Int J Biometeorot (1991) 34:259-265

meteorology
Thermal comfort in the humid tropics:
Field experiments in air conditioned
and naturally ventilated buildings in Singapore
R . J . d e D e a r 1, K. G. L e o w 1, a n d S . C . F o o 2
i Department of Geography, National University of Singapore, Kent Ridge, Singapore 0511
z Department of Community, Occupational and Family Medicine, National University of Singapore, Kent Ridge, Singapore 0511
Received August 7, 1990; revised October 8, 1990; Accepted October 15, 1990
Ab s t r a c t . Thermal comfort field experiments were con-
ducted in Singapore in bot h naturally ventilated high-
rise residential buildings and air conditioned office
buildings. Each of the 818 questionnaire responses was
made simultaneously with a detailed set of i ndoor cli-
matic measurements, and estimates of clothing insula-
tion and metabolic rate. Results for the air conditioned
sample indicated that office buildings were overcooled,
causing up to one-third of their occupants to experience
cool thermal comfort sensations. These observations in
air conditioned buildings were broadl y consistent with
the ISO, ASHRAE and Singapore i ndoor climatic stan-
dards. Indoor climates of the naturally ventilated apart-
ments during the day and early evening were on average
three degrees warmer than the ISO comfort standard
prescriptions, but caused much less thermal discomfort
than expected. Discrepancies between thermal comfort
responses in apart ment blocks and office buildings are
discussed in terms of cont emporary perceptual theory.
Ke y w o r d s : Thermal comfort Field study - Indoor
climate - Energy conservation - Perceptual theory
I n t r o d u c t i o n
Thermal comfort research can be performed in either
a climate chamber or in field settings (typically build-
ings). The former met hodol ogy permits an independent
environmental variable to be manipulated directly whilst
isolating the dependent variable, comfort level, from ex-
traneous influences. While this controlled research de-
sign has permitted the relative importance and interac-
tions of several independent variables to be disentangled,
unfort unat el y this reduces thermal comfort to a simplis-
tic stimulus-response system (McIntyre 1982). Environ-
Of f pr i nt r eques t s to : R.J. de Dear
mental psychologists have long contended that laborato-
ry studies represent crude oversimplifications of person-
environment interactions and consequently have
doubt ed their relevance to the solution of practical prob-
lems of the built environment (Proshansky 1972; Russell
and Ward 1982). However, since researchers from engi-
neering and physical science backgrounds rather than
psychology have dominated thermal comfort research,
climate chambers have remained the principal research
tool for supplying professionals of the built environment
with dat a on human thermal requirements (e.g. ISO
1984; ASHRAE 1981).
Field studies of thermal comfort on the other hand
are characterized by greater external validity than the
l aborat ory-based methodology. Field-based researchers
recognize the person-environment system as an integral
unit in which sensation and perception are influenced
by the thermal environment, which in turn is modified
by behavi our in a self-regulating manner (Nicol and
Humphreys 1973). Being conduct ed in naturalistic set-
tings, field studies also avoid the artificiality of the cli-
mate chamber (McIntyre 1982), thereby preserving the
phenomenal integrity of the environment under study
(Stokols 1977). Furthermore, field studies are typically
based on large numbers of respondents, thus further en-
hancing external validity. In comparison, l aborat ory stu-
dies are usually constrained to small sample sizes on
account of the requirement to pay hourly rates for sub-
jects' participation.
Since field studies are usually conduct ed to answer
specific questions about a single building, their results
rarely have general relevance to comfort theoreticians.
Whilst individually they may not be so significant,
viewed collectively the extensive body of field studies
have suggested some interesting hypotheses about the
relationship between the temperatures that people find
comfortable and prevailing levels of environmental
warmth. Comprehensive reviews and statistical analyses
of the results of over 50 individual field studies on ther-
mal comfort from various global climatic regimes have
260
been published by Humphreys (1976, 1981) and Auli-
ciems (1981, 1983). Both researchers reported strong
positive correlations between the observed comfort tem-
perature and the mean temperatures prevailing bot h in-
doors and out doors during the field studies. This rela-
tionship is widely considered to be inconsistent with
thermal comfort models derived from climate chamber
research (Auliciems 1981; Humphreys 1976; McIntyre
1982).
Obviously a t horough understanding of the comfort
problem requires contributions from bot h field- and lab-
oratory-based research. A third methodological ap-
proach, that of the field experiment, has recently been
used to test critically the inconsistencies of the other
two (de Dear and Auliciems 1985; Schiller et al. 1989;
Busch 1990). It is essentially the same as a field study
in that the research is conducted in actual buildings with
' real ' occupants as opposed to paid subjects. The dis-
tinguishing feature of the met hod is that all the environ-
mental and behavioural variables known from climate
chamber experiments to influence thermal comfort are
measured in situ. In contrast with earlier field studies
which typically measured only air temperature and hu-
midity, a complete set of measurements in field experi-
ments permits the prediction of body-environment heat
balances for each respondent. The basic idea of this ap-
proach is that, if several independent variables cannot
be controlled in the field, they can at least be measured
so that subsequent dat a analyses can partial out their
effects on comfort levels. Despite this additional atten-
tion given to environmental measurement, the results
of field experiments have not always supported those
of the climate chamber met hod (de Dear and Auliciems
1985; Schiller et al . 1989; Busch 1990). Three related
postulates about the general nature of perception may
offer an explanation for the discrepancies (Helson 1971;
Ittelson 1973; Auliciems 1981 ; Russel and Ward 1982):
(1) Perception is not exclusively determined by environ-
mental stimulus or physiological responses.
(2) Perception is not a discrete psychological process
and is indistinguishable from memory and cognition.
In this context the environmental expectations of a per-
son come into play.
(3) Perception is relevant to and appropriate for the envi-
ronmental context in which it occurs.
Ai ms of the study
The current paper sets out to furnish new thermal com-
fort dat a based on field experiments in the humid trop-
ics, which to date are underrepresented in the comfort
literature (Humphreys 1981; Auliciems and de Dear
1986; Busch 1990). Two separate studies were conducted
in Singapore, one in air conditioned offices and the other
in naturally ventilated high-rise residential buildings.
Comparisons between these two studies are made and
the findings are then interpreted in relation to contempo-
rary comfort theory and standards (ISO 1984; ASHRAE
1981) as well as the postulates of perception outlined
above.
Locati on of the study
The climate of Singapore
Situated at latitude 1~ the island of Singapore expe-
riences a climate with uniformly high temperatures, high
humidity, and abundant rainfall averaging 2381 mm per
annum. The thermal uniformity is emphasized by the
observation that the climatological mean mont hl y tem-
perature varies by only 1.1 K from the mean annual
value of 26.6 ~ C. Diurnally there is also little variation,
with the average daily range in temperature being 7 K.
High sea surface temperatures in the adjacent South
China Sea and Straits of Malacca cause the mean annual
relative humidity to be 84% with typical daily maxima
approaching saturation in the cooler early mornings
(Singapore Meteorological Service 1987).
The limited seasonality that does exist is attributable
to monsoonal shifts in prevailing wind directions and
the attendant changes in cloud cover, rainfall, and solar
radiation. Figure 1 depicts Singapore' s thermal comfort
cont our surface by hour and month, based on the Stan-
dard Effective Temperature index (Gagge et al. 1986)
applied to a lightly clad (0.5 clo) person, standing in
an open field and facing the sun for the entire year of
1988 meteorological dat a (de Dear 1989). In the figure
can be seen a reduction in thermal discomfort from No-
vember through March during the northeast monsoon,
which is when wind velocity and cloud cover reach their
seasonal maxima.
The air conditioned buildings were surveyed in the
months of July and August 1986, during which the aver-
age air temperature was 27.4 ~ C (ranging from an aver-
age daily minimum of 25.0 ~ to an average maximum
of 31.1 ~ C), and the average relative humidity was
4 ~
38
36
34
32
30
2 8 /
cO 2 6
2 4
2 2
2 0
M
J
16
\
2 0
Fig. 1. Me a n St andar d Effective Temper at ur es (SET) by hour and
mo n t h for 1988 i n Si ngapor e. SET was based on cal cul at i ons for
a subj ect dressed i n 0.5 clo a nd s t andi ng i n an open field f or a
full year of met eor ol ogi cal dat a ( af t er de Dear 1989)
8 3 . 6 %. Th e n a t u r a l l y v e n t i l a t e d b u i l d i n g s we r e s u r v e y e d
a y e a r l a t e r i n Au g u s t 1987 wh e n t he o u t d o o r t e mp e r a -
t ur e s a n d h u mi d i t i e s we r e c o mp a r a b l e t o t he 1986 va l ue s .
The buildings surveyed
By 1987, t he p e r c e n t a g e o f S i n g a p o r e ' s p o p u l a t i o n l i vi ng
i n p u b l i c h o u s i n g wa s 8 5 % ( HDB 1987), mo s t o f wh i c h
wa s c o n c e n t r a t e d i n s e ve r a l hi gh- r i s e r e s i d e n t i a l c l us t e r s
k n o wn l o c a l l y a s ' n e w t o wn s ' . Thi s ha s r e s u l t e d i n p o p u -
l a t i o n de ns i t i e s wi t h i n t he r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a s o f t he d o z e n
o r so ne w t o wn s b e i n g as hi gh as 100000 p e r s o n s p e r
k m 2 ( HDB 1987). Th e f o u r n a t u r a l l y v e n t i l a t e d b u i l d -
i ngs us e d i n t hi s s t u d y we r e s e l e c t e d f r o m f o u r r e p r e s e n -
t a t i ve ne w t o wn s . I n S i n g a p o r e t he mo s t c o mmo n l y us e d
r e s i d e n t i a l c l i ma t e c o n t r o l s a r e cei l i ng a n d f l o o r s t a n d i n g
f a ns ; Wo n g a n d Ye h ( 1985) f o u n d t h e m i n 8 5 % o f HDB
a p a r t me n t s i n 1981.
Th e t wel ve a i r c o n d i t i o n e d of f i ce b u i l d i n g s u s e d i n
t he p r e s e n t s t u d y we r e s e l e c t e d f r o m b o t h t he p u b l i c
a n d p r i v a t e s e c t or s a n d we r e l o c a t e d p r i ma r i l y i n t he
c e n t r a l bus i ne s s d i s t r i c t o f Si n g a p o r e . Al l we r e hi gh- r i s e
b u i l d i n g s l ess t h a n 5 y e a r s o l d a n d wi t h t he i r i n t e r n a l
s pa c e s t y p i c a l l y l a n d s c a p e d a n d o f o p e n p l a n de s i gn.
Ai r c o n d i t i o n i n g wa s p r o v i d e d f r o m c e n t r a l l y c o n t r o l l e d
p l a n t i n al l b u i l d i n g s .
Materi al s and methods
The respondents. Five hundred and eighty-three respondents from
214 households were interviewed in naturally ventilated buildings
and 235 respondents were interviewed in air conditioned office
buildings. All were either long-term residents of Singapore or had
been born in the country. Basic demographic dat a on the two
samples are summarized in Table 1. Senior personnel were not as
accessible to the researchers as the younger staff in the office study,
hence the relatively young sample in the air conditioned part of
the study.
Indoor climatic measurements. Four atmospheric parameters, ambi-
ent air temperature, mean radiant temperature, humidity and air
velocity, were measured simultaneously whilst the questionnaire
was being administered. An Assmann aspirated psychrometer was
used to measure i ndoor dry- and wet-bulb temperatures from which
relative humidity was derived. Mean radiant temperature was as-
sessed using a 150-mm-diameter globe thermometer. Wet-, dry-
and globe thermometers were all calibrated with resolutions of
0.i K. Globe temperature was converted to mean radi ant tempera-
ture by calculating the convective and radiative heat balance of
the globe. By making the simplifying assumption that convective
Table 1. Demographic dat a for the samples of respondents
Age group (years)
17-20 21-40 41-60
261
and radiative heat transfers from the human body were of equal
significance, the single temperature for sensible heat loss known
as operative temperature was estimated as the arithmetic mean
of air and mean radiant temperatures. This index will be primarily
used in the remainder of the paper. Indoor air velocities were mea-
sured by a Kanomax hot-wire anemometer (model 24-6111). All
i ndoor climatic measurements were taken at a single height of 0.8 m
above the floor and within a 1 m radius of the seated respondent.
Questionnaire. Clothing ensemble insulation was estimated by
means of garment checklists compiled from various thermal manik-
in studies (Olesen and Nielsen 1983; McCullough et al . 1985).
These checklists, one for each sex, yieided intrinsic ensemble insula-
tion estimates by simply summing the individual garment insula-
tion values in cto units (1 clo =0.155 m 2 K per W) and multiplying
by 0.82 (ISO 1984). Metabolic heat production in W/ m 2 was as-
sessed by means of an activity/behaviour checklist compiled from
published tables of dat a (ASHRAE 1981; ISO 1984).
Apart from basic demographic items, the questionnaire also
asked for thermal comfort responses. Respondents were asked to
answer the following question by marking the standard seven-point
scale (hot = + 3 ; warm = + 2; slightly warm = + 1 ; neutral or just
right = 0; slightly cool = - 1 ; cool = - 2; cold = - 3) (McIntyre
1978): How does the temperature feel at this moment? Does the
room feel cool, warm, or neutral (just right)?
Results
Indoor climates
S u mma r y s t a t i s t i c s f or t he 583 set s o f i n d o o r c l i ma t i c
me a s u r e me n t s i ns i de t he n a t u r a l l y v e n t i l a t e d f l at s a r e
gi ve n i n Ta bl e 2. Th e me a n r a d i a n t t e mp e r a t u r e wa s
a b o u t h a l f a de gr e e wa r me r t h a n t he me a n a i r t e mp e r a -
t ur e o f 29. 4 ~ C, p r o b a b l y due t o t he t i mi n g o f mo s t i n t e r -
vi ews i n t he a f t e r n o o n a n d e v e n i n g h o u r s . Co n s e q u e n t l y
t he me a n o p e r a t i v e t e mp e r a t u r e wa s ma r g i n a l l y wa r me r
t h a n t he ai r , a t 29. 6 ~ C, a n d qui t e u n i f o r m wi t h a s t a n-
d a r d d e v i a t i o n o f o n l y 1.2 K. Re l a t i v e h u mi d i t i e s we r e
u n i f o r ml y hi gh t h r o u g h o u t , wi t h a me a n o f 7 4 %. I n d o o r
a i r ve l oc i t i e s wer e l i ght f or n a t u r a l l y v e n t i l a t e d r o o ms ,
wi t h a me a n o f 0. 22 m/ s . Wh i l e f a ns we r e o b s e r v e d i n
t he o v e r wh e l mi n g ma j o r i t y o f f l at s , t h e y we r e r a r e l y i n
us e d u r i n g t he i nt e r vi e ws .
Th e me a n r a d i a n t t e mp e r a t u r e s me a s u r e d i n a i r c o n -
d i t i o n e d b u i l d i n g s we r e o n a v e r a g e mo r e t h a n one de gr e e
wa r me r t h a n a i r t e mp e r a t u r e , p r o b a b l y r e s u l t i n g f r o m
hi gh s o l a r l o a d s i n S i n g a p o r e c o mb i n e d wi t h l o w t h e r ma l
ma s s a n d l a r ge a r e a s o f g l a z i n g i n t he of f i ce b u i l d i n g s
s ur ve ye d. Th e a v e r a g e o p e r a t i v e t e mp e r a t u r e r e c o r d e d
i n a i r c o n d i t i o n e d b u i l d i n g s wa s 23. 5 ~ C. Ai r ve l oc i t i e s
Total
>60
Nat ural ventilation Male 37 143 70 37 287
Female 50 98 95 53 296
Total 87 241 165 90 583
Ai r conditioned Male 0 69 22 0 91
Female 18 118 8 0 144
Total 18 187 30 0 235
262
Table 2. Summary of the indoor micro-climatic data
Naturally ventilated" Air conditioned b
Mean SD Max. Min. Mean SD Max. Min.
Air temperature (~ 29.4 1.23 31. 9 26. 0 22.9 1.33 26. 8 18.3
Relative humidity (%) 73.5 6.6 97. 8 57. 9 55.5 7.6 74. 1 35.6
Mean radiant temperature ( ~ 29.8 1.19 31. 9 26. 8 24.1 1.14 28. 8 19.7
Operative temperature (~ 29.6 1.20 31. 7 26. 5 23.5 1.20 27. 5 19.0
Air velocity (m/s) 0.22 0.12 0. 58 0. 05 0. 11 0. 10 0. 65 0.01
n=583; b n=235
Table 3. Summary of metabolic and clothing data
Naturally ventilated a Air conditioned b
Mean SD Max. Min. Mean SD Max. Min.
Ensemble insulation (clo) 0. 26 0.09 0.53 0 . 1 2 0 . 4 4 0.10 0.67 0.29
Metabolic heat (W/m 2) 69.6 17.8 165. 0 4 5 . 3 67.4 12.4 116. 0 58.0
a n=583;b n=235
Table 4. Thermal comfort votes and operative temperature in naturally ventilated buildings
Operative Mean - 3 - 2 - 1 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 Totals
temperature (~ vote
26.6-27.5 - 0. 7 0 4 17 4 6 0 0 31
27.6-28.5 - 0. 1 0 5 34 34 21 4 0 98
28.6~29.5 0.3 0 3 17 51 34 5 1 111
29.6-30.5 0.8 0 1 20 76 80 36 7 220
30.6-31.5 1.7 0 0 1 7 33 46 13 100
31.6-32.5 2.0 0 0 0 0 4 14 5 23
+0.66 0 13 89 172 178 105 26 583
were l ow but t ypi cal f or ai r condi t i oni ng ( ASHRAE
1981), wi t h a mean val ue of 0.11 m/ s, while t he me a n
i ndoor rel at i ve humi di t y of 56% was consi der abl y l ower
t han out door values.
Behavioral variables
St at i st i cal s ummar i es of met abol i c rat es and cl ot hi ng in-
sul at i on val ues est i mat ed f or t he occupant s of bot h t he
ai r condi t i oned and nat ur al l y vent i l at ed bui l di ngs are
shown in Tabl e 3. I n t he nat ur al l y vent i l at ed apar t ment s ,
the me a n cl ot hi ng i nsul at i on val ue of 0.26 clo reflects
the casual dress codes of Si ngapor eans in t hei r homes,
wi t h t he t ypi cal mal e ensembl e consi st i ng of shor t s and
t -shi rt , while t he t ypi cal f emal e ensembl e consi st ed of
a l i ght ski rt and bl ouse. Dr ess codes were mor e f or mal
in ai r condi t i oned offices, wi t h a me a n i nsul at i on val ue
of 0.44 clo whi ch is compar abl e t o t ypi cal office at t i re
in s umme r in t he US ( ASHRAE 1981). For men this
t ypi cal l y consi st ed of a l i ght short -sl eeve shi rt and l ong
t r ouser s wi t h shoes, while f or women, t he t ypi cal office
at t i re compr i s ed a hal f slip, l i ght knee- l engt h skirt, a
l i ght short -sl eeve bl ouse and shoes/ sandal s. The mean
met abol i c rat es est i mat ed in bot h surveys were appr oxi -
mat el y equal at about 69 W/ m 2 or 1.2 met . I n t he offi ce
bui l di ngs, t he r es pondent s were mai nl y des k- bound. The
a pa r t me nt r espondent s were al so mai nl y sedent ar y f or
t he hour j ust bef or e bei ng i nt ervi ewed.
Thermal comfort responses
I n Tabl es 4 and 5, respect i vel y, subj ect i ve assessment s
of t he i ndoor cl i mat es in nat ur al l y vent i l at ed and ai r
condi t i oned bui l di ngs have been cr os s - t abul at ed agai nst
oper at i ve t emper at ur e. I n nat ur al l y vent i l at ed a pa r t me nt
bl ocks, t he me a n c omf or t vot e of 583 r es pondent s was
+ 0.66 whi ch cor r es ponds appr oxi mat el y t o hal f - way be-
t ween ' j us t r i ght ' a n d ' slightly wa r m' on t he seven- poi nt
scale used. Slightly mor e t han hal f of all c omf or t vot es
in t he nat ur al l y vent i l at ed bui l di ngs were wa r me r t han
neut ral . The me a n t her mal c omf or t vot e r ecor ded in ai r
condi t i oned bui l di ngs was j ust on t he cool side of ' j us t
r i ght ' at - 0 . 3 4 . Appr oxi ma t e l y one- t hi r d of all vot es
r ecor ded in t he ai r condi t i oned bui l di ngs were cool er
t han neut ral .
The r ma l neut ral i t i es were cal cul at ed f r om t her mal
c omf or t and oper at i ve t emper at ur e cr oss- t abul at i ons us-
ing t he pr obi t regressi on t echni que ( Fi nney 1971; Bal-
l ant yne et al. 1977). The t er m ' ne ut r a l i t y' is used here
to denot e t he oper at i ve t emper at ur e t hat caused 50%
of r espondent s to vot e on t he cool hal f of t he seven- poi nt
scale, whi l e t he r emai ni ng 50% vot ed on t he wa r m side.
Table 5. Thermal comfort votes and operative temperature in air conditioned buildings
Operative Mean - 3 - 2 - 1 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 Totals
temperature (~ vote
18.6-19.5 - 2. 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1
19.6-20.5 - 2. 2 3 2 0 1 0 0 0 6
20.6-215 - 2. 0 3 3 1 1 0 0 0 8
21.6-22.5 - 0. 7 2 3 4 11 1 0 0 2t
22.6-23.5 - 0. 4 6 6 20 38 11 3 0 84
23.6-24.5 - 0. 2 3 5 10 34 10 3 I 66
24.6-25.5 0.1 0 2 2 26 2 3 0 35
25.6-26,5 0.8 0 0 0 2 3 1 0 6
26.6-27.5 1.0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 3
-0. 34 17 22 37 113 30 10 1 230
263
Expressed di fferent l y, t her mal neut r al i t y is t he oper at i ve
t emper at ur e most likely t o elicit a t her mal comf or t vot e
o f ' n e u t r a l ' or ' j ust r i ght ' . The resul t f or t he occupant s
of nat ur al l y vent i l at ed buildings was 28.5 ~ C oper at i ve
t emper at ur e (95% fi duci al limits 28.2 ~ t o 28.8 ~ C). In
ai r condi t i oned buildings t he t her mal neut r al i t y was esti-
mat ed to be 24.2 ~ C oper at i ve t emper at ur e ( 95% fi duci al
limits 23.6 ~ t o 25.1 ~ C). The smal l er sampl e size of t he
ai r condi t i oned survey, par t i cul ar l y in war mer t emper a-
tures, account s f or t he wide fiducial limits (1.5 K) on
t hat survey' s neut r al i t y est i mat e.
Discussion
I ndoor cl i mat i c and t her mal comf or t st andar ds r epr esent
pract i cal guidelines f or HVAC (Heat i ng, Vent i l at i on and
Ai r Condi t i oni ng) engineers. Compar i ng ai r condi t i on-
i ng pract i ces in Si ngapor e wi t h t he r el evant st andards,
t he mean i ndoor cl i mat e in this sampl e of office build-
ings, consi st i ng of 23.5~ C oper at i ve t emper at ur e and
55% rel at i ve humi di t y ( RH) , falls near t he cool limit
of t he l ocal st andar d' s 23~ ~ C comf or t r ange at 60%
RH ( SI SI R 1983), whi ch was di rect l y based on t he sum-
mer comf or t zone prescri bed in t he US ai r condi t i oni ng
st andar d ( ASHRAE 1981). The obser ved mean condi -
t i ons were also cool er (circa 1.5 K) t han t he i nt er nat i onal
t her mal comf or t st andar d' s (ISO 1984) r ecommenda-
t i ons of 25 ~ C and 60% RH.
The number of t her mal comf or t field experi ment s
car r i ed out pr evi ousl y in t r opi cal air condi t i oned build-
ings is small ( Humphr eys 1981), but Auliciems and de
Dear s' (1986) Dar wi n st udy in Aust ral i a' s t r opi cal nor t h
and Busch' s (1990) st udy in Bangkok, Thai l and are di-
rect l y compar abl e since a c ommon met hodol ogy was
used. The neut r al i t y obser ved in Dar wi n office buildings
r anged f r om 23.9 ~ t o 24. 2 ~ C, dependi ng on season. For
all i nt ent s and pur poses however, these Dar wi n results
can be r egar ded as i dent i cal t o t he pr esent Si ngapor e
result. Busch (1990) f ound t hat Thai office wor ker s in
ai r condi t i oned buildings in Bangkok had a neut r al i t y
of 24.5 ~ C whi ch also cl osel y agrees wi t h t he Si ngapor e
and Dar wi n results. Ther ef or e Dar wi n' s l argel y Eur ope-
an office popul at i on seems to have i dent i cal air condi -
t i oni ng r equi r ement s t o t hose of t he office popul at i ons
in Sout heast Asia.
Obvi ousl y t he i ndoor cl i mat e obser ved in nat ur al l y
vent i l at ed apar t ment s in Si ngapor e was consi der abl y
hot t er and mor e humi d t han t hat f ound in air condi -
t i oned buildings. A mean oper at i ve t emper at ur e of
29.6 ~ C and a mean rel at i ve humi di t y of 74% were ob-
served in the apar t ment s. The i ndoor cl i mat e/ comf or t
st andar ds discussed above i ndi cat e these condi t i ons t o
be well beyond t he comf or t r ange (ISO 1984; ASHRAE
1981 ; SI SI R 1983). For exampl e, t he war mest oper at i ve
t emper at ur e at 70% RH r ecommended in t he US stan-
dar d as bei ng accept abl e t o at least 80% of bui l di ng
occupant s in summer condi t i ons was onl y 22. 5 ~ C ( ASH-
RAE 1981), whi ch was 7 K cool er t han t he average con-
di t i ons obser ved in t he pr esent nat ur al l y vent i l at ed
buildings. The ISO (1984) st andar d was mor e realistic,
but still t he r ecommended oper at i ve t emper at ur e f or t he
average cl ot hi ng, met abol i c, ai r vel oci t y and humi di t y
condi t i ons was t hree degrees cool er t han t he mean of
29.6 ~ C act ual l y obser ved in these buildings.
Busch' s (1990) field exper i ment in nat ur al l y vent i l at -
ed office buildings in Bangkok i ndi cat ed a neut r al i t y
of 28.5 ~ C ET* (effective t emper at ur e) which, even when
conver t ed back i nt o oper at i ve t emper at ur e, can be re-
gar ded as bei ng in good agr eement wi t h t he cur r ent
Si ngapor e resul t of 28.5 ~ C. Bot h these recent findings
are consi der abl y war mer t han t he much earl i er
Si ngapor e sur vey neut ral i t i es of 26.7 ~ and 27.2 ~ C ob-
t ai ned by Ellis (1953) and Webb (1959) respectively, but
an expl anat i on of t he di scr epancy is not possible since
t he earlier researchers failed to r ecor d all of t he i ndoor
climatic vari abl es t hat are now known t o affect t he
body' s heat balance.
Apar t f r om f or mi ng t he anal yt i c basis of i ndoor cli-
mat e and comf or t st andards, mat hemat i cal model s such
as Fanger ' s (1970) Predi ct ed Mean Vote ( PMV) can be
used t o cal i brat e comf or t responses, t her eby faci l i t at i ng
st andar di zed compar i sons bet ween di fferent field experi-
ments. By solving t he PMV equat i on f or oper at i ve t em-
per at ur e r at her t han comf or t vot e, t he model ' s pr edi ct ed
neut r al t emper at ur e under the mean i ndoor climatic and
behavi our al condi t i ons obser ved in t he nat ur al l y venti-
l at ed Si ngapor e buildings was appr oxi mat el y 2 K cool er
t han t he neut r al i t y of 28.5 ~ C act ual l y observed. Tur ni ng
to field experi ment s in ai r condi t i oned buildings in t he
t ropi cs, t he PMV model ' s pr edi ct ed neut ral i t i es f or the
present Si ngapor e st udy, as well as t hose by Auliciems
and de Dear (1986) and Busch (1990), were all slightly
war mer t han t he empi ri cal l y obser ved neut ral i t i es (by
264
circa 1 K). Comparing this positive one degree discrep-
ancy between theory and observation with the negative
discrepancy of approximately two degrees in the present
naturally ventilated building study supports Humphreys
(1976, 1981) and Auliciems' (1981) hypothesis that neu-
tral temperatures shift towards the prevailing level of
warmth in buildings. Busch arrived at a similar conclu-
sion in his Bangkok study, noting that Thai office
workers in naturally ventilated buildings ' ...expressed
satisfaction with temperatures and humidities well above
those deemed acceptable in the HVAC industry' (Busch
1990).
These field experiment comparisons bring us back
to the general features of perception postulated in the
introduction of this paper. Perception of i ndoor climate,
at least as measured by a seven-point scale, appears not
to be strictly determined by the i ndoor climatic and be-
havioural (clothing and metabolic) variables that control
bodily heat balance. Instead, these dat a suggest that
thermal perceptions are significantly attenuated by ex-
pectations. Given that climate-controlled office build-
ings have such constant temperatures and that thermal
regimes in Singapore' s naturally ventilated public hous-
ing are also relatively homogeneous, Singaporeans no
doubt have well-established expectations of their i ndoor
climates, and it is these expectations that appear to form
the benchmarks for their thermal perceptions.
Taken out of context, the model of thermal percep-
tion discussed above raises the slightly absurd prospect
of HVAC engineers being permitted by building occu-
pants to shift indoor climatic design criteria arbitrarily.
Field surveys in the US (Gagge and Nevins 1976; Elder
and Ti bbot t 1981) demonstrated this to be far from the
truth. They found widespread thermal dissatisfaction
among occupants of office buildings in which air condi-
tioning set-points were adjusted a few degrees in order
to conserve energy. Carlton-Foss (1982) also found of-
fice building occupants to be ' barriers to the implemen-
tation of energy conservation strategies' . Apparently
American office workers' expectations of their air condi-
tioned work environments are not as malleable as ener-
gy/cost-conscious building service managers woul d like.
In Bangkok, however, where air conditioning in offices
may not yet be considered the norm, Busch (1990) found
that at least 80% of workers in naturally ventilated
buildings were quite tolerant of temperatures up to
30.5 ~ C ET*, indicating that their i ndoor climatic expec-
tations had not yet been raised to the levels of their
more demanding counterparts in, for example,
Singapore, Australia or the United States.
The third general feature of perception postulated
in the introductory paragraphs of this paper implies that
expectations are context specific, so atmospheric condi-
tions that were demonstrated to be acceptable in natural-
ly ventilated apartments in Singapore woul d have inevi-
tably been met with widespread condemnation were they
encountered in an office building in the same city. The
contextual factors influencing expectations are no doubt
legion, but near the t op of the list probabl y are the ques-
tions of ' who is paying the energy bill?' and ' who is
controlling the t emperat ure?' These cognitive factors
were also probabl y implicated in the surprisingly low
average dwelling temperature of 15. 8~ observed by
Hunt and Gi dman (1982) in their nationwide UK field
survey of 1000 houses. The average clothing insulation
level of 0.83 clo observed in that study was well below
the 2 clo level that woul d have been required to achieve
a PMV of zero (' neut ral ' or ' j ust right' ). Therefore it
seems that the British have a greater tolerance of cold
temperatures in their homes than is suggested by com-
fort standards. Similarly in Singapore, residents of natu-
rally ventilated apartments have a greater tolerance of
warm and humid indoor climates than suggested by the
standards.
The foregoing is not intended to suggest that people
in Singapore' s public housing, or indeed in UK dwell-
ings, woul d not opt for cooler temperatures (or warmer
in the UK example), were all financial and other con-
straints to be waived. Even though household income
seems certain to rise with the rapid development of
Singapore' s economy, the financial burden of air condi-
tioning entire apartments is unlikely to disappear given
the thermodynamic inefficiency of refrigeration technol-
ogy. Moreover, even if air conditioning was to become
economically more accessible, other considerations such
as the adverse environmental impacts of excessive per
capita fossil fuel consumpt i on seem certain to increase
the demand for energy conservation in buildings as we
approach the greenhouse of the 21st century.
The psychological dimensions of thermal comfort
discussed in this paper hold out opportunities in a time
of renewed interest in passive solar buildings (Knudsen
et al. 1989). It is a truism that passive buildings require
active occupants. For example, in the behavioural sense
occupants must adjust their clothing insulation, while
in the psychological sense they must be prepared to ad-
j ust their expectations away from the traditional ideal
of a homogeneous i ndoor climate. To date, the novelty
of passive architecture in economically developed coun-
tries has probabl y selected out ' appr opr i at e' occupants
who are sympathetic to the low-energy design concept
and quite willing to tolerate spatial and temporal pertur-
bations of indoor climate. Therefore in economically de-
veloped countries, the challenge is to maintain that
goodwill after the novelty has worn off and to broaden
the acceptability of low-energy i ndoor climatic regimes
to the general population as well as the enthusiasts. In
newly industrializing countries such as Singapore, how-
ever, the main task is to resist escalating expectations
of indoor climate despite rapidly increasing household
incomes.
Co nc l us i o ns
A field experiment in naturally ventilated apartments
in Singapore found during day-time and early evening
hours, a mean operative temperature of 29.6 ~ C, mean
RH of 74%, mean air velocity of 0.22 m/s, mean occu-
pant clothing insulation level of 0.26 clo, and an average
metabolic rate of 70 W/ m 2. The mean thermal comfort
vote on a seven-point scale was observed to be +0. 66,
which was about half-way between ' j ust right' and
' slightly warm' .
265
A f i el d e x p e r i me n t i n a i r c o n d i t i o n e d of f i ce b u i l d i n g s
i n S i n g a p o r e f o u n d a me a n o p e r a t i v e t e mp e r a t u r e o f
23. 5 ~ C, me a n R H o f 56 %, me a n a i r v e l o c i t y o f 0.11 m/ s ,
me a n o c c u p a n t c l o t h i n g i n s u l a t i o n l evel o f 0. 44 cl o, a n d
a n a v e r a g e me t a b o l i c r a t e o f 67 W/ m 2. Th e me a n t he r -
ma l c o mf o r t v o t e o n a s e v e n - p o i n t s cal e wa s o b s e r v e d
t o be - 0 . 3 4 , wh i c h wa s o n t he c o o l ma r g i n o f ' j u s t
r i ght ' .
Th e i n t e r n a t i o n a l a n d l oc a l s t a n d a r d s o f i n d o o r cl i -
ma t e a n d t h e r ma l c o mf o r t we r e n o t wi d e l y d i v e r g e n t
f r o m t he t h e r ma l n e u t r a l i t i e s o b s e r v e d t o d a t e i n f i el d
e x p e r i me n t s i n a i r c o n d i t i o n e d b u i l d i n g s i n t he t r opi c s .
Ob s e r v e d n e u t r a l i t i e s we r e a p p r o x i ma t e l y one d e g r e e
c o o l e r t h a n t he v a r i o u s s t a n d a r d s ' p r e s c r i p t i o n s .
T h e r ma l c o mf o r t r e s p o n s e s i n n a t u r a l l y v e n t i l a t e d
a p a r t me n t s i n h o t h u mi d c l i ma t e s we r e l ess wel l pr e -
d i c t e d b y c o n t e mp o r a r y c o mf o r t t h e o r y a n d t he s t a n-
d a r d s . Th e n e u t r a l t e mp e r a t u r e e mp i r i c a l l y d e t e r mi n e d
i n t he c u r r e n t f i el d e x p e r i me n t wa s a b o u t 2 K a b o v e
t he p r e d i c t i o n o f t he c l i ma t e c h a mb e r - b a s e d P MV mo d -
el.
The s e t wo S i n g a p o r e s t udi e s i n d i c a t e a d i s c r e p a n c y
b e t we e n t h e r ma l p e r c e p t i o n i n n a t u r a l l y v e n t i l a t e d
a p a r t me n t s a n d a i r c o n d i t i o n e d of f i ces o f a p p r o x i ma t e l y
3 K wh i c h c a n n o t be a c c o u n t e d f or i n t e r ms o f t he b a s i c
h e a t b a l a n c e v a r i a b l e s ( a i r a n d r a d i a n t t e mp e r a t u r e s , hu-
mi d i t y , a i r ve l oc i t y, c l o t h i n g i n s u l a t i o n a n d me t a b o l i c
r at e) . Thi s d i s c r e p a n c y doe s , h o we v e r , s e e m c o n s i s t e n t
wi t h a p s y c h o - p h y s i o l o g i c a l mo d e l o f t h e r ma l p e r c e p t i o n
i n wh i c h b u i l d i n g o c c u p a n t s ' i n d o o r c l i ma t i c e x p e c t a -
t i ons v a r y f r o m one c o n t e x t t o a n o t h e r .
A c k n o w l e d g e m e n t s . Thanks are owed by R de D to Professor P.O.
Fanger and colleagues at the Technical University of Denmark
for numerous stimulating discussions about thermal perception
during his 1985-1987 stay in Copenhagen. Dr. A. Auliciems of
the University of Queensland is thanked for comments on an early
draft.
Re f e r e nc e s
ASHRAE (1981) ASHRAE/ ANSI standard 55-81: Thermal envi-
ronmental conditions for human occupancy. ASHRAE, Atlan-
ta
Auliciems A (198 I) Towards a psycho-physiological model of ther-
mal perception. Int J Biometeorol 25:109-122
Auliciems A (1983) Psycho-physiological criteria for global thermaI
zones of building design. Int J Biometeorol 26 (Suppl. 2):6%86
Auliciems A, de Dear R (1986) Ai r conditioning in a tropical cli-
mate: Impacts upon European residents in Darwin, Australia.
Int J Biometeorol 30 : 259-282
Ballantyne ER, Hill RK, Spencer JW (1977) Probit analysis of
thermal sensation assessments. Int J Biometeorol 21:29-43
Busch J (1990) Thermal responses to the Thai office environment.
ASHRAE Trans 96(1):859-872
Carlton-Foss JA (1982) Energy engineering for occupied spaces.
ASHRAE J 24:35-39
de Dear RJ (1989) Diurnal and seasonal variations in the human
thermal climate of Singapore. Singapore J Trop Geog I0: 13-26
de Dear RJ, Auliciems A (1985) Validation of the Predicted Mean
Vote model of thermal comfort in six Australian field studies.
ASH RAE Trans 91(2):452-468
Elder J, Ti bbot t RL (1981) User acceptance of an energy efficient
office building - A case study of the Norris Cotton Federal
Office Building. NBS Bldg Ser No. 130. Nat i onal Bureau of
Standards, Washington DC
Ellis FP (1953) Thermal comfort in warm, humid atmospheres
- Observations on groups and individuals in Singapore. J Hyg
(Camb) 51:386-404
Fanger PO (1970) Thermal comfort. Danish Technical Press, Co-
penhagen
Finney DJ (1971) Probit analysis. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, UK
Gagge AP, Nevins RG (1976) Effect of energy conservation guide-
lines on comfort, acceptability and health. Fi nal Report on
Contract No. CO-04-51891-00 of Federal Energy Administra-
tion. JB Pierce Lab, New Haven
Gagge AP, Fobelets A, Berglund LG (1986) A standard predictive
index of human response to the thermal environment. ASH-
RAE Trans 92(2B):709-731
HDB (1987) Housing Development Board of Singapore annual
report 1986/87. HDB, Singapore
Helson H (1971) Adaptation-level theory: 1970 and after. In: Ap-
pley MH (ed) Adaptation-level theory. Academic Press, New
York, pp 5-17
Humphreys MA (1976) Field studies of comfort compared and
applied. Bldg Serv Engnr 44 : 5-27
Humphreys MA (1981) The dependence of comfortable tempera-
tures upon i ndoor and out door climates. In: Cena K, Clark
JA (eds) Bioengineering, thermal physiology and comfort. Else-
vier, Amsterdam, pp 229-250
Hunt DRG, Gi dman MI 0982) A national field survey of house
temperatures. Bldg Environ ~ 7: 10~124
1SO (t984) Standard 7730: Moderate thermal environments - de-
termination of the PMV and PPD indices and specification
of the conditions for thermal comfort. ISO, Geneva
lttelson WH (1973) Environment perception and cont emporary
perception theory. In: Ittelson WH (ed) Environment and cog-
nition. Seminar Press, New York, pp 1-19
Knudsen HN, de Dear R J, Ring JW, Li TL, Puntener TW, Fanger
PO (1989) Thermal comfort in passive solar buildings. Techni-
cal University of Denmark, Lyngby
McCullough EA, Jones BW, Huck J (1985) A comprehensive dat a
base for estimating clothing insulation. ASHRAE Trans
91 (2):29-47
McIntyre DA (1978) Seven point scales of warmth. Bldg Serv
Engnr 45 : 215-226
McIntyre DA (1982) Chamber studies Reductio ad absurdum?
Energy Bldgs 5 : 89-96
Nicol JF, Humphreys MA (1973) Thermal comfort as part of a
self-regulating system. In : Langdon F J, Humphreys MA, Nicol
JF (eds) Thermal comfort and moderate heat stress. HMSO,
UK, pp 19-34
Olesen BW, Nielsen R (1983) Thermal insulation of clothing mea-
sured on a moveable thermal manikin and on human subjects.
Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby
Proshansky HM (1972) Methodology in environmental psycholo-
gy: Problems and issues. Human Factors 14:451-460
Russell JA, Ward LM (1982) Environmental psycho!ogy. Annu
Rev Psychol 33 : 651-688
Schiller G, Arens E, Benton C, Bauman F (1989) A field study
of thermal comfort in office buildings. In: Kulic E, Todorovic
B, Novak P (eds) Proceedings of the second world congress
on heating, ventilating, refrigerating and air conditioning -
CLI MA 2000. REHVA Science Series, Amersfoort, pp 163-169
Singapore Meterological Service (1987) Summary of Observations
1986. Singapore Meteorological Service, Singapore
SISIR (1983) Singapore standard C P 1 3 - Code of practice for
mechanical ventilation and air-conditioning in buildings.
Singapore Institute of Standards and Industrial Research,
Singapore
Stokols D (1977) Origins and directions in environment-behavior
research. In: Stokols D (ed) Perspectives on environment and
behavior. Plenum, New York, pp 5-35
Webb CG (1959) An analysis of some observations of thermal
comfort in an equatorial climate. Br J Ind Med 16:297 310
Wong AK, Yeh SHK (1985) Housing a nation: Twenty five years
of public housing in Singapore. Maruzen Asia, Singapore