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x
x
n n
)e6n! '!'*
x
x
n
dx
dn
o
x
x
e n n
0
)e6n! '!:* and
x
d
e n n
0
)e6n! '!;* at x=d!
The num0e o% ne& electons ceated$ on the a.eage$ 0" each electon is
0
0
1
n
n n
e
d d
)e6n! '!7*!
Thee%oe the a.eage cuent in the ga#$ &hich is e6ual to the num0e o% electons ta.eling #e second &ill 0e
d
e I I
0
)e6n! '!+* &hee I0 is the initial cuent at the cathode!
Cuent Go&th in the 4esence o% Seconda" 4ocesses
When the initial set o% electons eaches the anode the single a.alanche #ocess is com#leted! Since the
am#li%ication o% electons
d
e
is occuing in the %ield$ the #o0a0ilit" o% additional ne& electons 0eing li0eated
0" othe mechanisms inceases$ and ceated %uthe a.alanches and ae called as seconda" electons! The
othe mechanisms ae
i* The #ositi.e ions li0eated ma" ha.e su%%icient eneg" to cause li0eation o% electons %om the cathode &hen
the" im#inge on it!
ii* The e,ited atoms o molecules in a.alanches ma" emit #hotons$ and this &ill lead to the emission od
electons due to #hoto/emission!
iii* the metasta0le #aticles ma" di%%use 0ac1 causing electon emission!
De%ining the To&nsend8s seconda" ioni3ation coe%%icient
'
0
n num0e o% seconda" electons #oduced due to seconda"
#ocesses!
9et
' '
0
n total num0e o% electons lea.ing the cathode!
Then
'
0 0
' '
0
n n n + )e6n! '!<*
the total num0e o% electons n eaching to the anode 0ecomes$
Anode cathode
=
=
>
A
>
-
B
Ad?usta0le @- souce
R Cuent limiting
esisto
Ulta.iolet light
>
I
(ig! '!5 Aangement %o stud" o% a To&nsend dischage
I
A
d
d
e n n
' '
0
d
e n n
) (
'
0 0
+
and
)] ( [
'
0 0
'
0
n n n n +
Eliminating
'
0
n $
) 1 ( 1
0
d
d
e
e n
n
o
) 1 ( 1
0
d
d
e
e I
I
)e6n! '!B*
To&nsend8s Citeion %o Bea1do&n
E6n! '!B gi.e the total a.eage cuent in a ga# 0e%oe the occuence o% 0ea1do&n! As the distance 0et&een
the electodes d is inceased the denominato o% e6uation tend to 3eo and at some citical distance d=ds
0 ) 1 ( 1
d
e
)e6n! '!C*
(o .alues o% d<ds$ I is a##o,imatel" e6ual to
0
I
and i% the e,tenal souce %o the su##l" o%
0
I
is emo.ed$
I 0ecomes 3eo! I% d=ds, I and the cuent &ill 0e limited onl" 0" the esistance o% #o&e su##l" and the
e,tenal cicuit! This condition is called To&nsend8s Bea1do&n Citeion and can 0e &itten as 1 ) 1 (
d
e
!
Nomall"$
d
e
)e6n! '!5A*
(o a gi.en ga# s#acing and at a gi.en #essue the .alue o% .oltage V &hich gi.es the .alues o% and
satis%"ing the 0ea1do&n citeion is called the s#a1 0ea1do&n .oltage V$ and the coes#onding distance d is
called the s#a1ing distance!
To&nsend Mechanism e,#lains the #henomena o% 0ea1do&n onl" at lo& #essues$ coes#onding to
d p
.alues o% 5AAA to/cm and 0elo&!
'!+ Bea1do&n in Electonegati.e Gases
One #ocess that gi.es high 0ea1do&n stength to a gas is the electon attachment in &hich %ee electons get
attached to a neutal atoms o molecules to %om negati.e ions!
Since negati.e ions li1e #ositi.e ions ae too massi.e to #oduce ioni3ation due to collisions$ attachment
e#esents an e%%ecti.e &a" o% emo.ing electons &hich othe&ise &ould ha.e led to cuent go&th and
0ea1do&n at lo& .oltages! The gases in &hich attachment #la"s an acti.e ole ae called electonegati.e
gases! T&o t"#es o% attachment ae encounteed in gases as2
a* Diect attachmentD An electon diectl" attaches to %om a negati.e ion!
+ AB e AB
0* Dissociati.e attachmentD The gas molecules s#lit into thei constituent atoms and the electonegati.e atom
%oms a negati.e ion!
+ + B A e AB
A sim#le gas %o this t"#e is the o,"gen and othes ae sul#hu he,a%luoide$ (eon$ ca0on dio,ide and
%luooca0ons! In these gases$ EA8 is usuall" sul#hu o ca0on atom and EB8 is o,"gen atom o one o% the
halogen atoms o molecules!
The To&nsend cuent go&th e6uation is modi%ied to include ioni3ation and attachment &ith such gases! The
cuent eaching the anode$ can 0e &itten as$
1
]
1
1
]
1
1
]
1
1 1
) (
) (
0
d
d
e
e
I I
)'!55*
The To&nsend 0ea1do&n citeion %o attaching gases can also 0e deduced %om the denominato as$
0 1 1
) (
1
]
1
d
e
! When
>
$ 0ea1do&n is al&a"s #ossi0le ies#ecti.e o% the .alues o%
and ,
! I%
<
then an as"m#totic %om is a##oached &ith inceasing .alue o% d $
1
1
&hee
is .e" small ( )
4
10
7
10 27 . 5
&hee is the To&nsend8s %ist ioni3ation coe%%icient$
p
is the gas #essue in to
and x is the distance to &hich the steame has e,tended in the ga#! When E E
r
and d x the e6uation
a0o.e sim#li%ies into2
p
d
p
E
p
d ln 5 . 0 ln 5 . 14 ln + + +
at &hich a gi.en
p
and
d satis%" the e6uation! The 0ea1do&n .oltage is gi.en 0" the coes#onding #oduct Ed !
It is geneall" assumed that %o
pd
.alues 0elo& 5AAA to/cm and gas #essues .a"ing %om A!A5 to :AA to$
The To&nsend mechanism o#eates$ &hile at highe #essues and
pd
.alues the steame mechanism #la"s
the dominant ole in e,#laining the 0ea1do&n #henomena! @o&e.e conto.esies still e,ist n these
statements!
4aschen8s 9a&
The 0ea1do&n citeion 0 ) 1 ( 1
d
e
ae %unctions o%
p
E
$ i!e!
,
_
p
E
f
p
1
and
,
_
p
E
f
2
! Also
d
V
E !
Su0stituting %o E in the e,#essions and
1
]
1
,
_
pd
V
f pd
e
pd
V
f ! This e6uation sho&s a elationshi# 0et&een V and pd, and im#lies that the
0ea1do&n .oltage .aies as the #oduct
pd
.aies! Kno&ing the natue o% %unctions
2 1
f and f &e can &ite
the e6uation ( ) pd f V 1no&n as 4aschen8s la& and has 0een e,#eimentall" esta0lished %o man" gases!
4aschen8s la& is a .e" im#otant la& in high .oltage engineeing!
The elationshi# 0et&een
pd and V
is not linea and has has a minimum .alue %o an" gas! The minimum
0ea1do&n .oltages %o .aious gases ae as %ollo&2
Gas Vsmin(V) pd at Vsmin(torr-cm)
Air 327 0.!7
"2 273 #.#
$%2 &20 0.#
%2 &0 0.7
'%2 &7 0..33
"e(i)m #! &.0
The e,istence o% a minimum s#a1ing #otential in 4aschen8s cu.e ma" 0e e,#lained as %ollo&sD
(o .alues
( )
min
pd pd >
electons cossing the ga# ma1e moe %e6uent collisions &ith gas molecules than
( )
min
pd
$ 0ut the eneg" gained 0et&een collisions is lo&e! @ence to maintain the desied ioni3ation moe
.oltage has to 0e a##lied!
(o
( )
min
pd pd <
electon ma" coss the ga# &ithout e.en ma1ing a collision o ma1ing onl" less num0e o%
collisions! @ence moe .oltage has to 0e a##lied %o 0ea1do&n to occu!
(o the e%%ect o% tem#eatue$ the 4aschen8s la& is geneall" stated as ( ) Nd f V &hee * is the densit" o%
the gas molecules! This is necessa" since the #essue o% the gas changes &ith tem#eatue accoding to the
gas la&
NRT pv
!The 0ea1do&n #otential o% ai is e,#essed due to the e,#eimental esults as2
2
1
760
293
08 . 6
760
293
22 . 24
1
]
1
+
1
]
1
T
pd
T
pd
V
At <+A to and 'C:K
cm
kV
d
d
V
E
1
]
1
+
08 . 6
22 . 24
! This e6uation "ields a limiting .alue %o E o% ';
cm
kV
%o long ga#s and a
.alue o% :A
cm
kV
%o
1
760
293
1
]
1
T
pd
$ &hich means a #essue o% <+A to at 'AC &ith 5 cm ga#! This the
0ea1do&n stength o% ai at oom tem#eatue and at atmos#heic #essue!
'!5A 4ost/Bea1do&n 4henomena and A##lications
4ost/Bea1do&n #henomenon is o% technical im#otance &hich occus a%te the actual 0ea1do&n has ta1en
#lace! Glo& and ac dischages ae the #ost/0ea1do&n #henomena and thee ae man" de.ices that o#eate
o.e these egions! In a To&nsend dischage )see (ig '!:* the cuent inceases gaduall" as a %unction o% the
a##lied .oltage %om #oint A! (uthe to this #oint B onl" the cuent inceases and the dischage
changes %om the To&nsend t"#e to Glo& t"#e )BC*! (uthe incease in cuent esults in a .e" small eduction
I .oltage acoss the ga# )CD* coes#onding to the nomal glo& egion! The ga# .oltage again inceases )DE*$
&hen the cuent incease moe$ 0ut e.entuall" leads a considea0le do# to the a##lied .oltage! This is the
A B
To&nsend da1
A0nomal
Glo&
Tansition
%om
Glo& to Ac
Tansition %om
Da1 to Glo&
dischage
Glo&
dischage
CURRENT )AM4*
A449IED
-O9TAGE
)-O9TS*
C
D
E
(
G
Ac
5A
/57
5A
/5'
5A
/C
5A
/+
5A
/:
5 5A
:
A
'7A
7AA
(ig!'!: d!c! .oltage cuent chaacteistic at an electical dischage &ith
electodes ha.ing no sha# #oints o edges
egion o% the Ac dischage )EG*! The #henomena occu in the egion CG ae the #ost/0ea1do&n #henomena
consisting o% glo& dischage CE and the ac dischage EG!
Glo& Dischage
A glo& dischage is chaactei3ed 0" a di%%used luminous glo&! The colo o% the glo& dischage de#ends on the
cathode mateials and the gas used! The glo& dischage co.es the cathode #atl" and the s#ace 0et&een the
cathode and the anode &ill ha.e intemediate da1 and 0ight egions! In a glo& dischage the .oltage do#
0et&een the electodes is su0stantiall" constant$ anging %om <7 to :AA - o.e a cuent ange o% 5 mA to 5AA
mA de#ending on the t"#e o% the gas! The #o#eties o% the glo& dischage ae used in? man" #actical
a##lications$ such as$ .oltage egulation )-R* tu0es$ %o ecti%ication and as an am#li%ie!
Ac Dischage
I% the cuent in the ga# is inceased to a0out 5 A o moe$ the .oltage acoss the ga# suddenl" educes to a %e&
.olts )'A/7A -*! The dischage 0ecomes .e" luminous and nois" )egion EG*! The cuent densit" o.e the
cathode egion inceases to .e" high
.alues o% 5A
:
to 5A
<
2
cm
A
! Acing is associated &ith high tem#eatue$ anging %om 5AAAC to se.eal
thousands degees celcius! The dischage contain .e" high densit" o% electons and #ositi.e ions$ and called
as ac #lasma! The stud" o% acs is im#otant in cicuit 0ea1es and othe s&itch contacts! It is con.enient high
tem#eatue high intensit" light souce! It is used %o &elding and cutting o% metals! It is the light souce in lam#s
such as ca0on ac lam#! @igh tem#eatue #lasmas ae used %o geneation o% electicit" though magneto/
h"do d"namic o nuclea %usion #ocesses!