TREATISE ON PERSPECTIVE 1

A TREATISE ON PERSPECTIVE IN HUMAN VISION

A REVISION OF DIOPTRICS
Perspective foreshortening: a result, not a cause
Focal Point: center of retina-sphere
Robert P Kelso Sr
Professor of Engineering Gra!i"s #Retire$%
&o'isiana Te"! Uni(ersit)
**+, Ci-arron Co'rt
San Mar"os. Te/as 01222. USA
3elso4"oes5late"!5e$'
6If one7s (ision is in erse"ti(e. it is (erifi"ation t!at t!e fo"al oint of one7s e)e is lo"ate$ at t!e
"enter of t!e retina8s!ere95 : T!e a't!or
to; -arion. bob. <'lie = -an$)
TREATISE ON PERSPECTIVE 2
PREFACE;
!e a't!or $e-onstrates t!at t!e erse"ti(e ill'sion in (ision is t!e res'lt of a
gno-oni" ro<e"tion to t!e retina. a "on"et re$i"ate$ 'on t!e fo"al oint of
t!e e)e being ositione$ at t!e "enter of t!e retina8s!ere rat!er t!an on t!e
retina roer5 T!e a't!or fin$s t!at onl) t!e "enter of t!e retina8s!ere for t!e fo"al
oint lo"ation a""o--o$ates all t!e $iotri"s of t!e e)e5 T!is lo"ation >as first
a$(o"ate$ in t!e *?
t!
"ent'r) b) er!as Sir Da(i$ @re>ster5
T
I$entif)ing (is'al erse"ti(e as a $iotri" gno-oni" ro<e"tion an$ t!e a$(o"a") of
a ne> s)ste- of $iotri"s base$ on @re>ster are original to t!is >riter5
T!is. t!erefore. is a "on"o-itant treatise; t>o $iotri" "on"ets ea"! of >!i"!
s'orts t!e ot!er an$ >it!o't bot! being tr'e. neit!er being tr'eA as a
"onseB'en"e. an)one >!o (is'all) be!ol$s Ct!e >orl$7 in erse"ti(e (ali$ates bot!
"on"ets5
T!e first "on"et is entitle$. On t!e Position of T!e Fo"al Point5
On t!e Position of T!e Fo"al Point "ontains t>o artsA art one "ontests t!e osition
of t!e fo"al oint in t!e Stan$ar$ Mo$el #so "alle$ be"a'se it $es"ribes t!e $iotri"s
as resente$ b) t!e "'rrent stan$ar$ literat're%. an$ art t>o resents t!e effi"a") of
t!e a't!or7s Alternate Stan$ar$ Mo$el #so "alle$ be"a'se it "ontains t!e ne>
$iotri"s a$(o"ate$ b) t!e treatise%5
T!e se"on$ "on"et is entitle$; T!e Ca'se of Perse"ti(e in Vision5
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
T!e >riter7s resear"! into t!e !istor) of oti"s lea$s to a ro(o"ati(e "on"l'sion5
T!e fo"al oint lo"ation >it!in t!e e)e !as been -ista3enl) a$ote$ o(er t!e
"ent'ries as "on"'rrent >it! t!e retina5 Alt!o'g! no s"ientifi" $ata s'orts t!is
re-ise. it !as been stea$il) asse$ on b) "ir"'lar "itations5 To f'rt!er a(oi$ t!is.
$o'btf'l rea$ers are en"o'rage$ to s'ort t!eir arg'-ent >it! "ite$ primal data,
an$ a(oi$ t!e re")"le$ "itation t!e 'lti-ate origin of >!i"! is 'n3no>n5
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
TREATISE ON PERSPECTIVE 3
NOTES;
Se-anti"all). anterior an$ posterior, alt!o'g! generi" are e/"l'si(el)
asso"iate$ !erein >it! t!e "'rrent o"'lar literat're7s Stan$ar$ Mo$elA exterior an$
interior are si-ilarl) asso"iate$ >it! t!e a't!or7s Alternate Stan$ar$ Mo$el5
T!e >riter "onstr'es fro- a-ong (ario's (ersions in t!e literat're; *% t!e
geo-etri" a/is is t!e sa-e as t!e oti"al a/isA +% t!e oti"al a/is interse"ts t!e retina
at t!e osition of t!e non$es"rit osterior oleA an$ E% t!e (is'al a/is is t!e off8a/is
at! "onne"ting a fi/ation oint in t!e fiel$ of (ie> >it! t!e fo(ea5 Hereinafter t!e
a/es7 oint of interse"tion is $e-onstrate$ to be t!e fo"al oint of t!e e)e5
The writers deduced representation of the eye -- incorporating current
literature selections from differing representations, many contradictory.

T!is treatise a$ots t!e !rase. central trace, for t>o sit'ations; *% to $es"ribe
t!e -ost nearl) linear at!>a) "onne"ting t!e refle"te$ lig!t fro- a gi(en
oint in t!e fiel$ of (ie> >it! t!e retina 88 refra"tion "onsi$ere$ : i5e5. t!e
treat-ent #i-lie$% in t!e Stan$ar$ Mo$el literat're an$ +% for a -o$ifie$
treat-ent b) t!e Alternate Stan$ar$ Mo$el5 Ea"! !as its o>n "onnotation5 In
t!e for-er. t!e !rase $es"ribes t!e single ra) at!>a) fro- a-ong all t!e
a-bient ra)s fro- a oint of lig!t in t!e fiel$ of (ie>5 T!e sa-e 'sage is tr'e
for T!e Alternate Stan$ar$ Mo$el e/"et t!at a "entral tra"e "o-letel)
rela"es t!e anterior an$ osterior a-bient ra)s >it! a single ra). >!i"! ra)
loses its linearit) at t!e lens at >!i"! oint it is refra"te$ to>ar$ t!e a$(o"ate$
fo"al oint at t!e "enter of t!e retina8s!ere5

T!e ill'strations are ort!ogra!i" ro<e"tions. i5e5. arallel lines in #i$eate$%
a"t'al sa"e $isla) as tr'l) arallel in t!e "o-'teriFe$ -o$eling sa"e5 @e
re-in$e$ t!at t!e ro<e"tions are nat'rall) in(erte$. an$ t!e final. be!el$
er"etion is t!en 6"orre"te$9 b) t!e brain5 T!e ill'strations are "on"et'al
an$ not to s"ale5
TREATISE ON PERSPECTIVE 4
ON THE POSITION OF THE FOCAL POINT
T!is se"tion e(al'ates t!e erroneo's $iotri"s res'lting fro- t!e tra$itional
la"e-ent of t!e fo"al oint on t!e retina s'rfa"e5 T!e (iabilit) of t!e e(al'ation
relies 'on T!e &a> of Vis'al Dire"tion
i
#T!e &a>% as roose$ b) Sir Da(i$
@re>ster
ii
>!i"! la"es t!e fo"al oint at t!e "enter of t!e retina s!ere5 To affe"t
t!e "o-arison t!e >riter ass'-es a ra$iating oint lig!t so'r"e >it!in t!e fiel$ of
(ie>5 T!e areas of e(al'ation are *% t!e effi"a") on (ision of a Stan$ar$ Mo$el7s
oint so'r"e of a-bient lig!t. +% arallel ra)s fro- a fiel$ of (ie>. an$ E%
-)oiaG!)eroia5
T!e res'lt of t!ese "o-arisons; t!e $iotri"s $eri(e$ fro- T!e &a>. i5e5. a
ositioning of t!e fo"al oint at t!e retina8s!ere "enter. is "onsistent >it!
ele-entar) geo-etr) >!ereas t!e osition of t!e Stan$ar$ Mo$el i5e5. at t!e retina.
is not5 Diotri"s in t!e "'rrent literat're is fo'n$ la"3ing in t!is ase"t as $es"ribe$
!erein belo>5
THE STANDARD MODEL
FIGURE 1 Standard Model
Typical Dioptrics Trace from the iterature
TREATISE ON PERSPECTIVE 5
FIGURE 2 Standard Model
Divergent!"onvergent "ones#
"entral Trace Trac$s the %ptical &xis
In Fig5 +. $eri(e$ fro- Fig5*. a-bient ra)s fro- oint so'r"e P enter t!e 'il as a
"one 'anterior cone( of $i(ergent ra)s5 #Ae/; so'r"e of lig!tA base; t!e 'il5% T!ese
ra)s. 'on e/iting t!e lens. allege$l) $efine a se"on$ "one #posterior cone( of
"on(ergent ra)s to t!e retina5 #@ase; t!e 'il5 Ae/; t!e allege$ fo"al oint on t!e
retina5% T!e Stan$ar$ Mo$el7s "entral tra"e tra"3s t!e oti"al a/is >!i"! is. er
stan$ar$ geo-etr). eren$i"'lar to t!e retina5 )ote that the central trace alone
produces the same visual result as all of the com*ined results
iii
of *oth the anterior
and posterior cones. A-bient ra)s ot!er t!an t!e "entral tra"e $issiate in t!e fl'i$
of t!e e)eball as !eat5
TREATISE ON PERSPECTIVE 6

FIGURE 3 Standard Model
Dioptrics of a Trace %*li+ue to the %ptical &xis
Point P. #Fig5 E% reresents an) oint in eri!eral (ision. i5e5. an) of t!e "o'ntless
oints of refle"te$ lig!t in t!e fiel$ of (ie> not8on8t!e8oti"al8a/is5 Per T!e &a>. no
eri!eral ra)s as $es"ribe$ b) stan$ar$ -o$el $iotri"s. in"l'$ing t!e "entral tra"e.
ro$'"es (ision5 T!e ra)s $o not a""ess t!e o"'lar ner(o's s)ste- be"a'se t!e
ra)s are not eren$i"'lar to t!e retina5
Ra) eren$i"'larit) is reB'ire$ for (ision be"a'se t!e !otore"etors are
eren$i"'lar to t!e retina
i(
5 For a ra) to ro$'"e (ision. it -'st transit t!e a/is of a
!otore"etor 'ntil it rea"!es t!e ner(o's s)ste-
(
5 For ra)s to be so eren$i"'lar.
er geo-etr). ra)s -'st first interse"t at t!e "enter of t!e retina8s!ere5 &s seen in
Fig. , the rays of peripheral vision are not perpendicular to the retina and therefore
do not produce an image# thus the standard concept is flawed.
TREATISE ON PERSPECTIVE 7
PARA&&E& TRACES
FIGURE 4 Standard Model
Parallel -ays from the Field %f .iew
To anal)Fe arallel tra"es t!e treatise first in(estigates lig!t e-itte$ fro- a single
so'r"e at a great $istan"e. sa) a star5 T!e fla>e$ rin"ile of t!e Stan$ar$ Mo$el is
t!e sa-e in as Figs5 + an$ E >!erein an anterior "one of ra)s is for-e$ >!i"!
"o(ers t!e 'il5 Ho>e(er. t!e great $istan"e "o-are$ to t!e siFe of t!e 'il
ren$ers t!e ra)s of t!e anterior "one (irt'all) arallel5 Ne(ert!eless t!e "entral tra"e
is ro$'"e$ an$ is also (irt'all) arallel to t!e a-bient ra)s of t!e anterior "one5 If
t!e "entral tra"e tra"3s t!e oti"al a/is an a""'rate i-age of t!e so'r"e is ro$'"e$
on t!e retina be"a'se. b) $efinition. t!e ra) is eren$i"'lar to t!e retina an$ arallel
to a !otore"etor a/is5 In Fig5 H t!e "entral tra"e an$ a""o-an)ing arallel
a-bient ra)s are not eren$i"'lar to t!e retina t!erefore no (ision o""'rs. t!'s t!e
Stan$ar$ Mo$el also is fla>e$ in t!e "ase of arallel ra)s5

T!e Case of a Single Distant So'r"e

FIGURE 5 Standard Model
TREATISE ON PERSPECTIVE 8
T!e Case of Se(eral Distant So'r"es
FIGURE Standard Model
&nterior -ays Parallel to %ptical &xis
FIGURE ! Standard Model
)ear Parallel &nterior -ays %*li+ue to %ptical &xis
Fig5 2 ill'strates arallel "entral tra"es fro- searate oints. sa). a sele"t "l'ster of
stars5 It "ontains t!e "o-arable $efe"t as Fig5 +. i5e5. all t!e ra)s not tra"3ing t!e
oti"al a/is are s'erfl'o's an$ may *e dismissed5 Fig5 0 "ontains t!e "o-arable
$efe"t as Fig5 E and also may *e dismissed.
Non8arallel ra)s fro- nearb) so'r"es -a) fill in t!e blan3 retinal areas. !o>e(er
Figs5 H. 2 an$ 0 a$$ress near8arallel tra"es. i5e5. tra"es fro- a $istan"e. t!e
"on"l'sion abo't >!i"! re-ains5
TREATISE ON PERSPECTIVE 9
MIOPIAGHIPEROPIA

FIGURE " Standard Model
/yopia
T!e Stan$ar$ Mo$el osterior "one $is'tes t!e stan$ar$ e/lanation of
-)oiaG!)eroia5 In -)oia. as >it! all ra)s >it!in t!e e)e. t!e allege$ osterior
"on(ergent "one ro"ee$s 'nabate$ 'ntil it interse"ts t!e retina5 @) so $oing. t!e
allege$ "one "reates a fille$ "ir"'lar i-age at t!e oint at >!i"! it i-inges 'on t!e
retina. i5e5. -)oia in Stan$ar$ Mo$el $iotri"s "a'ses a single oint >it!in t!e fiel$
of (ie> to aear as a single. fille$ "ir"le on t!e retina5 See Fig5 ?5 E/traolating t!is
to ea"! off8a/is tra"e fro- t!e "o'ntless oints of lig!t "o-rising t!e fiel$ of (ie>
ro$'"es t!e sa-e C"ir"les7 $efe"t. "onseB'entl). it follo>s t!at t!e entire fiel$ of
(ie> -'st aear "!aoti"all) bl'rre$ be"a'se of C"ir"les7 rela"ing Coints57 &s this is
contrary to natural experience it may *e dismissed. It >ill be seen !erein after. t!at
t!ere is also bl'rring in t!e -)oi"G!)eroi" Alternate Stan$ar$ Mo$el b't fro- a
$ifferent "a'se5
FIGURE # Standard Model
/yopia -epresentation
TREATISE ON PERSPECTIVE 10
FIGURE 1$ Standard Model
0yperopia -epresentation
Figs5 ? an$ *, re(eal t!ere s!o'l$ be no $ifferen"e in bl'rre$ (ision >!et!er "a'se$
b) -)oia or !)eroiaA bot! t!eoreti"all) "reate in$isting'is!able t)es of "ir"'lar
i-ages on t!e retina reresenting single oints of lig!t5 Not!ing re(ents t!e
C"ir"les.7 $'e to eit!er -)oia or !)eroia. fro- being i$enti"al in siFe an$ lo"ation
on t!e retinaA t!erefore. in t!e Stan$ar$ Mo$el. t!ere s!o'l$ aear no $ifferen"e
bet>een t!e s)-to-s of -)oia an$ !)eroia5 T!is is "ontrar) to t!e obser(e$
s)-to-s. t!erefore the 1tandard /odel causes of myopia and hyperopia may *e
dismissed.
SIDE8@AR
Unrelate$ to t!e $ifferen"e bet>een t!e Stan$ar$
Mo$el an$ t!e Alternate Stan$ar$ Mo$el is a
ersistent error in t!e stan$ar$ literat're
regar$ing t!e angle bet>een t!e oti"al a/is an$
t!e (is'al a/is5 T!e angle is $esignate$ in t!e
literat're b) t!e Gree3 letter. 6J95 T!e error is
t!at. gi(en t!e ara-eters of t!e Stan$ar$
Mo$el. t!e t>o a/es $o not interse"t5
F'rt!er-ore 6J9 is 's'all) s!o>n in a rig!t
ele(ation (ie> in >!i"! t!e oti"al a/is is (ie>e$
eren$i"'larl). i5e5. normally. >!ile t!e (is'al
a/is is (ie>e$ obliB'el)5 F'n$a-ental to
$es"riti(e geo-etr) is t!at bot! a/es be (ie>e$
nor-all) in t!e sa-e (ie> in or$er to s!o> t!e
tr'e siFe of t!e angle bet>een5 #In t!e Alternate
Stan$ar$ Mo$el all lig!t ra)s. in"l'$ing t!at of t!e
t>o a/es. interse"t at t!e retina8s!ere "enter88
t!ereb) $efining a lane of >!i"! it is ossible to
ro$'"e a nor-al (ie> b) ele-entar) $es"riti(e
geo-etr) roto"ols5 S'"! >ill re"l'$e t!e
Stan$ar$ error5
THE ALTERNATE STANDARD
MODEL
STANDARD MODE&
TREATISE ON PERSPECTIVE 11
Note
%&
FIGURE 11
From The iterature
Alternate Stan$ar$ Mo$el $iotri"s is initiate$ b) single "entral tra"es fro- ea"! of
t!e "o'ntless oints of lig!t in t!e fiel$ of (ie>5 T!is is in "ontrast to t!e $iotri"s of
t!e Stan$ar$ Mo$el >!i"! is initiate$ b) $i(ergent "ones of a-bient ra)s ro<e"te$
fro- s'"! so'r"es5
T>o f'n$a-ental $ifferen"es in t!e Alternate Stan$ar$ Mo$el fro- t!e Stan$ar$
Mo$el;
E/terior "entral tra"es fro- reresentati(e ra$iating oints >it!in t!e fiel$ of
(ie> rela"e >it!o't loss to (ision t!e Stan$ar$ Mo$el7s anterior "entral tra"es5
T!ese e/terior "entral tra"es "olle"ti(el) $efine an e/terior "oni"al geo-etr)5 #Fig5
*+%5
Per T!e &a>
(ii
. 'on e/iting t!e 'il. "entral tra"es refra"t to t!e "enter of
t!e retina8s!ere. na-el) t!e fo"al oint5
FIGURE 12 Alternate Standard Model'
The "one of .ision
TREATISE ON PERSPECTIVE 12
FIGURE 13 Alternate Standard Model
T!e "one of (ision en"o-asses all (isible ra)s >it!in an e)e7s fiel$ of (ie>5 @)
$efinition t!e "one is "o-ose$ of ra)s >!i"! tra"e to>ar$ t!e ae/ of t!e "one5

FIGURE 14 Alternate Standard Model
Detail of Figure 2,
TREATISE ON PERSPECTIVE 13
FIGURE 15 Alternate Standard Model'
Detail of Figure 23
Per T!e &a>. @re>ster relo"ates t!e fo"al oint to t!e "enter of t!e retina8s!ere5
T!is !)ot!esis l's ele-entar) geo-etr) -an$ate t!at (is'al ra)s interse"t t!e
retina eren$i"'larl). an$ "on"o-itantl). if t!e ra)s interse"t t!e retina
eren$i"'larl) t!en t!e ra)s -'st first interse"t at t!e "enter of t!e retina8s!ere.
i5e5. t!e fo"al oint5
FIGURE 1 Alternate Standard Model'
Traces Perpendicular to -etina
TREATISE ON PERSPECTIVE 14

FIGURE 1! Alternate Standard Model
Pictorial
FIGURE 1" Alternate Standard Model
& "omplete Dioptrics 4ncluding 4nterior "one of .ision
M(OPIA)H(PEROPIA
TREATISE ON PERSPECTIVE 15
FIGURE 1# Alternate Standard Model
If t!e 'il siFe re-ains stable t!ere s!o'l$ be no $ifferen"e bet>een -)oia an$
!)eroia i-ages e/"et siFe5 T!e fa-iliar relations!i bet>een i-age siFe an$
i-age a"'it) 88 $een$ent on t!e $istan"e at >!i"! an ob<e"t is (ie>e$ : is be)on$
t!e s"oe of t!is treatise5
Fig5*? $e-onstrates t!at -)oiaG!)eroia in t!e Alternate Stan$ar$ Mo$el is $'e
to a ra) -al8refra"tion to a osition eit!er anterior or osterior to t!e i$eal o"'lar
fo"al oint #"enter of t!e retina8s!ere%5 T!is "a'ses blin$ness be"a'se. er
geo-etr). t!e ra)s >ill not transit t!e !otore"etors5 If t!e ra)s entering t!e
!otore"etors are onl) slig!tl) off "enter. KL * -i"ron
(iii
. t!e) -a) "a'se bl'rring
rat!er t!an blin$ness be"a'se t!e ra)s -a) not transit t!e "o-lete lengt! of t!e
!otore"etor b't rat!er $efle"t into t!e s'rro'n$ing !otore"etor tiss'es instea$5
T!e "itation fro- t!e!'-an-ir"le5blogsot
i/
>o'l$ see- a "ontra$i"tion5 Ho>e(er.
t!e "itation7s referen"e$ 6s!iel$ing effe"t9 >o'l$ see- at least onl) artial be"a'se
of t!e e(i$en"e in Fig5 +,
/
5 T!e res'lting -eri$ianall) s-earing in t!e s'rro'n$ing
!otore"etors is t!e res'-e$ "a'se of Alternate Stan$ar$ Mo$el bl'rring in
-)oi"G!)eroi" (ision5
TREATISE ON PERSPECTIVE 16

FIGURE 2$ Fro* t+e Standard L&terat,re
"ause of *lurring!*lindness due to myopia!hyperopia in the &lternate 1tandard
/odel. 4n the illustration on the right, the ray image is 5smeared over the nervous
system connected to the ad6oining photoreceptors.
AMENDMENT TO THE LA-
T!e &a> of Vis'al Dire"tion relies on @re>ster7s as )et 'n(erifie$ state-ent t!at t!e
retina is nearl) a erfe"t s!ere5 If not s!eri"al. basi" geo-etr) re(eals t!at
@re>ster7s state-ent -a) be a-en$e$ >it!o't "o-rise to rea$. 6T!e retina is
s!eri"al. or bot!. *% t!e area of t!e retina er"ei(ing t!e fiel$ of (ie> is s!eri"al.
an$ +% t!e orb is s)--etri"al abo't t!e geo-etri" a/is #oti"al a/is%59 See Fig5 +*5
FIGURE 21 Alternate Standard Model
Presumed )on-1pherical %r*
./E/D5

TREATISE ON PERSPECTIVE 17
PERSPECTI0E ILLUSION IN 0ISION1 THE CAUSE
erse"ti(e in (ision is an oti"al ill'sion t!at $efies E'"li$; Parallel straig!t
lines on a gi(en lane aear to interse"t at t!e 6!oriFon9 of t!e lane5 @e
re-in$e$ t!at a freB'ent rationale for t!e ill'sion. t!e Cfores!ortening fa"tor7.
is a res'lt not a "a'se5
P
T!e "a'se of t!e ill'sion is t!at straig!t lines. as seen in all nor-al sig!t. are a
gno-oni" ro<e"tion t!ro'g! t!e "enter of t!e retina s!ere5 A gno-oni" ro<e"tion
is a ro<e"tion in >!i"! all straig!t lines in sa"e. >!en ro<e"te$ to>ar$ t!e "enter
of a s!ere. "reate great "ir"les of interse"tion >it! t!e s!ere5 T!e -ost fa-iliar
gno-oni" ro<e"tion is "ir"les of longit'$e on t!e globe5 Fro- t!e "enter of t!e globe
6(erti"al9 nort!8so't! "ir"les aear as straig!t lines assing t!ro'g! t!e nort! an$
so't! oles5 T!e -ost re(alent lines seen on eart!. e5g5. roa$s. roof e$ges of
b'il$ings. railroa$ tra"3s. et"5. being arallel to t!e lane of t!e eart! #t!e "'r(at're
of t!e eart! -a) be $isregar$e$% are !oriFontal. t!erefore gno-oni" ro<e"tions of
s'"! to t!e retina !a(e 6!oriFontal9 east an$ >est oles #or an analog t!ereof% as
oose$ to 6(erti"al9 nort!8so't! oles5
FIGURE 22 Gno*on&2 Pro3e2t&on'
Pro6ects a 1traight ine as & 7reat "ircle
T!e follo>ing is a series of ill'strations of a gno-oni" ro<e"tion to t!e e)e of
straig!t railroa$ tra"3s >!i"! aear to -erge5 T!e) "onstit'te a (ali$ation t!at
erse"ti(e in (ision is a gno-oni" ro<e"tion5
TREATISE ON PERSPECTIVE 18

FIGURE 23
%*server on a -ailroad Platform
Fig5 +E s!o>s an obser(er on a railroa$ latfor-5 T!e lo"ation of t!e obser(er is
irrele(ant5 He -a) stan$ in t!e -i$$le of t!e rails5 If t!e obser(er !as eit!er *1, M
eri!eral or bilateral (ision. to !i- t!e rails aear to -erge in oosite $ire"tions
si-'ltaneo'sl)5 #See. Fig5 EH5%
FIGURE 24
%*servers "one of .ision
TREATISE ON PERSPECTIVE 19
FIGURE 25
8xtended 4nterior "one of .ision
FIGURE 2
%*server with 8xtended 4nterior "one of .ision
TREATISE ON PERSPECTIVE 20
FIGURE 2!
%*server with Truncated 8xtended 4nterior "one of .ision

FIGURE 2"
7eometric 8lements -educed To 8ssentials
TREATISE ON PERSPECTIVE 21
FIGURE 2#
-ail &9 Pro6ected To -etina

FIGURE 3$
&9F 8xpanded To 4ntersect the -etina
TREATISE ON PERSPECTIVE 22
Ra)s fro- oints A an$ @ ro<e"t to t!e retina. t!ro'g! fo"al oint 8F8. t!ereb)
$efining lane A@F5 If s'ffi"ientl) e/an$e$ >it!in t!e orb. lane A@F #er gno-oni"
ro<e"tion t!eor) an$ as allo>e$ !ere b) "o-'ter soft>are -o$eling re"ision%
interse"ts t!e orb in a great "ir"le of interse"tion5 6A great "ir"le Naears asO a
straig!t line in a gno-oni" ro<e"tion
/i
.9 >!i"! is to sa). great "ir"les aear as
straig!t lines >!en (ie>e$ fro- t!e "enter of t!e great "ir"le : in t!is "ase. t!e
o"'lar fo"al oint5
FIGURE 31
-ail "D Traced To -etina

FIGURE 32
"D Pro6ected To -etina
TREATISE ON PERSPECTIVE 23
FIGURE 33
4ntersection of &9 with "D at Focal Point
FIGURE 34
Figure ,, as 1een Posterior to the -etina
To "reate a !oriFon8line on t!e retina >!i"! reresents t!e !oriFon8line of t!e a"t'al
lane of t!e rails reB'ires a "'tting lane t!ro'g! t!e fo"al oint an$ arallel to t!e
lane of t!e geo-etr) #!ere. t!e rails%5
TREATISE ON PERSPECTIVE 24

FIGURE 35
"utting Plane Defining %cular 0ori:on
T!e #arallel% rail i-ages on t!e retina are. as >it! all gno-oni" ro<e"tions.
"on"'rrent 88 !ere at 6east8>est oles9 #or an analog t!ereof% of t!e eart!7s
6ro<e"te$9 (is'al !oriFon onto t!e orb5 T!is 6ro<e"tion9 o""'rs b) (irt'e of a "'tting
lane arallel to t!e lane of t!e rails an$ t!ro'g! t!e fo"al oint5 T!e t>o (is'all)
"on"'rrent oints of t!e rail7s great "ir"les are t!e (is'all) er"ei(e$ (anis!ing oints
of t!e t>o rails on t!e Pro<e"te$9 !oriFon5 T!e re"ision of t!e "o-'ter gra!i"s in
Fig5 EH geo-etri"all) (ali$ates t!is !eno-enon an$ "onfir-s t!e re-ise5 T!e
<'stifi"ation of t!e earlier "o--ent t!at a (ie>er >it! eri!eral (ision of *1,M or
bilateral (ision >ill obser(e straig!t railroa$ tra"3s on an infinite lane to -erge in
oosite $ire"tions si-'ltaneo'sl) is no> ob(io's5
In or$er to f'll) are"iate t!e "o-lete$ (erifi"ation it is !elf'l to a"3no>le$ge t!at
a lane >!i"! $oes not interse"t a oint "entere$ on t!e retina8s!ere $oes not
"reate a great "ir"le of interse"tion #a "ir"le is "reate$ b't not a great "ir"le% : an$
t!e oti"al ill'sion >ill not e/ist5 Ho>e(er. sin"e t!e oti"al ill'sion is in$ee$ 3no>n
to e/ist it follo>s t!at t!e geo-etr) of t!e foregoing re"onfir-s t!at t!e lo"ation of
t!e o"'lar fo"al oint is t!e "enter of t!e retina8s!ere an$ alies to all !'-an
(ision5
TREATISE ON PERSPECTIVE 25
0IE- TO-ARD THE 0ANISHING POINT
FIGURE 3
T!e seB'en"e in Fig5 E2 s!o>s a (ie>er gaFing to>ar$ a (anis!ing ointA orb >it!
"one of (ision #see Fig5 +H%A rails8l's8fo"al8oint8e/an$e$8lanes as er"ei(e$
t!ro'g! t!e "one of (ision #see Fig5 EE%A "reation of a (is'al !oriFon line b) a "'tting
lane #see Fig5 EH%A res'lting (is'al !oriFon line #see Fig5 EH%A !e-is!ere "reate$
'sing (is'al !oriFon line #see Fig5 EH%A "ontin'ation of seB'en"e to re(eal t!e i-age
ro<e"te$ on t!e retina5
TREATISE ON PERSPECTIVE 26
FIGURE 3!
FIGURE 3"
The retinal image produced *y the viewer ga:ing toward a vanishing point. )ote that
the si:e of the field of view on the retina exactly maps the si:e of the pupil.
TREATISE ON PERSPECTIVE 27
Per'4e2t&%e &n H,*an 0&'&on1 A More General Ca'e/
T!e re(io's a$$resses arallel lines on a !oriFontal lane5 T!is is t!e re(alent
"ase b't a se"ial "ase nonet!eless5 @elo> is a -ore general "ase in >!i"! t!e
lane of interest #roof% is obliB'e to t!e (ie>er5
FIGURE 3#
FIGURE 4$
TREATISE ON PERSPECTIVE 28
FIGURE 41
FIGURE 42
TREATISE ON PERSPECTIVE 29

FIGURE 43
FIGURE 44
TREATISE ON PERSPECTIVE 30
FIGURE 45
FIGURE 4
TREATISE ON PERSPECTIVE 31
FIGURE 4!
1idelines pro6ection
FIGURE 4!
TREATISE ON PERSPECTIVE 32

FIGURE 4#
.iew Posterior to -etina
FIGURE 5$
Perspective Pro6ection &nalysis of "omplete -oof
TREATISE ON PERSPECTIVE 33
FIGURE 51
Transparent Planes
FIGURE 52
.iew Posterior to the -etina
TREATISE ON PERSPECTIVE 34
FIGURE 53
.iew &nterior To Pupil
FIGURE 54
;orms-eye .iew %f -etina 0emisphere 1howing Four-Point
Dioptrics Perspective &nalysis of the -oof
TREATISE ON PERSPECTIVE 35
FIGURE 55
8ye Position -elative to -oof
FIGURE 5
Detail of Figure <<
./E/D/
TREATISE ON PERSPECTIVE 36
i
@re>ster. Sir Da(i$. A treatise on oti"s. #*215% +5 On t!e la> of (isible $ire"tion5 Q R!en a ra) of lig!t falls 'on t!e retina. an$ gi(es 's
(ision of t!e oint of an ob<e"t fro- >!i"! it ro"ee$s. it be"o-es an interesting B'estion to $eter-ine in >!at $ire"tion t!e ob<e"t >ill be
seen. re"3oning fro- t!e oint >!ere it falls 'on t!e retina5 In Fig're *S+5. let F be a oint of t!e retina on >!i"! t!e i-age of a oint of a
$istant ob<e"t is for-e$ b) -eans of t!e "r)stalline
lens. s'ose$ to be at & &5 No>. t!e ra)s >!i"! for- t!e i-age of t!e oint at F fall 'on t!e retina in all ossible $ire"tions fro- & F to & F.
an$ >e 3no> t!at t!e oint F is seen in t!e $ire"tion F C R5 In t!e sa-e -anner. t!e oints f f are seen so-e>!ere in t!e $ire"tions GTS.GT5
T!ese lines F R.GT S.GT. >!i"! -a) be "alle$ t!e lines of (isible $ire"tion. -a) eit!er be t!ose >!i"! ass t!ro'g! t!e "entre C of t!e lens &
&. or. in t!e "ase of t!e e)e. t!ro'g! t!e "entre of a lens eB'i(alent to all t!e refra"tions e-lo)e$ in ro$'"ing t!e i-ageA or it -a) be t!e
res'ltant of all t!e $ire"tions >it!in t!e angles & F &. &f &A or it -a) be a line eren$i"'lar to t!e retina at F. fTf5 In or$er to $eter-ine t!is
oint. let 's loo3 o(er t!e to of a "ar$ at t!e oint of t!e ob<e"t >!ose i-age is at F till t!e e$ge of t!e "ar$ is <'st abo't to !i$e it. or. >!at is
t!e sa-e t!ing. let 's obstr'"t all t!e ra)s t!at ass t!ro'g! t!e 'il e/"eting t!e 'er ones. R &. R CA >e s!all t!en fin$ t!at t!e oint
>!ose i-age is at F. is seen in t!e sa-e $ire"tion as >!en it >as seen b) all t!e ra)s & F. C F. & F5 If >e loo3 beneat! t!e "ar$ in a si-ilar
-anner. so as to see t!e ob<e"t b) t!e lo>er ra)s. R & F. R C F
ii
T!e ro(enan"e of t!e 6THE &AR9 is 'n"ertain5
iii
T!is -a) be (ali$ate$ e/eri-entall) b) blo"3ing a "entral tra"e as nearl) as ra"ti"able in or$er to $eter-ine if t!e ra$iating oint so'r"e
re-ains (isible on t!e retina as a res'lt of t!e a-bient "on(ergent ra)s alone5 S!ee7s e)es !a(e been a""esse$ fro- t!e rear to (ie> an
a"t'al i-age an$ -ig!t ser(e to ro(e t!e "on"et5 #See Oti"s an$ T!e E)e NAr"!i(eO 8 P!)si"s For'-s 88 P!)si"s For'-s U P!)si"s U
General P!)si"s U Oti"s an$ T!e E)e 555 O!t!al-olog) st'$ents !a(e been 3no>n to "aref'll) s"rae t!e ba"3 off a s!eeTs e)eball to
see t!at i-age5 88 >>>5!)si"sfor'-s5"o-Gar"!i(eGin$e/5!Gt8+*+12S5!t-lV Ca"!e$ age5% If t!e oint so'r"e is not (isible 'on blo"3ing
onl) t!e "entral ra) t!en t!e anterior "on(ergent "one of ra)s is ineffe"ti(e e/"et for t!e "entral tra"e5
i(
Per @ro$al5 T!e Central Ner(o's S)ste-. #5 *?E%; 6As -entione$. t!e retina "ontains interne'rons in a$$ition to t!e !otore"etors.
biolars. an$ ganglion "ells #Fig're 05S%5 T!e !oriFontal N@ro$al e-lo)s t!e "on(ention t!at t!e retina is 6!oriFontal9 8 RPKO "ells sen$ t!eir
ro"esses in t!e lane Ns!eri"al s'rfa"eO of t!e retina t!at is. eren$i"'lar to t!e orientation of t!e !otore"etors an$ t!e biolars
#Fig're 050%59
(
W5M5 Eno"! an$ V5 &a3s!-inara)anan. Vision Oti"s an$ Instr'-entation. e$5 R5N5 C!ar-an #Ma"Millan Press. &on$on. U5K5. *??*%. +1,8
E,15 6@e"a'se t!e !otore"etor inner an$ o'ter seg-ents are s!ort t!in ")lin$ers >it! a !ig!er refra"ti(e in$e/ t!an t!e s'rro'n$ing tiss'e.
t!e) a"t as s-all oti"al fibers an$ e/!ibit t)i"al >a(eg'i$e roerties s'"! t!at lig!t entering along t!e fiber a/is >ill be totall) internall)
refle"te$. an$ lig!t entering fro- eri!eral angles "an es"ae into t!e s'rro'n$ing tiss'e5 T!is oti"al roert) -eans t!at lig!t entering on
or near t!e re"etor a/is >ill ass t!ro'g! t!e entire lengt! of t!e o'ter seg-ent an$ t!erefore !a(e an in"rease$ "!an"e of iso-eriFing a
!otoig-ent -ole"'le5
(i
T!is erroneo's ill'stration of t!e Stan$ar$ Mo$el fort'ito'sl) $es"ribes t!e Alternate Stan$ar$ Mo$el5
(ii
@re>ster. Sir Da(i$. A treatise on oti"s. art iii5 #5 +S2%5 @re>ster states. in or$er to be seen. 6555 t!e $ire"tion of t!e ra) 555 is al>a)s
eren$i"'lar to t!e retinaA Nan$O 555 as t!e interior e)eball is as nearl) as ossible a erfe"t s!ere lines eren$i"'lar to t!e s'rfa"e of t!e
retina -'st all ass t!ro'g! a single oint. na-el). t!e "entre of its s!eri"al s'rfa"e59
(iii
!tt;GGeole5'-ass5e$'GX!)s*+HGP*?,@s)llab's5!t-l*E, -illion !otore"etors in a !'-an e)e. ea"! a "o'le of -i"rons in $ia-eter
i/
!tt;GGt!e!'-an-ira"le5blogsot5"o-G 6Ot!er ig-ents. s'"! as -elanin. are 'se$ to s!iel$ t!e !otore"etor "ells fro- lig!t lea3ing in
fro- t!e si$es5 T!e osin rotein gro' e(ol(e$ long before t!e last "o--on an"estor of ani-als. an$ !as "ontin'e$ to $i(ersif) sin"e95
/
F5R5 Ca-bell. #*?H0%5 Det! of Fiel$ of t!e H'-an E)e5 Oti"a A"ta. S. *H08*2S5 A s"!e-ati" $iagra- s!o>ing t!at obliB'el) in"i$ent
ra)s ass t!ro'g! -'ltile !otore"etors an$ ro$'"e a -eri$ional s-earing of t!e i-age a"ross se(eral re"etors5
/i
Stein!a's. H5. Mat!e-ati"al Snas!ots. Er$ e$5 #5 *1E an$ +*0%