Sie sind auf Seite 1von 15

2.

1 Binary System Operations

In this section we will discuss binary addition. We will defer binary


subtraction until we introduce the two’s and one’s complements in a
later section of this chapter. Binary multiplication and binary division
is discussed in Chapter 10 in conjunction with shift registers. The
addition of numbers in any numbering system is accomplished much
the same manner as decimal addition, that is, the addition starts in
the least significant position (right most position), and any carries are
added in other positions to the left as it is done with the decimal
system.
The binary number system employs the numbers 0 and 1 only;
therefore, the possible combinations of binary addition are:

0 + 0 = 0 0 + 1 = 1 1 + 0 = 1 1 + 1 = 0 with a carry of 1

We observe that in a binary addition the largest digit in any position is


1 , just as in the decimal addition the largest digit is 9 . Furthermore,
the above combinations indicate that if the number of ones to be
added in any column is odd, the sum digit for that column will 1 be ,
and if the number of ones to be added in any column is even, then
the sum digit for that column will be zero.
Also, a carry occurs whenever there are two or more ones to be
added in any column.
Example 2.1
Add the numbers (01101101) 2 and (1110011) 2

Solution:
1111111 Carries

101101101
+
1110011
____________________
111100000

Check:
( 101101101) 2 = (365) 10
( 1110011) 2 =
(115) 10
Then,

(111100000) 2 = (365 + 115) 10 = (480) 10


Example 2.2
Add the numbers (110110) 2 (101001) 2 (111000) 2 (10101) 2 and (100010) 2

Solution:
11
11
111111 Carries
110110
101001
111000
10101
100010
---------------
1 1 001110

Check:

( 110110) 2 =
(54) 10
( 101001) 2 =
(41) 10
( 111000) 2 =
(56) 10
( 10101) 2 =
(21) 10
( 100010) 2 =
(34) 10

Then,
( 11001110) 2 = (54 + 41 + 56 + 21 + 34) 10
= (206) 10

2.2 Octal System Operations


The addition of octal numbers is also very similar to decimal numbers
addition except that when the sum of two or more octal numbers
exceeds seven, a carry occurs just as a carry occurs when
the sum of two or more decimal numbers exceeds nine. Table 2.1
summarizes the octal addition.
This table can also be used for octal subtraction as it will be illustrated
by Example 2.4.

TABLE 2.1 Table for Addition and subtraction of octal number

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 10
2 3 4 5 6 7 10 11
3 4 5 6 7 10 11 12
4 5 6 7 10 11 12 13
5 6 7 10 11 12 13 14
6 7 10 11 12 13 14 15
7 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

TABLE 2.1 Table for Addition and subtraction of octal numbers

When Table 2.1 above is used for addition, we first locate the least
significant digit of the first number (augend) in the upper row of the
table, and then we locate the least significant digit of the second
number (addend) in the left most column of the table. The
intersection of the augend with the addend gives the sum of these
two numbers. We follow the same procedure for all other digits from
right to left.

Example 2.3
Add the numbers (3527) 8 and(4167) 8

Solution:

011 Carries

3527
+ 4167
______
7716

Starting with the least significant digit column above, we add 7 with 7
and the table gives us 16 i.e.6 with a carry of 1. Next we add 6 and 2,
with a carry of 1 , or 6 and 3, and the table gives 11 us i.e., 1 with a
carry of 1 . Now we add 1, 5 and 1 (carry) and we obtain 7 with no
carry.
Finally, we add 4 and 3 which gives 7 and no carry. As before, we can
check the sum for correctness by converting the numbers to their
equivalent decimal numbers.
When Table 2.1 above is used for subtraction, we first find the least
significant digit of the subtrahend (the smaller number) in the first
row of the table. Then, in the same column, we locate the least
significant digit of the minuend (the larger number). If the least
significant digit of the minuend is less than the least significant digit
of the subtrahend, a borrow occurs and from the numbers 10 through
16 in the table we choose the one whose least significant digit
matches the least significant digit of the minuend. We find the
difference by going across to the left most column. We follow the
same procedure for all other digits from right to left.

Example 2.4
Subtract (415) 8 from ( 614) 8
Solution:
614
- 415
______
177
The least significant digit of the subtrahend is 5 and we locate it in
the first row of Table 2.1.
Going down that column where 5 appears, we choose 14 because the
least significant digit of the minuend is 4. The difference, 7 in this
case with a borrow, appears across to the left most column. Next, we
add the borrow to the next digit of the subtrahend, 1 in this case, so
now we must subtract 2from 1. Continuing we locate 2 in the first
row of the table and going down on the same column we choose 11
because the next digit of the minuend is 1 , and again from the left
most column we find that the difference is 7 with another borrow.
Finally, we add that borrow to 4 and now we subtract from and this
difference of appears in the most significant position
of the result with no borrow.

2.3 Hexadecimal System Operations


Hexadecimal addition and subtraction is accomplished similarly to
that of addition and subtraction with octal numbers except that we
use Table 2.2. When Table 2.2 below is used for addition, we first
locate the least significant digit of the first number (augend) in the
upper row of the table, and then we locate the least significant digit of
the second number (addend) in the left most column of the table. The
intersection of the augend with the addend gives the sum of these
two numbers. We follow the same procedure for all other digits from
right to left.

TABLE 2.2 Table for Addition and subtraction of hexadecimal


numbers

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B
C D E F
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C
D E F 10
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D
E F 10 11
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F
10 11 12
4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F
10 11 12 13
5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F 10
11 12 13 14
6 7 8 9 A B C D E F 10 11
12 13 14 15
7 8 9 A B C D E F 10 11 12
13 14 15 16
8 9 A B C D E F 10 11 12 13
14 15 16 17
9 A B C D E F 10 11 12 13 14
15 16 17 18
A B C D E F 10 11 12 13 14 15
16 17 18 19
B C D E F 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
17 18 19 1A
C D E F 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
18 19 1A 1B
D E F 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
19 1A 1B 1C
E F 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
1A 1B 1C 1D
F 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 1A
1B 1C 1D 1E

Example 2.5
Add the numbers (F347) 16 and (E916) 16
Solution: F347
+ E916

1DC5D

Starting with the least significant digit column above, we add with
and the table gives us D with no carry. Next, we add 4 and 1 and we
obtain 5 with no carry. Now, we add 9 and and 3 we C obtain with no
carry. Finally, we add F and E and that gives 1D . As before, we can
check the sum for correctness by converting the numbers to their
equivalent decimal numbers.

Example 2.6

Subtract (A9F8) 16 from (D5C7) 16

Solution:
D5C7
- A9F8

2BCF

The subtraction begins by locating the least significant digit of the


subtrahend, in this case, in the first row of Table 2.2, and going down
the same column we find 17 on the last row of the table. Going across
to the left most column we find that the difference is F with a borrow.
Next, because of the borrow, we reduce the digit C of the minuend to
B and from it we subtract. The difference is found by locating F in the
first row, going down the same column we find 1B , and going across
to the left most column we find that the difference is C with a borrow.
Now, because of the previous borrow, we reduce 5 to 4 and
subtracting 9 from it we find that the difference is B with another
borrow. Finally, because of the previous borrow, we reduce D to C and
we subtract A from it. The difference is 2 with no borrow.
2.4 Complements of Numbers
The subtraction operation is simplified by the use of the complements
of numbers. For each base−b system there are two useful types of
complements, the b’s−complement
And the (b−1)’s−complement. Accordingly, for the base−10 system we
have the tens − complements and the nines − complements,
for the base−2 we have the twos − complements and ones
− complements, for the base−8 we have the eights − complements and
sevens − complements, and for the base−16 we have the sixteens −
complements and the fifteens - complements.

2.4.1Tens − Complement
The tens − complement of a number can be found by subtracting the
first non − zero least significant digit and all zeros to the right of it
from 10; then, we subtract all other digits from 9.

Example 2.7

Find the tens _complement of 23567

Solution:
We first subtract 7 (lsd) from 10 and we obtain 3 . This is the lsd of
the tens − complement. For the remainder part of the tens -
complement, we subtract 6,5,3 , and 2 from 9 and we obtain 3, 4,6 ,
and respectively. Therefore, the tens - complement of 23567 is 76433

Example 2.8
Find the tens − complement of 0.8642

Solution:
We first subtract 2 (lsd) from 10 and all other digits from 9. Therefore,
the tens − complement of 0.8642 is 0.1358

Example 2.9
Find the tens _ complement of 37.562

Solution:
We first subtract 2(lsd) from 10 and all other digits from 9. Therefore,
the tens − complement of 37.562 is 62.438.

2.4.2Nines− Complement
The nines− complement of a number can be found by subtracting
every digit (lsd) of that number from 9.

Example 2.10

Find the nines_complement of 23567


Solution:

We subtract every digit of the given number from and we find that the
nines−complement of 23567 is 76432. We observe that this
complement is one less than which, as we found in Example 2.7, is
the tens − complement of 23567. This is always the case, that is, the
nines − complement is always one less than the tens − complement.
Alternately, we can add 1 to the nines − complement to obtain the
tens − complement.

Example 2.11

Find the nines − complement of 37.562

Solution:

We subtract every digit of the given number from 9 and we find that
the nines − complement of 23567 is 76432 .Therefore, the
nines − complement of 37.562 is 62.437.

2.4.3Twos− Complement

The twos −complement of a number can be found by leaving all the


least significant zeros and the least significant one unchanged and
then replacing all zeros with ones and all ones with zeros in all the
other digits.

Example 2.12

Find the twos − complement of 1101100


Solution:

Starting from the right side of the given number we leave 100
unchanged and then for the remaining digits, i.e, 1101 we replace the
ones with zeros and the zero with one. Therefore, the
twos − complement of 1101100 is 0010100.

Example 2.13

Find the twos− complement of 0.1011

Solution:
We leave the lsd (last 1 ) unchanged and we replace the ones with
zeros and the zero with one.
Therefore, the twos - complement of 0.1011 is 0.0101. The leading 0
to the left of the binary point that separates the integer and fractional
parts remains unchanged.
Example 2.14

Find the twos − complement of 1101100.1011

Solution:

We leave the lsd (last 1 ) unchanged and we replace the ones with
zeros and the zeros with ones. Therefore, the twos - complement of
1101100.1011 is 0010011.0101

2.4.4Ones−Complement

The ones − complement of a number can be found by replacing all


zeros with ones and all ones with zeros.

Example 2.15

Find the ones− complement of 1101100

Solution:
Replacing all ones with zeros and all zeros with ones we find that the
ones− complement 1101100 of 0010011 is . We observe that this
complement is one less than 0010100 which, as we found in Example
2.12, is the twos − complement of 1101100. This is always the case,
that is, the ones − complement is always one less than the
twos − complement. Alternately, we can add 1to the ones –
complement to obtain the twos- complement.

Example 2.16

Find the ones− complement of 0.1011

Solution:
Replacing all ones with zeros and all zeros with ones we find that the
ones− complement of 0.1011 is 0.100 . The leading 0 to the left of the
binary point that separates the integer and fractional parts remains
unchanged.

Example 2.17

Find the ones− complement of 1101100.1011


Solution:
Replacing all ones with zeros and all zeros with ones we find that the
ones− complement of 1101100.1011 is 0010011.0100

2.5 Subtraction with Tens_ and Twos_Complements


We will assume that the numbers for the subtraction operation are
both positive numbers. The subtraction operation using tens-
complement or twos-complements is performed as follows:

1. Take the tens −complement or twos-complement of the subtrahend


and add it to the minuend which remains unchanged.

2. Check the result (sum), and


a. if an end carry occurs, discard it.
b. if an end carry does not occur, take the tens − complement or
twos− complement of the result (sum) and place a minus ( − ) sign in
front of it.

Example 2.18

Perform the subtraction (61435 – 02798) using the


tens − complement method.

Solution:
Minuend = 61435 stays unchanged 61435
Subtrahend 02798 take tens - complement 97202

Discard end carry 158637

Therefore, (61435 – 02798) 10 = (58637) 10

Example 2.19

Perform the subtraction using the tens− complement method.

Solution:
Minuend = 02798 stays unchanged 02798
Subtrahend 61435 take tens – complement 38565

No end
carry 41363

Since there is no end carry, we take the tens − complement of the


sum 41363 and we place a minus (−) sign in front of it resulting in
-58637.
Therefore, (02798 – 61435) 10 = (−58637) 10
Example 2.20
Perform the subtraction (1101100 – 1011011) 2 using the
twos− complement method.

Solution:
Minuend = 1101100 stays unchanged 1101100
Subtrahend = 1011011 take twos - complement 0100101

Discard end carry 10010001

Therefore,
( 1101100 – 1011011) 2 =
(0010001) 2
Example 2.21

Perform the subtraction (1011011 – 1101100) 2 using the


twos − complement method.

Solution:
Minuend = 1011011 stays unchanged 1011011
Subtrahend 1101100 take twos complement + 0010100

No end carry 1101100

Since there is no end carry, we take the twos− complement of the sum
and we place a
minus (−) sign in front of it resulting in -0010001. Therefore,

( 1011011 – 1101100) 2 = (–0010001) 2


.
2.6 Subtraction with Nines− and Ones− Complements

We will assume that the numbers for the subtraction operation are
both positive numbers. The subtraction operation using
nines− complement or ones− complements is performed as follows:
1. Take the nines− complement or ones −complement of the
subtrahend and add it to the minuend which remains unchanged.
2. Check the result (sum), and
a. if an end carry occurs, add 1 − referred to as end around carry
− to the lsd of the result (sum).
b. if an end carry does not occur, take the nines− complement or
ones− complement of the result (sum) and place a minus ( − ) sign in
front of it.

Example 2.22

Perform the subtraction (61435 – 02798) 10 using the nines− complement


method.

Solution:

Minuend = 61435 stays unchanged 61435


Subtrahend 02798 take nines complement + 97201

Make end carry an end around carry 158636


+
End around carry 1
58637

Therefore,
( 61435 – 02798) 10 = (58637) 10

Example 2.23

Perform the subtraction (02798 – 61435) 10 using the nines −complement


method.

Solution:
Minuend = 02798 stays unchanged 02798
Subtrahend 61435 take nines complement + 38564
No end carry
41362

Since there is no end carry, we take the nines − complement of the


sum 41362 and we place a minus (−) sign in front of it resulting in
-58637. Therefore,

( 02798 – 61435) 10 = (–58637) 1


.
Example 2.24

Perform the subtraction (1101100 – 1011011) using the ones− complement


method.

Solution:
Minuend = 1101100 stays unchanged 1101100
Subtrahend 1011011 take ones complement + 0100100

Make end carry an end around carry 10010000


0010000
End around carry + 1
0010001

Therefore,
( 1101100 – 1011011) 2 = (0010001) 2

Example 2.25

Perform the subtraction (1011011 – 1101100) 2 using the ones− complement


method.

Solution:
Minuend = 1011011 stays unchanged 1011011
Subtrahend = 1101100 take ones complement + 0010011

No end carry 1101110

Since there is no end carry, we take the ones − complement of the


sum 1101110 and we place a minus (−) sign in front of it resulting in –
0010001

Therefore,
(1011011 – 1101100) 2 = (–0010001) 2.

Fundamentals of Boolean Algebra

T his chapter begins with the basic logic operations and continues
with the fundamentals of Boolean algebra and the basic postulates
and theorems as applied to electronic logic circuits. truth tables are
defined and examples are given to illustrate how they can be used to
prove Boolean algebra theorems or equivalent expressions.

5.1 Basic Logic Operations

The following three logic operations constitute the three basic logic
operations performed by a digital computer.

1. Conjunction (or logical product) commonly referred to as the AND


operation and denoted with the dot (.) symbol between variables.

2. Disjunction (or logical sum) commonly called the OR operation and


denoted with the plus (+) symbol between variables
3. Negation (or complementation or inversion) commonly called NOT
operation and denoted with the bar (−) symbol above the variable.

5.2 Fundamentals of Boolean Algebra

This section introduces the basics of Boolean algebra. We need to


know these to understand Chapter 6 and all subsequent chapters in
this text.

5.2.1 Postulates

Postulates (or axioms) are propositions taken as facts; no proof is


required. A well − known axiom states that the shortest distance
between two points is a straight line.

1. Let X be a variable. Then,X=0 or X=1 . If ,X=0 then X’= 1, and


vice− versa.

2.0 .0 = 0

3.0.1= 1.0= 0

4.1.1.= 1

5.0+0= 0

6.0+1 = 1 + 0 = 1

7.1+1 = 1

5.2.2 Theorems
1. Commutative laws
a. A . B = B . A

b.A + B = B + A

2. Associative laws
a. ( A . B) . C = A . ( B . C)

b. A + B) + C = A + (B + C)

3. Distributive laws
a. A . ( B + C) = A . B + A . C

b. A . (B + C) = (A + B) . ( A + C)

4. Identity laws
a. A . A = A
b. A + A = A

5. Negation laws
a. A’ = A’

b. (A)’’ = A’’ = A

6. Redundancy laws
a. A . ( A + B) = A

b. A + (A . B) = A

7.
a. 0 . A = 0

b. 1 . A = A

c. 0 + A = A

d. 1 + A = 1

8.
a. A . A’ = 0

b. A + A’ = 1

9.
a. A . ( A + B) = A . B

b. A + (A . B) = A + B

10. DeMorgan’s theorems

a.( A . B)’ = A’ + B’

b. (A + B)’ = A’ . B’

5.3 Truth Tables

A truth table provides a listing of every possible combination of inputs


and lists the output of a logic circuit which results from each input
combination. A truth table can be used to prove that one logical
expression is equal to another or to prove theorems. When a proof is
accomplished by
the use of the truth table it is called proof by perfect induction.

Example 5.1
Simplify the Boolean expression C = A’ . B + A . B + A’ . B

Solution:

From Theorem 3.a, A . B + A . C = A . ( B + C) and for this example,


A . B + A . B = (A + A)B and from Theorem 8.b, A + A = 1 . Then, the given
expression reduces to
C = 1 . B + A’ . B’

Next, from Theorem 7.b, 1 . B = B and thus

C = B + A’ . B’

Finally, from Theorem 9.b, A + (A’ . B) = A + B or B + (B’ . A) = A + B.


Therefore,

C= A’ + B

Das könnte Ihnen auch gefallen