !ond. These forces form the !ases of a dipole attraction. (g , in an inert gas$ the electron field is constantly flctating. Normally the electrons of the atoms are distri!ted e/ally rond the ncles and prodce an electrostatic field arond the atom. %owever this field may flctate so that its charge !ecomes momentarily positive and negative. A flctating dipole is ths created that will attract other similar dipoles. 'ch inter8atomic forces are /iet wea&. Inter atomic !ond distance and !onding energy Regardless of the type of matter$ there is a limiting factor that prevents the atoms or molecles from approaching each other too closely$ that is the distances !etween the center of an atom and that of its neigh!or is limited to the diameter of the atoms involved. If the atoms approach too closely$ they are repelled from each other !y their electron charges. On the other hand$ forces of attraction tend to draw the atoms together. The position at which these forces of replsion and attraction !ecome e/al in magnitde is the normal or e/ili!rim position of the atoms. Thermal energy Thermal energy is acconted for !y the &inetic energy of the atoms or molecles at a given temperatre. The atoms in a crystal at temperatres a!ove a!solte #ero temperatre are in a constant state of vi!ration and the average amplitde will !e dependent on the temperatre.%igher the temperatre the greater the amplitde$ and conse/ently$ the greater the &inetic or internal energy. The overall effect represents the phenomenon &nown as thermal e"pansion. If the temperatre contines to increase$the inter8atomic spacing will increase$ and eventally a change of state will occr. The thermal condctivity depends mainly on the nm!er of free electrons in the material. As metallic strctres contain many free electrons and most metals are good condctors of heat as well as electricity$ whereas non8metallic materials do not inclde many free electrons and conse/ently they are generally poor thermal and electrical condctors. CR6'TA++IN( 'TRUCTUR( All dental materials consist of many millions of atoms or molecles. They are arranged in a particlar configration. In 9::; Ro!ert %oo&e simlated the characteristic shapes of crystals !y stac&ing ms&et !alls in piles. The atoms are !onded !y either primary or secondary forces. In solid state they com!ine in the manner that will ensre a minimal internal energy. )or eg. 'odim and chlorine share one electron as descri!ed previosly. In the solid state$ however they do note simply pair together !t rather all of the positively charged sodim ions attract all of the negative chlorine ions$ with the reslt that they form a reglarly spaced configration &nown as space lattice or crystal$ here every atom is spaced e/ally from every other atom. There are 9< possi!le lattice types$ !t many of the metals sed in dentistry !elong to the c!ic system. Non8crystalline strctre eg. =lass and wa"es strctres other than the crystalline form that occrs in the solid state eg. =lass and wa"es. -a"es > solidify as amorphos materials meaning that the molecles are distri!ted at random. Thogh there may !e a tendency for the arrangement to !e reglar. =lass is considered to !e a non8crystalline solid$ yet its atoms tend to form a short > range order lattice instead of the long8range order lattice characteristic of crystalline solids. In other words$ the ordered arrangement of the glass is more or less locali#ed with a considera!le nm!er of disordered nits !etween them. 'ch an arrangement is also typical of li/ids sch solids are sometimes called sper cooled li/ids. Non8crystalline solids do not have a definite melting temperatre !t rather they gradally softer as the temperatre is raised and gradally hardens as they cool. The temperatre$ at which there is an a!rpt decrease in the thermal e"pansion cff$ is called the glass transition temperatre or glass temperatre. 2elow this temperatre glass loses its flid characteristics and has significant resistance to deformation. (g , synthetic dental resins. DI))U'ION Diffsion of molecles in gases and li/ids is not &nown. %owever molecles and atoms diffse in the solid state as well. At any temperatre a!ove a!solte #ero$ the atoms of a solid possess some amont of &inetic energy as previosly discssed. %owever the fact is that all the atoms do not possess the same amont of energy$ these energies vary from very small to /iet large. -ith the average energy related to the a!solte temperatre. (ven at very low temperatres some atoms will have large energies. If the energy of a particlar atom e"ceeds the !onding energy$ it can$ move to another position is the lattice. Atoms change position in pre solids$ even nder e/ili!rim conditions? this is &nown as self8diffsion. Increase in temperatre$ greater the rate of diffsion .The diffsion rate will however vary with the atom si#e$ inter8atomic or intermoleclar !onding$ lattice. AD%('ION AND 2ONDIN= It is a phenomenon involved in many sitations in dentistry. The adhesion process affects lea&age ad@acent to dental restorative material. The retention of artificial dentres is pro!a!ly dependent$ to some e"tent on the adhesion !etween dentre and saliva and !etween saliva and soft tisse. (g. *la/e and calcls to tooth8 adhesion. -hen . s!@ects are !roght together into ltimate contact with each other the molecles of one s!@ect adhere or are attracted of molecle of another. Unli&e molecle > adhesion +i&e molecle > cohesion Material or film that prodces adhesion > adhesive Material to which it is applied > adherend M(C%ANICA+ 2ONDIN= 'crews$ !olts$ nderct. Acid etching > composite. 'UR)AC( (N(R=6 )or adhesion$ the srfaces mst !e attracted to one another at their interface. (nergy at the srface is more than at the centre. At the oter srface the atoms are not e/ally attracted in all directions. Increase in energy per nit area or srface is referred to as the srface energy or srface tension. (g. Molecles in the air may !e attracted to the srface and !ecome adsor!ed on the material srface. 'ilver$ platinm and gold adsor! O . .-ith gold !onding forces are . A !t in case of silver the attraction may !e controlled !y chemical or 9 A !onding and silver o"ide may form. -hen 9 A !onding are involved$ the adhesion is termed chemisorptionBs. =reater the srface energy$ greater the capacity for adhesion. M(C%ANICA+ 2ONDIN= 'imply mechanical !onding or retention rather than moleclar attraction can also accomplish strong attachments of two s!stances. (ven strctral retention may !e somewhat gross$ as !y screws$ !olts and ndercts. It may also involve more s!tle mechanisms as !y penetration of the adhesive into microscopic or s!microscopic irreglarities 0eg. Revices and pores1 in the srface of the s!strate. A flid or semi8viscos li/id adhesive is !est sited for sch a procedre$ since it readily penetrates into these srface discrepancies. Upon hardening the mltitde of adhesive pro@ections em!edded in the adherend srface provides the footholds for mechanical attachment. ACID (TC%IN=, Resin pro@ections provide retention as it flows into the minte pores created !y CDE phosphoric acid. -(TTIN= It is difficlt to force two solid srfaces to adhere. -hen placed in apposition only high spots are in contract. 2ecase these areas sally constitte only a small percentage of the total srface$ no percepti!le adhesion ta&es place. The attraction is generally negli!le when the srface molecles of the attracting s!stances are separated !y distances greater than A.D nm. One method of overcoming this difficlty is to se a flid that flows into these irreglarities and ths provides contact over a greater part of the srfaces of the solid. To prodce adhesion in this manner$ the li/id mst flow easily over the entire srfaces and adheres to the solid. This characteristic is referred to as welting. A!ility of an adhesive to wet the srface is inflenced !y nm!er of factors. Cleanliness (g. O"ide film on metallic srfaces. 'ome s!stances have srface energy hence only a few li/ids wet their srface. Close pac&ing of the strctral organic grops and the presence of halogens may prevent wetting. Metals interact vigorosly with li/id adhesive !ecase of increase srface energy. CONTACT AN=+( O) -(TTIN= The e"tend to which an adhesive wets the srface of an adherand may !e determined !y measring the contact angle !etween the adhesive and adherand. The contact angle is the angle formed !y the adhesive with the adherend at their interface. If the molecles of the adhesive are attracted to the molecles of the adherend as mch as or more than they are to themselves$ the li/id adhesive will spread completely over the srface of the solid$ and no angle 0 F A degrees1 will !e formed. Ths the forces of adhesion are stronger than the cohesive forces holding the molecles of the adhesive together. Tendency of li/id to spread increases with decrease in contact angle. Therefore contact angle is the indication of spreada!ility or wetta!ility. Ths the smaller the contact angle !etween an adhesive and an adherend$ the !etter the a!ility of the adhesive to fill in irreglarities on the srface of the adherend. Also the flidity of the adhesive inflences the e"tent to which these voids or irreglarities are fitted. AD%('ION TO TOOT% 'TRUCTUR( Associated principles of adhesion can !e readily related to dental sitations. )or eg. -hen contact angle measrements are sed to stdy the wetta!ility of enamel and dentin. It is fond that the wetta!ility of these srfaces is mar&edly redced after the topical appreciation of an a/eos floride soltion. Ths floride treated enamel srface retains less pla/e over a given period$ presma!ly !ecase of a decrease in srface energy. Therefore decreases in dental caries. %igher srface energy of many restorative materials compond with that of the tooth$ there is great tendency for the srface and margins of the restoration to accmlate de!ris. Therefore increases marginal caries. Under certain instances$ 91 Recrrent caries .1 *lpal sentivity C1 Deterioration of the margins of restoration can !e associated with a lac& of adhesion !etween restorations. (namel and dentin of tooth have varying amonts of organic and inorganic components. A material that can adhere to the organic components may not adhere to the inorganic components$ and an adhesive that !onds to enamel may not adhere to dentin to the same e"tent. After cavity preparation$ tenacios microscopic de!ris covers the enamel and dentin srfaces. This srface contamination called the smear layer$ redces wetting. =reatest pro!lem asso with !onding to tooth srfaces is water or saliva contamination. Inorganic components of tooth strctre have a strong affinity for water. To remove the water$ the enamel and dentin wold have to !e heated to increase temperatre. M(C%ANICA+ *RO*(RTI(' Most restorative materials mst withstand forces$ dring either fa!rication or mastication mechanical properties are therefore important in nderstanding and predicting a materials !ehavior nder load. 2ecase no single mechanical property can give a tre measre of /ality$ nderstanding the principles involved in a variety of mechanical properties is essential to o!tain the GMa"imm service5. An important factor in the design of a dental prosthesis is strength$ a mechanical property of a material that ensres that the prosthesis serves its intend of firm a effectively safely and for a reasona!le period. )ORC( It is gained thr one !ody pshing or plling on another. )orces applied thr actal contact or at a distance. The reslt of force is 0a1 Change in position of !ody at rest 0!1 Motion of the !ody. If force applied to !ody reslts in no movement of !ody thr deformation reslts )orce is defined !y C characters, a1 *oint of application !1 Magnitde c1 Direction The nit of force is N(-TON 0N1 Occlsal forces > Most important application of physics in dentistry is the stdy of forces applied to teeth and dental restorations. 2iting forces in case of molars > incisors Adlts > <AA8HAAN 0molar1 Child > .C;8<I< with ..N yearly -e can srmise that the forces of occlsal and response of the nderlying tisse change with anatomical location. Therefore a material or design sfficient to withstand the forces of occlsion on the incisor of a child may not !e sfficient for the first molar of an adlt who has a malocclsion or !ridge. 'TR('' -hen an e"ternal force acts pon a solid !ody$ a reaction force reslts within the !ody that is e/al is magnitde !t opposite in direction to the e"ternal force. The e"ternal force will !e called the 4load5 on the !ody. The internal reaction is e/al in intensity and opposite in direction to the applied e"ternal force$ and is called stress. 2oth the applied force and internal resistance 0stress1 are distri!ted over a given area of the !ody and so the stress in a strctre is designated as the force per nit area in this respect stress resem!les for 'tress F )orce Area Unit 4Megapascals5 > M*a )ORC(' ON R('TORATION' (/ally important to the stdy of forces on natral dentition is the measrement of force and stresses on restorations sch as inlays$ fi"ed !ridges remova!le partial dentres and complete dentres.One of the first investigations of occlsal forces showed that the average !iting force on patients who had a fi"ed !ridge replacing a first molar was .;AN on the restored side and CAA N on the opposite side$ where they had natral dentition. )orce measrements on patients with remova!le partial dentres are in the range of :; to .C; N for patients with complete dentres. The average force on the molars and !icspids was a!ot 9AA N whereas the forces on the incisors averaged <A N. The wide range in reslts is possi!ly cased !y age and gender variations in the patient poplations. In general the !iting force applied !y women in IA N less than that applied !y men. These stdies indicate that Chewing forces on the 9 st molars of patients with fi"ed !ridges is a!ot <AE of the force e"erted !y patients with natral dentitions. Decrease in force is o!tained with CD or R*D. In sch patients only 9;E of force is applied. -e can therefore srprise that the forces of occlsion and the response of nderlying tisse changes with anatomic location$ age$ malocclsion and placement of a restorative appliance. Therefore a material or design sfficient to withstand the forces of occlsion on the incisor of a child may not !e sfficient for the first molar of an adlt with a malocclsion or !ridge. Internal resistance to force application is impractical to measre$ the more convenient procedre is to measre e"ternal forces 0)1 applied to the cross sectional area 0A1$ which can !e descri!ed as the stress typically denoted as ' or . The nit of stress therefore is the nit of force 0N1 divided !y a nit of area or length s/ared and is commonly e"pressed as *ascal. 9 *a F 9N Jm . F 9 MN Jmm . 'tress in a strctre varies directly with force and inversely with area$ it is therefore necessary to determine the area over which the force acts. *articlarly tre with dental restorations$ as forces applied over small areas eg. clasps on R*D$ orthodontic wires. 'tress is always stated as thogh the force were e/ivalent to that applied to 9m . section$ !t a dental restoration o!viosly does not have a s/are meter of e"posed occlsal srface area. A small occlsal pit restoration may have no more than <mm . of srface area$ if it were assmed that the restoration were .mm on a side. If a !iting force of <<A N shold !e concentrated on this area$ the stress developed wold !e 9AAM*a$ therefore stresses e/ivalent to several hndreds of M*a occr in many types of restorations. T6*(' O) 'TR('' A force can !e directed to a !ody from any angle or direction and often several forces are com!ined to develop comple" stresses in a strctre. In general individally applied forces may !e a"ial 0tensile or comp1$ shear$ !ending or torsional. All stresses however can !e com!ined into . !asic types a"ial and shear. Tension reslts in a !ody when it is s!@ected to two sets of forces directed away from each other in the same straight line. Compression reslts when the !ody is s!@ected to two sets of forces directed towards from each other in the same straight line. 'hear reslts when two sets of forces are directed parallel to each other. Torsion reslts from the twisting of a !ody. 2ending reslts from an applied !ending moment. T(N'I+( 'TR('' It is cased !y a load that tends to stretch or elongate a !ody. It is always accompanied !y tensile strain. The deformation of a !ridge and the diametral compressive loads of a cylinder represent samples of these comple" stress sitations. COM*R(''I3( 'TR('' If a !ody is placed nder a load that tends to compress or shorten it$ the internal resistance to sch a load is called a compressive stress. A compressive stress is associated with compressive strain. To calclate either tensile stress or compressive stress$ the applied force is divided !y the cross8 sectional area perpendiclar to the force direction. Althogh the shear !ond strength of dental adhesive systems is often advertised$ most dental prosthesis and restorations are not li&ely to fail !ecase of pre shear stresses. '%(AR 'TR('' 'hear stress tends to resist the sliding of one portion of a !ody over another. 'hear stress can also !e prodced !y twisting or torsional action on a material. )or e"ample$ if a force is applied along the srface of a tooth enamel !y a sharp > edged instrment parallel to the interface !etween the enamel and orthodontic !rac&et$ the !rac&et may de!ond !y shear stress failre of the resin lting agent. 'hear stress is calclated !y dividing the force !y the area parallel to the force direction. In the oral environment shear failre is nli&ely to occr for many of the !rittle material !ecase restored tooth srfaces are generally rogh in srface morphology and they are not planar. The presence of chamfers$ !evels$ or changes in crvatre of a !onded tooth srface wold ma&e shear failre of a !onded material highly nli&ely. )rther more to prodce shear failre the applied force mst !e located immediately ad@acent to the interface. )+(KURA+ 'TR('' 02ending1 )le"ral stress is e"hi!ited in a C nit !ridge and a . 8 nit cantilever !ridge. It is prodced !y !ending force in dental appliances in one ways 91 2y s!@ecting a strctre sch as a )*D to three point loading$ where !y the endpoints are fi"ed and a force is applied !etween these endpoints$ .1 2y s!@ecting a cantilevered strctre that is spported at only one end to a load along any part of the nspported section. -hen patient !ites into an apple the anterior teeth receive forces that are at an angle to their long a"es$ there!y creating fle"ral stresses within the teeth. Tensile stress develops on the tisse side of the !ridge and compressive stress develops on the occlsal side. 2etween these two areas is the netral a"is that represents a state of no tensile stress and no compressive stress. )or a canteliver !ridge the ma"imm tensile stress develops on the occlsal srface or the srface that is !ecoming more conve". 'TRAIN In the discssion of force$ it was pointed ot that a !ody ndergoes deformation when a force is applied to it. It is important to recogni#e that each types of stress is capa!le of prodcing a corresponding deformation in a !ody. The deformation reslting from a tensile or plling force is an elongation of a !ody in the direction of applied force$ where as a compressive or pshing force cases compression or shortening of the !ody in the direction of loading. 'train ( is descri!ed as the change in length per nit length of the !ody when it is s!@ected to a stress. 'train has no nit of measrement !t is represented a pre nm!er o!tained from the fll e/ation. 'train ( Deformation F + > + A F + Original length + A + A
Regardless of the composition or natre of the material and type of stress applied to the material$ deformation and strain reslt with each stress application. 'ignificance, A Restoration material sch as a clasp or an orthodontic wire which can with stand a large amont of strain !efore failre can !e !ent and ad@sted with less chance of fractring. 'TR('' 'TRAIN CUR3(' Consider a !ar of material s!@ected to an applied force ). -e can measre the magnitde of the force and the reslting deformation. If we ne"t ta&e another !ar of the same material$ !t diff dimensions the force > deformation characteristic change. %owever if we normali#e the applied force !y the cross sectional area A 0stress1 of the !ar and nerali#e the deformation !y the original length 0strain1 of the !ar$ the resltant stress > strain crve now !ecomes independent of the geometry of the !ar. It is therefore preferential to report the stress > strain deformation characteristics. The stress > strain relationship of a dental material is stdied !y measring the load and deformation and then calclating the corresponding stress and strain. An s8s crve for a hypothetical material that was s!@ected to increase tensile stress ntil is show. The stress is plotted vertically and the strain is plotted hori#ontally. As the stress is increase the strain is increases. In fact in the ventral portion of the crve from A to A$ the strain is linearly proportional to the stress and as the stress is do!led$ the amont of strain is also do!led when a stress that is higher than the vale registered at A is achieved$ the strain changes are no longer linearly proportional to the stress changes. %ence the vale of the stress at A &nown as proportional limit. PROPORTIONAL AND ELASTIC LIMITS The proportional limit is defined as the greatest stress that a material will sstain withot a deviation from the proportionality of stress to strain. 2elow the proportional limit$ no permanent deformation occrs in a strctre when stress removed it retrn to its original dimensions. -ithin this range of stress application$ the material is elastic in natre$ and if the material is stressed to a vale !elow the proportional limit$ an elastic or reversi!le strain will occr. The region of the stress strain crve !elow the proportional limit is called the elastic region. The application of a stress greater than the proportional limit reslts in a permanent or irreversi!le strain in the sample$ and the region of the stress > strain crve !eyond the proportional limit is called the plastic region. The elastic limit is defined as the ma"imm stress that a material will withstand withot permanent deformation. )or all practical prposes$ therefore$ the proportional limit and elastic limit represent the same stress with in the strctre$ and the terms are often sed interchangea!ly in referring to the stress involved. The concepts of elastic and plastic !ehavior can !e reali#ed with a schematic model of the deformation of atoms in a solid nder stress. The atoms are shown in 0)ig A1 with no stress applied$ and in 0)ig 21 with an applied stress that is !elow the vale of the proportional limit. -hen the stress shown in 2 is removed$ the atoms retrn to their positions shown in A. -hen a stress is applied that is greater than the proportional limit$ the atoms move to a position as shown in 0)ig C1 and after removal of the stress$ the atoms remain in this new position. The application of a stress greater than the proportional or elastic limit reslts in an irreversi!le or permanent strain in the sample. YIELD STRENGTH / YIELD STRESS It is the property that is sed to descri!e the stress at which the material !egins to fnction in a plastic manner. At this stress$ a limited permanent strain has occrred in the material. The yield it is defined as the stress at which a material e"hi!its a specified limiting deviation from proportionality of stress to strains. -hen a strctre is permanently deformed$ even to a small degree$ it does not retrn completely to its original dimensions when the stress is removed. Therefore prop limit$ elastic limit$ yield it of a maternal are among its most important properties. Any dental strctre that is permanently deformed throgh the forces of mastication is sally a fnctional failre to some degree. )or eg. !ridge that is permanently deformed thorogh the application of e"cessive !iting forces wold !e shifted ot of the proper occlsal relation for which it was originally designed. The prosthesis !ecomes permanently deformed !ecase a stress e/al to or greater than the yield strength was developed. Recall also that malocclsion changes the stresses placed on a restoration$ a deformed prosthesis many therefore !y s!@ected to greater stresses than originally intended. Usally a L does met occr nder sch conditions !t rather only a permanent deformation reslts$ which represents a destrctive eg of deformation. A constrctive eg of permanent deformation and stresses in e"cess of the elastic limit is o!served when an appliance or dental strctre is adapted or ad@sted for prposes of design for eg in the process of shaping an ortho appliance or R*D clamp it may !e necessary to endre stress into the strctre in e"cess of the yield at if the material is to !e permanently !ent or adapted. ULTIMATE STRENGTH The test specimen is s!@ected to its greatest stress at point C. the ltimate tensile strength or stress is defined as the ma"imm strength or stress a material can withstand !efore failre in tension. The ltimate strength of an alloy is sed in dentistry to give an indication of the si#e or cross section re/ired for a given restoration. Note Fracture Strength Point D 'tress at which a material fractre Note that a mat does not necessarily fractre at the point at which the ma"imm stress occrs. After a ma" stress is applied some materials !egin to elongate e"cessively and the stress calclated from the force and the original cross sectional area may drop !efore final fractre occrs. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES ASED ON ELASTIC DEFORMATION There are several important mechanical properties and parameters that are measres of the elastic or reversi!le deformation !ehavior of dental materials. 3i# (lastic modls J yongBs modls Dynamic yongBs modls )le"i!ility Resilience *oissonBs ratio ELASTIC MODULUS The term descri!es the relative stiffness or rigidity of a material. %ere is a fig of a stress > strain graph for a stainless steel were that has !een s!@ected to a tensile test ltimate tensile strength$ yield$ prop limit elastic modls are shown. This fig represents a plot of tre stress verss strain !ecase the force ahs !een divides !y the changing cross sectional area as the wire !eing stretched. The straight line region represents reversi!le elastic deformation$ !ecase the stress remains !elow the prop limit of 9A.Ampa and the crved region represents irreversi!le plastic deformation that is not recovered when the wire fractres at a stress of 9:.; mpa. %owever the elastic deformation is flly recovered when the force is removed or when the wire fractres. -e can see this easily while !ending a wire in or hands a slight amont and then redcing the force. It straightens !ac& to its original shape as the force is decreases to #ero and assming that the indced stress has not e"ceeded the proportional limit. This principle can !e illstrated !y demonstrating a !rnishing procedre for an open metal margin$ where a dental a!rasive stone is shown rotating against the metal margin to close the marginal gap as a reslt of elastic pls plastic strain. %owever after the force is removed the margins springs !ac& an amont e/al to the total elastic strain. Only !y removing the screws from a tooth or die can total closre !e accomplished. 2ecase we mst provide at least .;m of clearance for the cement$ total !rnishing on the tooth or die is sally ade/ate since the amont of elastic strain recovery is relatively small. The term sed to designate it 4(5 elastic modls of a material is a constant and is naffected !y the amont of elastic or plastic stress that can !e indced in a material. )orce per nit area J giganewtons per s/are meter. =NJm . or giga pascals 0=*A1 D!na"ic Young#$ Mo%u&u$ ' (lastic modls can !e measred !y a dynamic method as well as the static techni/es that were descri!ed in the previos section since the velocity at which sond travels throgh a solid can !e readily measred !y ltrasonic longitdinal and transverse wave transdcers and appropriate receivers. 2ased on this velocity and the density of the material$ the elastic modls and poissonBs ratio can !e determined. This method of determining dynamic elastic modli is less complicated than conventional tensile or compressive tests$ !t the vales are often fond to !e higher than the vales o!tained !y static measrements. )or most prposes$ these vales are accepta!le. If$ instead of nia"ial tensile or compressive stress$ a shear stress was indced$ the reslting shear strain cold !e sed to define a shear modls for the material. The shear modls 0=1 can !e calclated from the elastic modls 0(1 and *oissonBs ratio 0v1. It is determined !y the e/ation$
DUCTILITY AND MALLEAILITY Two very significant properties of metals and alloys. These properties cannot always !e determined with certainly from a stress > strain crve. Dctility is the a!ility of a material to !e plastically deformed$ and it is indicated !y the plastic strain. A high degree of compression or elongation indicated a good mallea!ility and dctility. Dctility,8 if a material represents its a!ility to !e drawn into wire nder a force of tension. The material is s!@ected to a permanent deformation. -hile !eing s!@ected to these tensile force. The mallea!ility of a s!stance represents its a!ility to !e hammered or rolled into thin sheets withot fractring. Dctility is a property that has !een related to the wor& a!ility of a material in the moth. Dctility has also !een related to !rnisha!ility of the margins of a casting. Metals tend !e dctile$ whereas ceramics tend to !e !rittle Ducti&it! Ma&&ea(i&it! = F ( ( .097v1 .097A.C1 F F A.CH ( =old =old 'ilver 'ilver *latinm Alminim Iron Copper Nic&el Tin Copper *latinm Al +ead Minc Minc Tin Iron +ead Nic&el
RESILIENCE Resilience of a material to permanent deformation. It indicates the amont of energy necessary to deform the material to the proportional limit. This term is associated with springiness. The material with the larger elastic area has the higher resilience. -hen a dental restoration is deformed dring mastication$ the chewing force acts on the tooth strctre$ the restoration$ or !oth and the magnitde of the strctreBs deformation is determined !y the indced stress. In most dental restorations$ large strains are preclded !ecase of the proprioceptive response of neral receptors in the periodontim. The pain stimls cases the force to !e decreases and indced stress to !e redced$ there!y preventing damage to the teeth or restorations. (g in an inlay 0pro"imal1 e"cessive movement of the ad@acent tooth is seen if large pro"imal strains develop dring compressive loading on the occlsal srface. %ence the restorative material shold e"hi!it a moderately high elastic modls and low resilience$ there!y limiting the elastic strain that is prodced. MnJm C Mega newtons J c!ic meter Resilience has particlar importance in the evalation of orthodontic wires !ecase the amont of wor& e"pected from a particlar spring is having a tooth is of interest. There is also interest in the amont of stress and strain at the proportional limit !ecase these factors determine the magnitde of the force that can !e applied to the tooth and how for the tooth will have to move !efore the spring is no longer effective. POISSON#S RATIO Dring a"ial loading in tension or compression there is a simltaneos a"ial and lateral strain. Under tensile loading$ as a material elongates in the direction of load$ there is a redction in cross section. Under compressive loading$ there is an increase in the cross section. -ithin the elastic range$ the ratio of the lateral to the a"ial strain is called *oissonBs ration. In tensile loading$ the *oissonBs ratio indicates that the redction in the cross section is proportional to the elongation dring the elastic deformation. The redction in cross section contines which the material is fractred. 3ales of *oissonBs Ratio of some restorative dental materials Mat Ratio Amalgam A.C; Mn phosphate A.C; (namel A.CA Resin composite A..< 2rittle s!s sch as hard gold alloys and dental amalgam show little permanent redction is cross section dring a tensile test$ whereas dctile materials sch as soft gold alloys$ which are high in gold contents show a high degree of redction in cross section area. TOUGHNESS It is defined as the amont of elastic and plastic deformation energy re/ired to fractre a material and it is a measre of the resistance to fractre. It can !e measred as the total area nder the stress8strain crve from #ero stress to the fractre stress. Toghness depends on strength and dctility. The higher the strength and the higher the dctility$ the greater the toghness. Ths it can !e conclded that a togh material is generally strong$ althogh a strong material is not necessary togh. Units MNJm C or Mpa Jm Therefore toghness is the energy re/ired to stress that material to the point of fractre. FRACTURE TOUGHNESS Mechanical property that descri!es the resistance of !rittle materials to the catastrophic propagation of flows nder an applied stress. )ractre mechanics characteri#es the !ehavior of materials with crac&s or flows$ which may arise natrally in a material or ncleate after a time in service. In either case$ any defect generally wea&ens a material and sdden fractres can arise at stresses !elow the yield stress. 'dden catastrophic fractres typically occr in !rittle materials that point. )ractre toghess of selected dental mats. Material Mpa m N Amalgam 9.C Ceramic 9.; > ..9 Resin composite A.H > ... *orcelain ..: (namel A.: > 9.H Dentin C.9 -e have the a!ility to plastically deform and redistri!te stresses. . simple e"amples illstrate the significance of defects on the fractre of materials. If one ta&es a piece of paper and tries to tear it$ grater effort is needed than if a tiny ct is made in the paper. 'imilarly$ it ta&es a considera!le force to !rea& a glass !ar$ however$ if a small notch is placed on the srface of the glass !ar less force is needed to case fractre. If the same e"periment is performed on a dctile material$ we find that a small srface notch has no effect on the force re/ired to !rea& the !ar$ and the dctile !ar can !e !ent withot fractring for a !rittle material$ sch as glass$ no local plastic deformation is associated with fractre whereas for a dctile material$ plastic deformation sch as the a!ility to !end$ occrs withot fractre. The a!ility to !e plastically deformed withot fractre or the amont of energy re/ired for fractre is the fractre toghness. Therefore larger flow lower stress needed to case fractre. This is !ecase the stresses which wold normally !e spported !y material are not concentrated at the edge of flaw. *resence of fillers in polymers s!stantially increases fractre toghness. ;A wtE #inconia to porcelain increases fractre toghness. HARDNESS May !e !roadly defined as the resistance to permanent srface indentation or penetration. Measre as a force per nit area of indentation and in mineralogy$ the relative hardness of a s!stance is !ased on its a!ility to resist scratching. In metallrgy and in most other disciplines$ the concept of hardness that is most generally accepted is the 4resistance to indentation5. It is on this precept that most modern hardness tests are designed. It is apparent that hardness is important. It is indicative of the case of finishing of a strctre and its resistance to in8service scratching. )inishing or polishing a strctre is important for esthetic prposes and as discsses previosly scratches can compromise fatige strength and lead to permanent failre. 'ome of the most common methods of testing the hardness of restorative are the 2rinell Onoop Micro hardness test 3ic&ers Roc&well 'hare A RINELL HARDNESS TEST It is among the oldest methods sed to test metals and alloys sed in dentistry. The method depends on the resistance toe the penetration of a small still or tngsten car!ide !all typically 9.: nm in diameter$ when s!@ected to a weight of 9.CM. in testing the 2rinell hardness of a material the penetration remains in contact with the sample sed for a fi"ed time of CA seconds. After which it is removed and the indentation diameter is careflly measred. Used to determined hardness of metals and metallic materials in dentistry. It is related to proportional limit and ltimte strength of dental gold and alloys. 2%N F
+ is the load in &g. D is the diameter of the !all in millimeters d is the diameter of the !all in indentation millimeter 'maller the area of the indentation$ the harder the material and the larger the 2%N vale. Advantage > Test is good for determining average hardness vales. Disadvantage > poor for determining very locali#ed vales. 0*N1 not sita!le for !rittle materials or dental elastic that e"hi!it elastic recovery. + DJ. 0D8 D . > d .
)NOOP HARDNESS TEST This test was developed to flfill the needs o a microindentation test method. A load is applied to a careflly prepared diamond indenting tool with a pyramid shape$ and the lengths of the diagonals of the reslting indentation in the material are measred. The shape of the indenter and the reslting indentation are measred. )HN * L/I + C , + > load applied l F length of the long diagonal of the indentation. Cp F constant relating l to the pro@ected area of the indentations. Units &gJmm . Advantage , materials can !e tested with a great range of hardness simply !y varying the test load. Disadvantage , high !y polished and flat test samples time consming. -IC)ER#S HARDNESS TEST The 9C: degree diamond pyramid$ or 3ic&erBs hardness test$ is also sita!le for testing the srface hardness of materials. It has !een sed to a limited degree as a means of testing the hardness of restorative dental materials. The method is similar in principle to the Onoop and 2rinell tests e"cept that a 9C: degree diamond pyramid > shaped indenter is forced into the material with a definite load applications. The indenter prodces a s/are indentation$ the diagonals of which are measred as shown in pic previosly. Usefl for !rittle stff therefore measre hardness of tooth. ROC).ELL HARDNESS TEST -as developed as a rapid method for hardness determinations. A !all or metal cone indenter is normally sed and the depth of the indentation is measred with a sensitive deal micrometer. The indenter !alls or cones are of several diff diameters$ as well diff load applications 0:A89;A1 with each com!ination descri!ed as a special Roc&well scale. 4no sita!le for !rittle materials5 how hardness read directly. =ood for testing viscoelasticity of materials. Disadvantage > preload needed increases time Indentations may disappear immediate when the load is removed. RITTLENESS Is generally considered to !e the opposite of toghness. )or eg. glass is !rittle at room temp$ it will not !end apprecia!ly withot !rea&ing. In other words$ a !rittle material is apt to fractre at or near its proportional limit. %owever a !rittle material is not necessarily lac&ing in strength. )or eg. shear strenght of glass is low$ !t its tensile strength is very high. 4it is the relative ina!ility of a material to sstain plastic deformation !efore fractre of a material occrs. (g. amalgams$ ceramics and composite are !rittle at oral temps 0;8 ;; A C1 they sstain little or no plastic strain !efore they fractre. Therefore a !rittle material fractres at or near its proportional limit. Therefore amalgam nonresin lting agents will have little or no !rnisha!ility !ecase they have no plastic deformation potential. ARASION/ FRICTION AND .EAR )riction is the resistance to motion of one material !ody over another. If an attempt is made to move one !ody over the srface of another a restraining force to resist motion is prodced. This restraining force is the 0static1 frictional force and reslt from the molecles of the two o!@ects !onding where their srfaces are in close contact. )rictional force$ )s is proportional to the normal force 0)1 !etween the srfaces and the 0static coefficient of friction 0s1. 'imilar materials have a greater coefficient of friction and if a l!ricating medim e"ists at the interface$ the coefficient of friction is redced. )rictional !ehavior therefore arises from srfaces that$ !ecase of microroghness$ have a small real contact area. An e"ample of the importance of friction Pdental implant > srface roghed to redce motion !etween implant and ad@acent tisse. It is percieved that a rogh srface and resltant less motion will provide !etter osseointegration. .ear Is a loss of material reslting from removal and relocation of materials throgh the contact of two or more materials. -hen . solid materials are in contact$ they only toch at the tips of their highest asperities. -ear is sally ndesira!le !t dring finishing and polishing wear is !eneficial. < types of wear Adhesive Corosive 'rface fatige A!rasive A!rasive wear involves soft srface in contact with a harden srface. In this type of wear$ particles are plled off of one srface and adhere to the other dring sliding. Corrosive 8 . A to physical removal of a layer therefore related to chemical activity. Metals > adhesive wear *olymers > a!rasive and fatige over. FLE0IILITY In case of dental appliances ad restorations a high vale for the elastic limit is a necessary re/irement of the materials from which they are fa!ricated$ !ecase the strctre is e"pected to retrn to its original shape often it has !een stressed. Usally a moderately high modls of elasticity is also desira!ly !ecase only a small deformation will develop nder a considera!le stress$ sch as in the case of an inlay. There are instances in which a larger strain or deformation may !e needed with a moderate or slight stress. )or e"ample$ in an orthodontic appliance$ a spring is after !ent a considera!le distance nder the inflence of a small stress. In sch a case$ the strctre is said to !e fle"i!le and it possesses the property of fle"i!ility. Ma"imm fle"i!ility is defined as the strain that occrs when the material is stressed to its proportional limit. -ISCOELASTICITY In the previos discssions of the relationship !etween stress and strain$ the effect of load application rate was not considered. In many metals and !rittle materials$ the effect is rather small. %owever the rate of loading is important in many materials$ particlarly polymers and soft tisses. The mechanical properties of many dental materials$ sch as agar$ alginate$ elastomeric$ impression materials and wa"es$ amalgam and plastics$ dentin$ oral mcosa and pdl are dependent on how fast they are stressed$ for these materials increasing the loading 0strain1 rate prodces a different stress 8>strain crve with higher rates giving higher vales for the elastic modls$ proportional limit and ltimate strength. Materials that have mechanical properties dependent on loading rate termed elastic. Materials that have mechanical properties dependent on loading rate are termed viscoealstic. In other words these materials have characteristics of an elastic solid or a viscos flid. FLUID EHA-IOR AND -ISCOCITY In addition to the many solid dental materials that e"hi!it some flid characteristics$ many dental materials$ sch as cements and impression materials$ are in the flid state when formed. Therefore 0viscos1 flid phenomena are important. 3iscosity 0n1 is the resistance of a flid to flow and is e/al to the shear stress divided !y the shear strain rate. -hen a cement or impression material sets$ the viscosity increases$ ma&ing it less viscos and more solid li&e The nit of viscosity are *OI'( Or centipoise 4cp5 The !ehavior of elastic solids and viscos flids can !e nderstood from simple mechanical models. An elastic solid can !e viewed as a spring when the spring is stretched !y a force 4)5 it displaced a distance c. the applied force and resltant displacement are proportional and the constant of proportionality is the spring constant R . Therefore F * R 1 0 Note that the model of an elastic element does not involve time. The spring acts instantaneosly when stretched therefore an elastic solid is nondependent of loading rate. Althogh the viscosity of flid is proportional to the shear rate$ the proportionality differs for different flids. )lids may !e classified as Newtonian *sedoplastic Dilatant depending on how their viscosity varies with shear shear rate certain dental cements and impression materials are Newtonian. The viscosity of a N li/id is constant an independent of shear rate. The viscosity of a psedoplastic li/id decreases with increasing shear rate. 'everal endodontic cements are psedoplastic$ as are monophase r!!er impression materials. -hen s!@ected to low shear rate dring spatlation or while an impression is made in a tray$ these impression materials have a high viscosity and possess !ody in the tray. These materials$ however can also !e sed in a syringe$ !ecase at the higher shear rates encontered as they pass throgh the syringe tip$ the viscosity decreases as mch as tenfold the viscosity of a dilatant li/id increases with increasing shear rate. (g of dilatant li/ flid > dentre !ase resins. Two additional factors that inflence the viscosity of a material are time and temp. The viscosity of a non setting li/id is typically independent of time and decreases with increasing temperatre. Most dental materials$ however$ !egin to set after the components have !een mi"ed and their viscosity increases with time$ as evidenced !y most dental cements and impression materials. A nota!le e"ception is MnO that re/ires .E of moistre to sit on the mi"ing pad then materials maintain a constant viscosity that is descri!ed clinically as a ling wor&ing time once placed in the moth however the MnO materials show rapid increases in viscosity !ecase e"posre to heat and hmidity accelerate the setting reaction. In general for a material that sets$ viscosity increases with increasing temperatre. %owever the effect of heat on the viscosity of a material that sets depend on the natre of the setting reaction. )or eg. Mn phosphicm$ Mn polycar! The setting reaction of A is highly e"othermic$ and miningat redced temp reslts in a lower viscosity than when mi"ed at high time. The setting reaction of 2 is less affected !y temp. addi wor&ing time is achieved !y a"is a cool or fro#en mi"ing sla!. RELA0ATION After a s!stance has !een permanently deformed$ there are trapped internal stresses. )or eg in a crystalline s!stance the atoms in the space lattice are displaced and the system is not in e/ili!rim. It is nderstanda!le that sch a sitation is not very sta!le. The displaced atoms may !e said to !e ncomforta!le and wish to retrn to normal reglar positions given time !y diffsion they will move !ac&. The reslt is a change in the shape or contain of the solid as a gross manifestation of the rearrangement is atomer or moleclar positions. The material is said to warp or distort. 'ch a relief of stress is &nown as rela"ation. Rate of rela"ation will increase with an increase in temperatre. )or e"ample if a wire is !ent$ it may tend to straighter ot if it is heated to a high temp. At room temp any sch rela"ation or diffsion may !e negligi!le. On the other hand$ there are many noncrystalline dental materials eg wa"es$ resins$ gels that can rela" dring storage at room temp after !eing !ent or molded. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES Intro%uction ' *hysical properties are !ased on the laws of mechanics$ acontics$ optics$ thermodynamics$ electricity$ magnetism radiation$ atomic strctre$ or nclear phenomenon. %e$ Chroma and 3ale and translcency are physical properties that are !ased on the laws of optics$ which is the science that deals with phenomena of light$ vision$ and light. Thermal condctivity and coefficient of thermal e"pansion are physical properties !ased on the laws of thermodynamics. ARASION AND ARASION RESISTANCE %ardness has often !een sed as in inde" of the a!ility of a material to resist a!rasion and wear. The a!ility of enamel !y ceramic and other restorative material is well &nown. Along with hardness of material other factors affecting enamel wear are !iting force$ fre/ency of chewing$ a!rasiveness of the diet$ composition of li/ids$ temperatre changes$ physical properties of the material and srface irreglarities of the material. Althogh dentists cannot control the !iting force$ they can polish the a!rading ceramic srface to redce the rate of destrctive enamel wear. -ISIOSITY ' The resistance of li/id to motion is called viscosity and it is controlled !y internal frictional forces within the li/id. 3iscosity is the measre of the consistency of a flid and its ina!ility to flow. An Gideal flidB has shear stress that is proportional to strain rate and the plot is a straight line in the graph . 'ch !ehaviors is called Newtonian. A Newtonian flid has a constant viscosity and straight li&e resem!les elastic portion of a stress8strain crve. 3iscosity is measred in nits of M*aJsec. Or *OI'(. %igher the vale$ the more viscos is the material. (g. *re water at .A A C > viscosity F 9.A centipoise. 0c*1 Agar hydrocolloid impression > viscosity F .H9$ 9AA c* Material at <; A C +ight !ody polyslfide > viscosity F 9AI$AAA c* At CA A C %eavy !ody polyslfide > viscosity F 9$C:A$AAA c* At C: A C P$eu%o,&a$tic ' )or many dental material viscosity decreases with increasing shear rate ntil it reaches a constant vale. (.g. *olysilicon psedoplastic material$ cements li&e #inc phosphate$ #inc o"ide (genol. Di&atant ' These li/ids !ecome more rigid as the rate of deformation increases. (.g. cold cre resin dogh. P&a$tic ' 'ome classes of material !ehave li&e a rigid !ody ntil some minimm vale of shear stress is reached. (.g. catsp. 0a sharp !low to the !ottle is re/ired to prodce initial flow1 8 3iscosity of most li/ids decrease rapidly with increasing temperatre. 8 A li/id that !ecomes less viscos and more flid nder pressre is referred to as thi"otropic. (.g. Dental prophyla"is paste$ plaster$ resin cements$ agar. CREEP AND FLO. 8 Creep is defined as the time dependent plastic strain 0deformation1of a material nder static load or constant stress. 8 Metal creep sally occrs as the temperatre approaches within a few hndred degrees of the melting range. Metals sed in dentistry for cast restorations or s!strates for porcelain veneers have melting points mch higher than moth temperatre and ths are not sscepti!le to creep deformation e"cept when they are heated to very high temperatre. 8 The most important e"ception is dental amalgam$ which has components with melting points slightly a!ove room temperatre. 2ecase of low melting range$ dental amalgam can slowly creep from a restored tooth nder stress as prodced !y patients who clench their teeth. 8 According to American Dental Association specification creep mst !e QHE. )ollowing are the appro"imate vale for varios types of alloys , 91 +ow copper lathe ct > .E .1 +ow copper spherical > 9E C1 %igh copper admi" > A.;E <1 %igh copper single composition > A.A; > A.9E FLO. ' Is the time dependent deforming property of amorphos material sch as wa"es to deform nder a small static load or even load associated with its own mass. 'tatic creep , Is the time dependent deformation prodced in a completely set solid s!@ected to a constant load. Dynamic creep , Refers to this phenomenon when the applied stress is flctating sch as fatige type test. COLOUR Another important goal of dentistry is to restore the color and appearance of natral dentition. Aesthetic considerations in restorative and prosthetic dentistry have assmed a high priority within past several decades. )or e.g. the search for an ideal general prpose$ direct filling Gtooth coloredB restorative material is one of the challenges of present dental material research. +ight is electromagnetic radiation that can !e detected !y the hman eye. The eye is sensitive to wavelengths from appro"imate <AAmnm 0violet1 to DAAnm 0dar&8red1 0fig1 The reflected light intensity and the com!ined intensities of the wavelength present in a !eam of light determines the appearance properties 0he$ vale and chroma1. )or an o!@ect to the visi!le$ it mst reflect or transmit light incident on it from an e"ternal sorce. The latter is the case for o!@ects that are of dental interest. The incident light is polychromatic$ i.e. mi"tre of varios wavelength. The eye is most sensitive to light in the green8yellow region 0wavelength ;;A nm1 and least sensitive at either e"treme i.e. red or !le. Three dimensions of color , 3er!al description of color are not precise enogh to descri!e the appearance of teeth or restoration srface. To accrately descri!e or perception of a !eam of light reflected from a tooth or restoration srface$ three varia!les mst !e measred. Rantitatively$ the color and appearance mst !e descri!ed in three dimensional color space !y measrement of he$ vale and chroma. Hue ' Descri!es the dominant color of an o!@ect. (.g. red$ green or !le. This refers to the dominant wavelength present in the spectral distri!tion. -a&ue ' Is the lightness or dar&ness of a color$ which can !e measred independently of the he. Teeth or other o!@ect can !e separated into lighter shades 0higher vale1 and dar&er shades 0lower vale1. Chro"a ' Represents the degree of satration of a particlar !one. The higher the chroma$ more intense is the color. Chroma is always associated with he and vale. In dental operatory$ color matching is sally done !y the se of shade gide to select the color of ceramic veneers$ inlays or crowns. 0fig1 One of the common method to define and measre color /antitatively is Mllr system. This system is viewed as cylinder. %es are arranged se/entially arond the perimeter of the cylinder Chroma. Increases along a radis ot from the a"is. 3ale varies along the length of the cylinder from !lac& at !ottom$ to netral gray at the centre$ to white at the top. 2ecase$ spectral distri!tion of light reflected from or transmitted throgh an o!@ect is dependent on the spectral content of the incident light$ the appearance of an o!@ect is /ite dependent on the natre of the light !y which o!@ect is viewed. Daylight$ incandescent and florescent lamps and common sorces of light in dental operatory and they have different spectral distri!tions. O!@ects that appear to !e color matched nder one type of light may appear different nder another light sorce. This phenomenon is called M(TAM(RI'M. If possi!le$ color matching shold !e done nder two or more different lights and one !eing daylight. 'ometimes$ natral tooth a!sor!s light at wavelengths too short to !e visi!le to hman eyes ie. !etween CAA ><AA nm called as near > ltraviolet radiation. The energy a!sor!ed is converted into light with longer wavelengths and tooth actally !ecomes a light sorce. This phenomenon is called )+UOR('C(NC(. The emitted light$ !le > white color$ is primarily in the <AA ><;A nm range. )lorescence ma&es a definite contri!tion to the !rightness and vital appearance of hman tooth. A person with ceramic crowns are composite restorations that lac&s florescing agent appears to !e missing teeth when$ viewed nder a !lac& light in a night cl!. THERMOPHYSICAL PROPERTIES Ther"a& Con%ucti2it! ' %eat transfer throgh solids most commonly occrs !y means of condction. It is the thermophysical measre of how well heat is transferred throgh a material !y the condctive flow. Thermal condctivity or co efficient of thermal condctivity is the /antity of heat in calories per second that passes throgh a specimen 9 cm thic& having a cross > sectional area of 9 cm . when temperatre differential !etween the srface perpendiclar to the heat flow of specimen is 9 A C. According to II nd law of thermodynamics$ heat flows from points of higher temperatre to points of lower. Material having high thermal condctivity are called condctors. -hereas of low thermal condctivity are called inslators 0higher the vale$ greater is the a!ility to transmit thermal energy1. Unit > -JmJ A & e.g 8 'ilver 8 CH; -JmJ A & 8 Copper > CDA -JmJ A & Ther"a& %i33u$i2it! ' It is the measre of the rate at which a !ody with a non > niform temperatre reaches state of thermal e/ili!rim. Althogh thermal condctivity of MnO( is slightly less than dentin$ its diffsivity is more than twice of dentin. Mathematically$ thermal diffsivity 0h1 is related to thermal condctivity 0&1 as , H * 4 c , , -here c p F temperatre dependent specific heat capacity. * F temperatre dependent density. e.g. 8 'ilver 9.:< cm . Jsec. 8 Copper 9.9< cm . Jsec. +inear coefficient of thermal e"pansion , Defined as change in length per nit original length of a material. -hen its temperatre is raised 9 A C. e.g 8 *olymethyl metha > acrylate H9 " 9A 8: J A c 8 Dentin H.C " 9A 8: J A c 8 (namel 99.< " 9A 8: J A c CONCLUSION G+ittle &nowledge is dangerosB as rightly said$ ths a thorogh nderstanding of properties of dental materials ena!les a professional to ensre the evental sccess of the treatment. It is a mst for every dentist that they shold posses sfficient &nowledge of properties so that they can e"ercise the !est @dgement possi!le in selection of an appropriate material right from the impression procedres to the fa!rication of the prosthesis.The efficacy of the end prodct depends on the type of material sed and in trn its proper handling. REFERENCES 9. 'cience of Dental Materials , !y Ansavice 0'&inners1$ 99 th (dn. .. Restorative Dental Materials , !y Ro!ert =. Craig$ I th (dn. C. (lements of Dental Materials , !y Ralph -. *hillips$ < th (dn. <. Notes on Dental Materials , !y (.C. Com!e$ ; th (dn. ;. Applied Dental materials , !y Sohn ). McCa!e$ D th (dn. CONTENTS Introdction 'trctre of matter Inter8atomic !onds Diffsion Mechanical property *hysical property Thermo8physical *roperties Conclsion References '(MINAR ON A**+I(D8'CI(NC( 02A'IC *RINCI*A+'1 *R('(NT(D 26 DR. SA6A*RAOA'%.ITTI=I D(*ARTM(NT O) *RO'T%ODONTIC'