Solidification & microstructure of metals

CONTENTS:
Page 1
1. Introduction
2. Metals
3. History of Metals
4. Proerties of Metals
!. Classification of Metals
". Inter #to$ic %onds
&. Microscoic Structure of Metals
'. Sace (attices
). (attice I$erfection
1*. Heat Treat$ent
11. Stren+t,enin+ of Metals
12. -eferences
Solidification & microstructure of metals
INTRODUCTION:
Metals and alloys lay an i$ortant role in dentistry. T,ese for$ one of t,e
four ossi.le +rous of $aterials used in dentistry /,ic, include cera$ics0
co$osites and oly$ers. T,ese are used in al$ost all t,e asects of dentistry
includin+ t,e dental la.oratory0 direct and indirect dental restorations and
instru$ents used to reare and $aniulate teet,. #lt,ou+, t,e latest trend is
to/ards t,e 1$etal free2 dentistry0 t,e $etals re$ain t,e only clinically ro3en
$aterial for lon+ ter$ dental alications..
METALS:
C,e$ical ele$ents in +eneral can .e classified as 1. Metals
2. Non4$etals
3. Metalloids
Metalloids are t,ose ele$ents on t,e .order line s,o/in+ .ot, $etallic and
non $etallic roerties0 e.+. car.on and silica. T,ey do not for$ free ositi3e ions
.ut t,eir conducti3e and electronic roerties $a5e t,e$ i$ortant.
Metals constitute a.out 263
rd
of t,e eriodic ta.le u.lis,ed .y DMITRI
MEDELEYEV in 1'"'. Of t,e 1*3 ele$ents /,ic, are cate+ori7ed in t,e eriodic
ta.le accordin+ to t,e c,e$ical roerties0 '1 are $etals.
#ccordin+ to t,e $etals ,and .oo50 t,ey can .e defined as 1#N OP#89E
(9ST-O9S CHEMIC#( S9%ST#NCE0 TH#T IS # :OO; CON;9CTO- O<
HE#T #N; E(ECT-ICIT= #N; >HEN PO(ISHE; IS # :OO;
-E<(ECTO- O< (I:HT2
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Solidification & microstructure of metals
HISTORY OF METALS:
Metals ,a3e .een used .y $an e3er since ,e first disco3ered t,e$. In
ancient and re4,istoric ti$es0 only a fe/ $etals /ere 5no/n and accordin+ly
t,ese eriods /ere called as COPPER AGE, BRONZE AGE and IRON
AGE2. Today $ore t,an '* $etallic ele$ents and a lar+e nu$.er of alloys ,a3e
.een de3eloed. Ore is a $ineral containin+ one or $ore $etals in a free or
co$.ined state.
PROPERTIES OF METALS:
#ll $etals are solids e?cet for $ercury and +alliu$ /,ic, are li@uid at
roo$ te$erature and ,ydro+en /,ic, is a +as. T,e roerties of $etals can .e
listed out as follo/s:
1. T,ey ,a3e a $etallic luster and $irror li5e surface
2. T,ey $a5e a $etallic sound /,en struc5
3. #re ,ard0 stron+ and dense
4. ;uctile and $allea.le
!. Conduct ,eat and electricity
". Ha3e secific $eltin+ and .oilin+ oints
&. <or$ ositi3e ions in solution and +et deosited at t,e cat,ode durin+
electrolysis. E.+. coer in coer latin+.
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Solidification & microstructure of metals
T,e outer $ost electrons of t,e ato$ are 5no/n as 3alence electrons. T,ese
are readily +i3en u and are resonsi.le for $ost of t,e roerties.
Metals are tou+, and t,is is due to t,e fact t,at t,e ato$s of t,e $etals are
,eld to+et,er .y $eans of $etallic .onds.
T,e c,e$ical roerties of $etals are .ased uon t,e electro$oti3e series
/,ic, is a ta.le of $etals arran+ed in decreasin+ order of t,eir tendency to lose
electrons. T,e ,i+,er an ele$ent is in t,e series0 t,e $ore $etallic it is. T,is
tendency of $etals of lose electrons is 5no/n as o?idation otential.

CLASSIFICATION OF METALS:
T,ey can .e done in $any /ays li5e:
1. Pure $etal and $i?ture of $etals AalloysB
2. No.le $etals and .ase $etals :
No.le $etal is one /,ose co$ounds are deco$osa.le .y ,eat alone0
at a te$erature not e?ceedin+ t,at of redness. E.+. #u0 #+0 and Pd.
%ase $etal is one /,ose co$ounds /it, o?y+en are not deco$osa.le .y
,eat #lone0 retainin+ o?y+en at ,i+, te$erature. E.+. Cn0 <e0 and #l
3. Case $etal and /rou+,t $etal
Cast $etal is any $etal t,at is $elted and oured into t,e $ould
>rou+,t $etal is a cast $etal /,ic, ,as .een /or5ed uon in cold condition
4. (i+,t $etal e.+. #l and ,ea3y $etal e.+. <e
!. Hi+, $eltin+ $etal e.+. c,ro$iu$ and lo/ $eltin+ $etal e.+. tin
". Hi+,ly $allea.le and ductile $etal e.+. +old and sil3er
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Solidification & microstructure of metals
INTER ATOMIC BONDS:
T,e ato$s are ,eld to+et,er in lace .y ato$ic .onds or forces. T,ey $ay
.e
1. Pri$ary
2. Secondary
Primary !"#$ !r i"%&r a%!mi' !"#$:
T,ese are 3ery stron+ .onds and $ay .e of eit,er tye:
a. Ionic 4 T,ese are seen in cera$ics
.. Co3alent 4 T,ey are seen in or+anic co$ounds
c. Metallic .onds 4 T,ey are seen in $etals and are non
directional
S&'!"#ary !"#$ !r i"%&r m!(&')(ar !"#$:
T,ese are /ea5 forces and are ot,er/ise 5no/n as Dander /aalEs forces. T,e
3arious tyes are:
a. Hydro+en .onds
.. ;iole .onds
c. ;isersion .onds
Of all t,ese0 t,e $ost i$ortant one is t,e $etallic .ond /,ic, /as e?lained for
t,e first ti$e .y (O-ENTC0 a ;utc, scientist in 1)1". It can .e e?lained .y
usin+ t,e ato$ic and su. ato$ic structures.
T,e su. F ato$ic structures
1. Protons F ositi3e c,ar+e
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Solidification & microstructure of metals
2. Neutrons F neutral c,ar+e
3. Electrons 4 ne+ati3e c,ar+e
T,e center or t,e nucleus of an ato$ consists of roton and neutrons and
are t,erefore ositi3ely c,ar+ed. T,is is .alanced .y t,e re3ol3in+ electrons /,ic,
are ne+ati3ely c,ar+ed and arran+ed in concentric s,ells /it, ro+ressi3ely
increasin+ ener+y. T,e electrons in t,e outer $ost s,ell are 5no/n as D#(ENCE
E(ECT-ONS.
T,ese are loosely .ound and are t,erefore readily +i3en u .y t,e ato$ to for$
ositi3e ions. T,e cations t,us for$ed .e,a3e li5e ,ard s,eres and t,e electron
cloud for$ed .y t,e freed 3alence electrons roa$ a.out freely in t,e interstices
for$ed .y t,e arran+e$ent of t,e solid s,eres. T,e electrons act li5e +lue to ,old all
ato$s to+et,er and are 5no/n as INTE- #TOMIC CEMENT. %ecause of t,is0 t,e
$etals are stron+0 ,ard0 $allea.le0 ductile and +ood conductors of ,eat and electricity.
MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE OF METALS:
In t,e solid state0 $ost $etals ,a3e crystalline structure in /,ic, ato$s are
,eld to+et,er .y $etallic .onds. T,is crystalline array e?tends for $any
reetitions in 3 di$ensions. In t,is array0 t,e ato$ic centers are occuied .y
nuclei and core electrons. T,e ionisa.le electrons float freely a$on+ t,e ato$ic
ositions.
T,e sace lattice is a 3 di$ensional attern of oints in sace and ,ence
called as oint lattice. In t,is t,e si$lest reeatin+ unit is called as t,e UNIT
CELL. T,e si7e and s,ae of t,e unit cell are descri.ed .y t,ree 3ectors. T,ey
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Solidification & microstructure of metals
are a0.0c0 and 5no/n as crystallo+ra,ic a?es. T,e len+t, and an+le .et/een t,e$
are 5no/n as LATTICE CONSTANTS AND LATTICE PARAMETERS.
>,en a $olten $etal is cooled t,e solicitation rocess is one of
crystalli7ation. T,ese are initiated at secific sites called nuclei. T,ese in t,e
$olten $etal are resent as nu$erous unsta.le ato$ic a++re+ates or clusters t,at
tend to for$ crystal nuclei. T,ese te$orary nuclei are 5no/n as EMBRYOS.
T,ese are +enerally for$ed fro$ i$urities /it,in t,e $olten $etal. In t,e case of
ure $etals0 t,e crystals +ro/ as dendrites /,ic, can .e defined as a t,ree
di$ensional net/or5 /,ic, is .ranc,ed li5e a tree. T,e critical radius is t,e
$ini$al radius of t,e e$.ryo at /,ic, t,e first er$anent solid sace lattice is
for$ed.
T,e crystals are ot,er/ise 5no/n as +rains since t,ey seldo$ e?,i.it t,e
custo$ary +eo$etric for$s due to interference fro$ adGacent crystals durin+ t,e
c,an+e of state. T,e +rains $eet at +rain .oundaries /,ic, are re+ions of
transition .et/een differently oriented crystals. T,ese are re+ions of i$ortance as
t,ey are sites of:
1. (ess resistance to corrosion
2. Hi+, internal ener+y and non crystalline
3. Collection of i$urities
4. %arriers for dislocations
T,e nuclei can .e ,o$o+eneous or ,etero+enous .ased uon /,et,er t,ey
are de3eloed fro$ t,e $olten li@uid or for$ed as a result of forei+n .odies
incororated into t,e $olten $etal. >,en t,e crystals $eet at t,e +rain .oundaries
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Solidification & microstructure of metals
t,ey sto +ro/in+ furt,er. T,e +rain .oundaries are a.out 142 ato$ic distances
t,ic5. :rain .oundaries can .e ,i+, an+les AH1*41! de+reesB or lo/ an+led AI 1*
de+reeB.
T,e +rain structure can .e fine /,ere in0 it contains nu$erous nuclei as
o.tained durin+ t,e raid coolin+ rocess A@uenc,in+B or refined /,en forei+n
.odies are added to o.tain t,e fine +rain structure.
E*UALI+ED GRAINS
>,en coolin+ occurs and +rains are for$ed0 t,e +rains start +ro/in+ fro$
t,e nuclei eri,erally. T,is ta5es t,e s,ae of a s,ere and are e@uali7ed in
structure $eanin+ t,at t,ey ,a3e t,e sa$e di$ensions in any direction.
COLUMNAR AND RADIAL GRAINS
In a s@uare $ould0 crystals +ro/ fro$ t,e ed+es to/ards t,e centre to for$
colu$nar +rains /,ereas in t,e cylindrical $ould t,e +rains +ro/ erendicular to
t,e /all surface and for$ radial +rains. Colu$nar +rains are /ea5 due to
interferences in t,e con3er+in+ +rains. S,ar $ar+ins ,a3e colu$nar +rains.
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Solidification & microstructure of metals
GRAIN SIZE:
T,e +rain si7e can .e altered .y ,eatin+. >,en t,e $etal is ,eated a.o3e
t,e solidus te$erature to t,e $olten state and raidly @uenc,ed0 s$all +rains are
for$ed /,ereas0 /,en t,ey are allo/ed to cool slo/ly to roo$ te$erature t,e
+rains tend to +ro/ due to ato$ic diffusion and t,is results in an increased +rain
si7e and su.se@uent decrease in t,e nu$.er. T,e $ore fine t,e +rain structure0 t,e
$ore unifor$ and .etter are t,e roerties.
ANISOTROPHY:
#lloys /it, unifor$ roerties due to t,e resence of fine +rain structure are
said to .e anisotroic.
METHODS OF FABRICATION OF METALS AND ALLOYS
1. CASTING: It is t,e .est and $ost oular $et,od.
2. ,OR-ING ON THE METAL: T,ey can .e /or5ed in t,e ,ot or cold
conditions. T,ey are 5no/n as /rou+,t $etals. T,ey can .e ressed0 rolled0
for+ed or ,a$$ered.
3. E+TRUSION: # rocess in /,ic, a $etal is forced t,rou+, a die to for$
$etal tu.in+.
4. PO,DER METALLURGY: It in3ol3es t,e ressin+ of t,e o/dered $etal
into t,e $ould of desira.le s,ae and ,eatin+ it to a ,i+, te$erature to cause
a solid $ass.
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Solidification & microstructure of metals
SPACE LATTICES:
T,e structure of t,e crystal can .e deter$ined usin+ t,e BRAGG.S LA,
OF +/RAY DIFFRACTION. T,ere are 14 lattices 5no/n as BRAVIS
LATTICES and t,ese are +roued under si? fa$ilies. T,ese 3ary deendin+ uon
t,e crystallo+ra,ic a?es and lattice constants /,ic, are t,e len+t, of t,e 3ertices
and t,e an+le .et/een t,e$. T,e si? fa$ilies are:
1. Cu.ic
Si$le
%ody centered
<ace centered
2. Triclinic
3. Tetra+onal
Si$le
%ody centered
-,o$.o,edral
4. Ort,oro$.ic
!. He?a+onal
Si$le
%ody centered
<ace centered
%ase centered
". Monoclinic
Si$le
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Solidification & microstructure of metals
%ase centered
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Solidification & microstructure of metals

T,e arran+e$ent of ato$s in t,e crystal lattice deends on t,e ato$ic radius and
c,ar+e distri.ution of ato$s.
T,e $ost co$$only used $etals in dentistry ,a3e one of t,e follo/in+ sace
lattices: .ody centered cu.ic0 face centered cu.ic or ,e?a+onal lattice.
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Solidification & microstructure of metals
SIMPLE CUBIC LATTICE SYSTEM
LATTICE IMPERFECTIONS AND DISLOCATIONS
Crystalli7ation fro$ t,e nucleus does not occur in a re+ular fas,ion0 lattice
lane .y lattice lane. Instead0 t,e +ro/t, is li5ely to .e $ore rando$ /it, so$e
lattice ositions left 3acant and ot,ers o3ercro/ded /it, ato$s .ein+ deosited
interstitially. T,ese are called defects and can .e classified as:
A0 POINT DEFECTS OR ZERO DIMENSIONAL DEFECTS
1. Dacancies or e@uili.riu$ defects:
#.sence of an ato$ fro$ its osition. T,is can .e:
Dacancy
;i3acancy
Tri3acancy
2. Interstitialcies:
Presence of e?tra ato$s in t,e interstitial saces.
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Solidification & microstructure of metals
3. I$urities
4. Electronic defects

Point defects are resonsi.le for increased ,ardness0 increased tensile stren+t,0
electrical conductance0 and ,ase transfor$ations.
B0 LINE DEFECTS OR SINGLE DIMENSIONAL DEFECTS:
T,ese can .e
1. Ed+e dislocation
2. Scre/ dislocation
T,e lanes alon+ /,ic, a dislocation $o3es is called as sli lanes and
/,en t,is occurs in +rous it is called as sli .ands. T,e crystallo+ra,ic direction
in /,ic, t,e ato$ic lanes $o3e is called as t,e sli direction and t,e co$.ination
of sli lane and sli direction is called as sli syste$.
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Solidification & microstructure of metals
T,ese are resonsi.le for ductility0 $allea.ility0 strain ,ardenin+0 fati+ue0
cree and .rittle fracture.
T,e face centered cu.ic consists of lar+e nu$.er of sli syste$s and
t,erefore is 3ery ductile. T,is is seen in +old.
T,e ,e?a+onal closely ac5ed syste$ seen in 7inc ossesses relati3ely fe/
sli syste$s and is t,erefore 3ery .rittle.
In .et/een t,ese is t,e .ody centered cu.ic /it, inter$ediate roerties.
T,e strain re@uired to initiate $o3e$ent is t,e elastic li$it. T,e $et,od of
,ardenin+ of $etals and alloys is .ased on t,e i$edance to t,e $o3e$ent of
dislocations.
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Solidification & microstructure of metals
C0 SURFACE DEFECTS OR PLANE DEFECTS OR T,O
DIMENSIONAL DEFECTS:
1. :rain .oundaries
2. T/in .oundaries:
T,ese are seen in t,e NiTi /ires resonsi.le for transfor$ation .et/een t,e
austenitic and $artensitic ,ases. T,ese are i$ortant for t,e defor$ation of t,e J
titaniu$ alloys. T,e ato$s ,a3e a $irror relations,i.
30 Stac5in+ fault
4. Tilt .oundaries
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Solidification & microstructure of metals
D0 VOLUME DEFECTS
T,ese include crac5s
ALLOTROPHY AND ISOMORPHOUS STATE:
ALLOTROPHY
T,is a.ility to e?ist in $ore t,an one sta.le crystalline for$ is called as
allotro,y. T,e 3arious for$s ,a3e t,e sa$e co$osition .ut different crystal
structure.
ISOMORPHOUS STATE
T,e a.ility to e?ist as a sin+le crystal at any ato$ic co$osition of .inary
alloys is 5no/n as io$or,ous state e.+. #u4#+0 #u4Cu.
HEAT TREATMENT OR SOLID STATE REACTIONS:
Heat treat$ent of $eals Anon4$eltin+B in t,e solid state is 5no/n as solid
state reactions. T,is is a $et,od to cause diffusion of ato$s of t,e alloy .y ,eatin+
a solid $etal to a certain te$erature and for a certain eriod of ti$e. T,is /ill
result in c,an+es in t,e $icroscoic structure and ,ysical roerties.
I$ortant criteria are:
1. Co$osition of t,e alloy
2. Te$erature to /,ic, it is ,eated
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Solidification & microstructure of metals
3. Ti$e of ,eatin+
4. Met,od of coolin+ slo/ly or @uenc,in+.
T,e urose of ,eat treat$ent is:
1. S,ain+ and /or5in+ on t,e aliance in t,e la.oratory is $ade easy /,en t,e
alloy is soft. T,is is t,e first sta+e and called as softenin+ ,eat treat$ent.
2. To ,arden t,e alloy to /it,stand ,i+, oral stresses0 it is a+ain ,eated and t,is is
called ,ardenin+ ,eat treat$ent.
i0 ANNEALING OR SOFTENING HEAT TREATMENT
T,is is done for structures t,at are cold /or5ed. T,ese cold /or5ed
structures are c,aracteri7ed .y:
1. (o/ ductility
2. ;istorted and fi.rous +rains
>,en cold /or5 is continued in t,ese0 t,ey /ill e3entually fracture. T,is
$ay .e:
1. Trans+ranular F t,rou+, t,e crystals and occur at roo$ te$erature
2. Inter+ranular F in .et/een t,e crystals and occurs at ele3ated te$erature
T,ese can .e re3ersed .y annealin+. T,e 3arious ,ase are:
1. -eco3ery
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Solidification & microstructure of metals
2. -ecrystalli7ation and
3. :rain +ro/t,
Tec,ni@ue:
T,e alloy is laced in an electric furnace at a te$erature of &**K C for
1*$ins and t,en raidly @uenc,ed. #nnealin+ te$erature s,ould .e ,alf t,at
necessary to $elt t,e $etal in de+rees Lel3in.
R&'!1&ry
;urin+ t,is ,ase0 t,e cold /or5 roerties .e+in to disaear. T,ere is a
sli+,t decrease in tensile stren+t, and no c,an+e in ductility. T,e tendency for
/arin+ decreases in t,is sta+e.
R&'ry$%a((i2a%i!"
T,ere is a radical c,an+e in t,e $icrostructure. T,e old +rains are relaced
.y a set of ne/ strain free +rains. T,ese nucleate in t,e $ost se3erely cold /or5ed
re+ions in t,e $etal. T,e te$erature at /,ic, t,is occurs is t,e recrystalli7ation
te$erature. ;urin+ t,is t,e $etal +ets .ac5 to t,e ori+inal soft and ductile nature.
Grai" 3r!4%5
If t,e fine +rain structure in a crystalli7ed alloy is furt,er ,eated0 t,e +rains
.e+in to +ro/. T,is is essentially a rocess in /,ic, t,e lar+er +rains consu$e t,e
s$aller +rains. T,is rocess $ini$i7es t,e +rain .oundary ener+y. T,is does not
ro+ress until t,e for$ation of a coarse +rain structure.
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Solidification & microstructure of metals
Pr!6&r%i&$ !7 a" a""&a(&# m&%a(:
1. T,ere is an increase in ductility
2. Ma5es t,e $etal tou+,er and less .rittle
Stress relief annealing is a rocess /,ic, is done after cold /or5in+ a $etal
to eli$inate t,e residual stress. T,is is done at relati3ely lo/ te$eratures /it, no
c,an+e in t,e $ec,anical roerties.
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Solidification & microstructure of metals
ii0 HARDENING HEAT TREATMENT
T,is is done for cast re$o3a.le artial dentures0 saddles0 .rid+es .ut not for
inlays. T,is is done for class after t,e try in sta+e so t,at adGust$ents can .e
carried out durin+ t,e try in /,en t,e $etal is soft.
T&'5"i8)&
T,e aliance is ,eat soa5ed at a te$erature .et/een 2**44!*K C for 1!43*
$inutes and t,en raidly @uenc,ed. T,e result is:
1. Increased stren+t,
2. Increased ,ardness
3. Increased roortional li$it
4. ;ecreased ductility

Mi'r!$'!6i' '5a"3&$
;iffusion and rearran+e$ent of ato$s occur to for$ an ordered sace
lattice. T,erefore t,is is called as order ,ardenin+ or reciitations ,ardenin+.
iii0 SOLUTION HEAT TREATMENT OR SOLUTION HARDENING
>,en t,e alloy is soa5ed at &**KC for 1* $inutes and t,en raidly @uenc,ed
li5e t,at for a softenin+ treat$ent0 any reciitation for$ed durin+ t,e earlier ,eat
treat$ent /ill .eco$e solu.le in t,e sol3ent $etal.
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Solidification & microstructure of metals
i10 AGE HARDENING
T,is is a rocess in /,ic, follo/in+ solution ,eat treat$entM t,e alloy is
once a+ain ,eated to .rin+ a.out furt,er reciitation as a finally disersed ,ase.
T,is causes ,ardenin+ of t,e alloy and it is 5no/n as a+e ,ardenin+ .ecause t,e
alloy /ill $aintain t,e @uality for $any years. E.+. ;uraliu$.
METHODS OF STRENGTHENING METALS AND ALLOYS :
#ll $etals ossess an in,erent .arrier to dislocations. T,is is relati3ely
s$all and 5no/n as 6&ar($ $%r&$$. T,is is i$osed .y t,e .onds associated /it,
t,e arran+e$ent of ato$s in a +i3en crystal structure. T,us to i$ro3e t,e
$ec,anical roerties0 ot,er $et,ods of ,ardenin+ are used. T,ese are:
90 GRAIN BOUNDARY HARDENING OR GRAIN REFINEMENT
HARDENING
# oly crystalline $etal contains nu$erous +rains or crystals. T,ese $eet at
t,e +rain .oundaries. T,e +rain .oundary is non Fcrystalline and contains
i$urities. T,ese act as .arriers to dislocations as it $o3es .y sli lanes fro$ one
+rain to anot,er.
<inely +rained structure contains lar+e +rain .oundaries and ,ence t,e
o.stacle to $otion of dislocations is ,i+,er. T,erefore dislocation density rises
raidly due to lastic defor$ation. T,ese dislocations at t,e +rain .oundaries
increase and t,erefore t,e stress necessary to continue t,e lastic defor$ation also
increases. T,erefore0 t,ere is an increase in t,e yield stren+t, and ulti$ate tensile
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Solidification & microstructure of metals
stren+t,. T,e yield stren+t, 3aries in3ersely /it, t,e s@uare root of +rain si7e A5a((
6&%'5 &8)a%i!":0
:rain refine$ent can .e done .y:
1. Heat treat$ent
2. #ddition of +rain refiners /,ic, act as nucleatin+ a+ents.
:rains refiners are $etals or forei+n .odies of ,i+, $eltin+ te$erature.
T,ey crystalli7e out at ,i+, te$erature and act as nuclei or seeds for furt,er
solidification. e.+. iridiu$0 r,odiu$.
T,e .est $et,od to i$ro3e roerties of alloys and $etals is .y t,e
addition of +rain refiners. <inely reined +rains structure contain +rain si7e H&*N$.
;0 SOLUTION HARDENING OR SOLID SOLUTION STRENGTHENING
#n alloy is a solid solutionM it ,as a solute and a sol3ent. T,e ato$ic
dia$eter of a solute and sol3ent /ill ne3er .e t,e sa$e.
T,e rincile of solid solution ,ardenin+ is .y introducin+ eit,er tensile or
co$ressi3e strain deendin+ on /,et,er t,e solute ato$ is s$aller or lar+er t,an
t,e sol3ent resecti3ely and finally distortin+ t,e +rain structure. T,is solute can
.e eit,er:
4 Su.stitutional
4 Interstitial
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Solidification & microstructure of metals
<0 PRECIPITATION HARDENING
#not,er $et,od of stren+t,enin+ alloys is .y $eans of t,is tec,ni@ue. In
t,is0 t,e alloy is ,eated so t,at reciitates are for$ed as a second ,ase /,ic,
.loc5s t,e $o3e$ent of dislocations. T,e effecti3eness is +reater if t,e reciitate
is art of t,e nor$al crystal lattice /,ic, is 5no/n as co,erent reciitation.
=0 DISPERSION STRENGTHENING
It is a $eans of stren+t,enin+ a $etal .y addin+ finely di3ided ,ard
insolu.le articles in t,e soft $etal $atri? as a result of /,ic,0 t,e resistance to
dislocations is increased. T,is increases ,ardness and tensile stren+t,.
T,e ideal roerties are seen /,en t,e articles ran+e fro$ 241!O .y
3olu$e /it, sacin+ at *.1 F 1.*N$ inter3als and article si7e fro$ *.*1 F *.1N.
T,e ideal s,ae of t,e disersed article is a needle li5e LAMELLAR
SHAPE /,ic, can intersect /it, t,e sli lanes. Po/dered $etallur+y $a5es use
of t,is $et,od for stren+t,enin+.
>0 STRAIN HARDENING OR ,OR- HARDENING
T,is is seen in /rou+,t $etals. T,e $etals are /or5ed after castin+ to
i$ro3e t,eir $ec,anical roerties. T,ey $ay .e for+ed0 ,a$$ered0 dra/n as
/ires0 etc. #ll t,is is done .elo/ t,e re4crystalli7ation te$eratures. T,is /or5in+
Page 24
Solidification & microstructure of metals
causes 3ast nu$.er of defor$ations /it,in t,e alloys or $etals. T,ese interact
/it, eac, ot,er $utually0 i$edin+ t,e $o3e$ents. T,e increased stress re@uired
for furt,er dislocation $o3e$ent to ac,ie3e er$anent defor$ation ro3ides t,e
.asis for /or5 ,ardenin+. T,is result is distorted +rain structure /it, t,e +rains
.ein+ fi.rous.
REFERENCES:
1. #ndersonEs #lied ;ental Materials F Po,n <.Mc. Ca.e
2. ;ental Materials F Crai+. OE%rien F Po/ers
3. Essentials of ;ental Materials F S.H. Soratur
4. Material and Metallur+ical Science F S.-.P. S,ant,a Lu$ar
!. P,illis Science of ;ental Materials AEle3ent, EditionB F #nusa3ice
". -estorati3e ;ental Materials AEle3ent, EditionB F -o.ert :. Crai+ and
Po,n. M. Po/ers
&. -estorati3e ;ental Materials F <loyd. #. Peyton
'. P.P.;. #ril 2**2 Dolu$e '& No.4 Pa+e 3!1 F 3"3.
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