CONDUCTION and BREAKDOWN IN GASES

Gases as Insulating Media

The most common dielectics ae gases! Man" electical a##aatus use ai as the insulating medium$ in a %e&
cases othe gases such as N'$ CO'$ CCl'(' )%eon* and S(+ )he,a%luoide* ae used!
-aious #henomena occu in gaseous dielectics &hen a .oltage is a##lied!
/When lo& .oltage is a##lied$ small cuent %lo& 0et&een the electodes and the insulation etains its electical
#o#eties!
/I% the a##lied .oltage is lage$ the cuent %lo&ing though the insulation inceases .e" sha#l" and an electical
0ea1do&n occu! A stongl" conducting s#a1 %omed duing 0ea1do&n$ #acticall" #oduces a shot cicuit
0et&een the electodes! The ma,imum .oltage a##lied to the insulation at the moment o% 0ea1do&n is called
the 0ea1do&n .oltage!
In ode to undestand the 0ea1do&n #henomenon in gases$ the electical #o#eties o% gases should 0e
studied! The #ocesses 0" &hich high cuents ae #oduced in gases is essential! The electical dischages in
gases ae o% t&o t"#es2
i* non/sustaining dischages
ii* sel%/sustaining t"#es!
The 0ea1do&n in a gas )s#a1 0ea1do&n* is the tansition o% a non/sustaining dischages into a sel%/sustaining
dischage! The 0uild u# o% high cuents in a 0ea1do&n is due to the ioni3ation in &hich electons and ions ae
ceated %om neutal atoms o molecules$ and thei migation to the anode and cathode es#ecti.el" leads to
high cuents! To&nsend theo" and Steame theo" ae the #esent t&o t"#es o% theoies &hich e,#lain the
mechanism o% 0ea1do&n unde di%%eent conditions as #essue$ tem#eatue$ electode %ield con%iguation$
natue o% electode su%aces and a.aila0ilit" o% initial conducting #aticles!
Ioni3ation 4ocess
Conside a sim#le electode aangement as sho&n in the %ig '!5$ ha.ing t&o #aallel #late electodes se#aated
0" a distance d and immesed in a gas at #essue p! A uni%om E is a##lied 0et&een t&o electodes! Due to
an" e,tenal adiation )ulta .iolet illumination* %ee electons ae li0eated at the cathode! When an electon$ e
is #laced in an E it &ill 0e acceleated &ith a %oce eE to&ads the anode$ and it gains an eneg"
2
2
1
mv eEx u )e6n! '!5* &hee x is the distance ta.eled 0" the electon %om the cathode$ m is the mass
and v is the .elocit" o% the electon!
This electon collides &ith the othe gas molecules &hile it is ta.eling to&ads the anode! I% the eneg" o% the
electon is su%%icientl" lage )a0out 5'!' e- %o N' o 57!7 e- %o O'*$ on collision it &ill cause a 0ea1/u# o% the
atom o molecule into #ositi.e ion and electon$ so the ne& electons and #ositi.e ions ae ceated! Thus
ceated electons %om a gou# o an a.alanche and each the anode! This is the electic cuent and i% it is
su%%icientl" lage it esults in the %omation o% a conducting #ath 0et&een the electodes esulting in the
0ea1do&n o% the ga#!
To&nsend conducted e,#eiments on the go&th o% these cuents &hich led to 0ea1do&n unde d!c! .oltage
conditions$ and he #o#osed a theo" to e,#lain the #henomenon!

To&nsend8s Cuent Go&th E6uation
Assuming n0 electons ae emitted %om the cathode and &hen one electon collides &ith a neutal #aticle$ a
#ositi.e atom and electon %omed! This is called an ioni3ation collision! 9et be the average number of
ionizing collisions made by an electron per centimeter travel in the direction of the field where it depends on gas
pressure p and E/p, and is called the Townsends first ionization coefficient. At any distance x from the cathode
when the number of electrons, nx , travel a distance of dx they give rise to (
dx n
x

* electons! Then$ the num0e

o% electons eaching the anode at x=d, nd &ill 0e
0
0

x
x
n n
)e6n! '!'*
x
x
n
dx
dn
o
x
x
e n n

0
)e6n! '!:* and
x
d
e n n

0
)e6n! '!;* at x=d!
The num0e o% ne& electons ceated$ on the a.eage$ 0" each electon is
0
0
1
n
n n
e
d d

)e6n! '!7*!
Thee%oe the a.eage cuent in the ga#$ &hich is e6ual to the num0e o% electons ta.eling #e second &ill 0e
d
e I I

0
)e6n! '!+* &hee I0 is the initial cuent at the cathode!
Cuent Go&th in the 4esence o% Seconda" 4ocesses
When the initial set o% electons eaches the anode the single a.alanche #ocess is com#leted! Since the
am#li%ication o% electons
d
e

is occuing in the %ield$ the #o0a0ilit" o% additional ne& electons 0eing li0eated
0" othe mechanisms inceases$ and ceated %uthe a.alanches and ae called as seconda" electons! The
othe mechanisms ae
i* The #ositi.e ions li0eated ma" ha.e su%%icient eneg" to cause li0eation o% electons %om the cathode &hen
the" im#inge on it!
ii* The e,ited atoms o molecules in a.alanches ma" emit #hotons$ and this &ill lead to the emission od
electons due to #hoto/emission!
iii* the metasta0le #aticles ma" di%%use 0ac1 causing electon emission!
De%ining the To&nsend8s seconda" ioni3ation coe%%icient

in the same &a" as $ then the net num0e o%

seconda" electons #oduced #e incident #ositi.e ion$ #hoton$ e,cited #aticle o metasta0le #aticle and the
total .alue o%

due to the thee di%%eent #ocesses is

3 2 1
+ +
and is %unction o% gas #essue p and E/p!
(ollo&ing To&nsend8s #ocedue %o cuent go&th$ let us assume

'
0
n num0e o% seconda" electons #oduced due to seconda"

#ocesses!
9et
' '
0
n total num0e o% electons lea.ing the cathode!
Then
'
0 0
' '
0
n n n + )e6n! '!<*
the total num0e o% electons n eaching to the anode 0ecomes$
Anode cathode
=
=
>
A
>
-
B
Ad?usta0le @- souce
R Cuent limiting
esisto
Ulta.iolet light
>
I
(ig! '!5 Aangement %o stud" o% a To&nsend dischage
I
A
d

d
e n n
' '
0
d
e n n

) (
'
0 0
+
and
)] ( [
'
0 0
'
0
n n n n +

Eliminating
'
0
n $
) 1 ( 1
0

d
d
e
e n
n

o
) 1 ( 1
0

d
d
e
e I
I

)e6n! '!B*
To&nsend8s Citeion %o Bea1do&n
E6n! '!B gi.e the total a.eage cuent in a ga# 0e%oe the occuence o% 0ea1do&n! As the distance 0et&een
the electodes d is inceased the denominato o% e6uation tend to 3eo and at some citical distance d=ds
0 ) 1 ( 1
d
e

)e6n! '!C*
(o .alues o% d<ds$ I is a##o,imatel" e6ual to
0
I
and i% the e,tenal souce %o the su##l" o%
0
I
is emo.ed$
I 0ecomes 3eo! I% d=ds, I and the cuent &ill 0e limited onl" 0" the esistance o% #o&e su##l" and the
e,tenal cicuit! This condition is called To&nsend8s Bea1do&n Citeion and can 0e &itten as 1 ) 1 (
d
e

!
Nomall"$
d
e

is .e" lage$ and hence the a0o.e e6uation educes to

1
d
e

)e6n! '!5A*
(o a gi.en ga# s#acing and at a gi.en #essue the .alue o% .oltage V &hich gi.es the .alues o% and

satis%"ing the 0ea1do&n citeion is called the s#a1 0ea1do&n .oltage V$ and the coes#onding distance d is
called the s#a1ing distance!
To&nsend Mechanism e,#lains the #henomena o% 0ea1do&n onl" at lo& #essues$ coes#onding to
d p

.alues o% 5AAA to/cm and 0elo&!
'!+ Bea1do&n in Electonegati.e Gases
One #ocess that gi.es high 0ea1do&n stength to a gas is the electon attachment in &hich %ee electons get
attached to a neutal atoms o molecules to %om negati.e ions!
Since negati.e ions li1e #ositi.e ions ae too massi.e to #oduce ioni3ation due to collisions$ attachment
e#esents an e%%ecti.e &a" o% emo.ing electons &hich othe&ise &ould ha.e led to cuent go&th and
0ea1do&n at lo& .oltages! The gases in &hich attachment #la"s an acti.e ole ae called electonegati.e
gases! T&o t"#es o% attachment ae encounteed in gases as2
a* Diect attachmentD An electon diectl" attaches to %om a negati.e ion!

+ AB e AB
0* Dissociati.e attachmentD The gas molecules s#lit into thei constituent atoms and the electonegati.e atom
%oms a negati.e ion!

+ + B A e AB
A sim#le gas %o this t"#e is the o,"gen and othes ae sul#hu he,a%luoide$ (eon$ ca0on dio,ide and
%luooca0ons! In these gases$ EA8 is usuall" sul#hu o ca0on atom and EB8 is o,"gen atom o one o% the
halogen atoms o molecules!
The To&nsend cuent go&th e6uation is modi%ied to include ioni3ation and attachment &ith such gases! The
cuent eaching the anode$ can 0e &itten as$
1
]
1

1
]
1

1
]
1

1 1
) (
) (
0
d
d
e
e
I I

)'!55*
The To&nsend 0ea1do&n citeion %o attaching gases can also 0e deduced %om the denominato as$
0 1 1
) (

1
]
1

d
e

! When
>
$ 0ea1do&n is al&a"s #ossi0le ies#ecti.e o% the .alues o%
and ,
! I%
<
then an as"m#totic %om is a##oached &ith inceasing .alue o% d $
1

1
&hee

is the num0e o% attaching collisions

made 0" one electon di%ting one centimete in
the diection o% the %ield
Nomall"

is .e" small ( )
4
10

and the a0o.e e6uation can 0e &itten

! This condition #uts a limit %o
p
E
0elo& &hich no 0ea1do&n is #ossi0le ies#ecti.e o% the .alue o% d $ and the limit .alue is called the
citical
p
E
! (o S(+ it is 55< -cm
/5
to
/5
$ %o CCl'(' 5'5 -cm
/5
to
/5
0oth at 'AC!

.alues can also

e,#eimentall" detemined!
Time 9ags %o Bea1do&n
Theoeticall" the mechanism o% s#a1 0ea1do&n is consideed as a %unction o% ioni3ation #ocesses unde
uni%om %ield conditions! In #actical engineeing designs$ the 0ea1do&n due to a#idl" changing .oltages o
im#ulse .oltages is o% geat im#otance! Actuall" thee is a time di%%eence 0et&een the a##lication o% a .oltage
su%%icient to cause 0ea1do&n and the occuence o% 0ea1do&n itsel%! This time di%%eence is called as the time
lag!
The To&nsend citeion %o 0ea1do&n is satis%ied onl" i% at least one electon is #esent in the ga# 0et&een the
electodes as in the case o% a##lied d!c! o slo&l" .a"ing )7A @3 a!c!* .oltages! With a#idl" .a"ing .oltages o%
shot duation )5A
/+
s*$ the initiato" electon ma" not 0e #esent in the ga# that the 0ea1do&n can not occu!
Steame Theo" o% Bea1do&n in Gases
Accoding to the To&nsend theo"2
/ %istl"$ cuent go&th occus as a esult o% ioni3ation #ocess onl"! But in #actice$ 0ea1do&n .oltages
&ee %ound to de#end on the gas #essue and the geomet" o% the ga#2
/ secondl"$ the mechanism #edicts time lags o% ode o% 5A
/7
s$ 0ut #acticall" it &as o0se.ed to occu at
a .e" shot time o% 5A
/B
s!
/ Also the To&nsend mechanism #edicts a .e" di%%used %om o% dischage$ that actuall" dischages &ee
%ound to 0e %ilamenta" and iegula!
To&nsend mechanism %ailed to e,#lain all these o0se.ed #henomena and as a esult The Steame theo" &as
#o#osed!
The theo" #edicts the de.elo#ment o% a s#a1 dischage diectl" %om a single a.alanche in &hich the s#ace
chage de.elo# 0" the a.alanche itsel% is said to tans%om the a.alanche into a #lasma steame! In the %ig '!'$ a

+
-
/ cathode
= anode
E
5
FE
E
:
FE
E
(ig!'!' E%%ect o% s#ace chage #oduced 0" an
a.alanche on the a##lied electic %ield
single electon stating at the cathode 0" ioni3ation 0uilds u# an a.alanche that cosses the ga#! The electons
in the a.alanche mo.e .e" %ast com#aed &ith the #ositi.e ions! B" the time the electons each the anode the
#ositi.e ions ae in thei oiginal #ositions and %om a #ositi.e s#ace chage at the anode! This enhances the
%ield$ and the seconda" a.alanches ae %omed %om a %e& electons #oduced due to the #hoto/ioni3ation in the
s#ace chage egion! This occus %ist nea the anode &hee the s#ace chage is ma,imum and a %uthe
incease in the s#ace chage! This #ocess is .e" %ast and the #ositi.e s#ace chage e,tends to the cathode
.e" a#idl" esulting in the %omation o% a steame! Com#aati.el" nao& luminous tac1s occuing at
0ea1do&n at #essues ae called steames! As soon as the steame ti# a##oaches to the cathode$ a
cathode s#ot is %omed and a steam o% electons ush %om the cathode to neutali3e the #ositi.e s#ace chage
in the steame2 the esult is a s#a1 and the s#a1 0ea1do&n has occued!
A sim#le 6uantitati.e citeion to estimate the electic %ield
r
E &hich is #oduced 0" the s#ace chage$ at the
adius r and that tans%oms an a.alanche into steame is gi.en 0"

cm
V
p
x
e
E
x
r

7
10 27 . 5


&hee is the To&nsend8s %ist ioni3ation coe%%icient$
p
is the gas #essue in to
and x is the distance to &hich the steame has e,tended in the ga#! When E E
r
and d x the e6uation
a0o.e sim#li%ies into2
p
d
p
E
p
d ln 5 . 0 ln 5 . 14 ln + + +

! This e6uation is sol.ed 0et&een

p
E
and
p

at &hich a gi.en
p
and
d satis%" the e6uation! The 0ea1do&n .oltage is gi.en 0" the coes#onding #oduct Ed !
It is geneall" assumed that %o
pd
.alues 0elo& 5AAA to/cm and gas #essues .a"ing %om A!A5 to :AA to$
The To&nsend mechanism o#eates$ &hile at highe #essues and
pd
.alues the steame mechanism #la"s
the dominant ole in e,#laining the 0ea1do&n #henomena! @o&e.e conto.esies still e,ist n these
statements!
4aschen8s 9a&
The 0ea1do&n citeion 0 ) 1 ( 1
d
e

)'!C* &hee and

ae %unctions o%
p
E
$ i!e!

,
_

p
E
f
p
1

and
,
_

p
E
f
2
! Also
d
V
E !
Su0stituting %o E in the e,#essions and

and e&iting e6uation )'!C* &e ha.e

1 1
) (
2
1

1
]
1

,
_

pd
V
f pd
e
pd
V
f ! This e6uation sho&s a elationshi# 0et&een V and pd, and im#lies that the
0ea1do&n .oltage .aies as the #oduct
pd
.aies! Kno&ing the natue o% %unctions
2 1
f and f &e can &ite
the e6uation ( ) pd f V 1no&n as 4aschen8s la& and has 0een e,#eimentall" esta0lished %o man" gases!
4aschen8s la& is a .e" im#otant la& in high .oltage engineeing!
The elationshi# 0et&een
pd and V
is not linea and has has a minimum .alue %o an" gas! The minimum
0ea1do&n .oltages %o .aious gases ae as %ollo&2
Gas Vsmin(V) pd at Vsmin(torr-cm)
Air 327 0.!7
"2 273 #.#
$%2 &20 0.#
%2 &0 0.7
'%2 &7 0..33
"e(i)m #! &.0
The e,istence o% a minimum s#a1ing #otential in 4aschen8s cu.e ma" 0e e,#lained as %ollo&sD
(o .alues
( )
min
pd pd >
electons cossing the ga# ma1e moe %e6uent collisions &ith gas molecules than
( )
min
pd
$ 0ut the eneg" gained 0et&een collisions is lo&e! @ence to maintain the desied ioni3ation moe
.oltage has to 0e a##lied!
(o
( )
min
pd pd <
electon ma" coss the ga# &ithout e.en ma1ing a collision o ma1ing onl" less num0e o%
collisions! @ence moe .oltage has to 0e a##lied %o 0ea1do&n to occu!
(o the e%%ect o% tem#eatue$ the 4aschen8s la& is geneall" stated as ( ) Nd f V &hee * is the densit" o%
the gas molecules! This is necessa" since the #essue o% the gas changes &ith tem#eatue accoding to the
gas la&
NRT pv
!The 0ea1do&n #otential o% ai is e,#essed due to the e,#eimental esults as2
2
1
760
293
08 . 6
760
293
22 . 24
1
]
1

+
1
]
1

T
pd
T
pd
V
At <+A to and 'C:K
cm
kV
d
d
V
E
1
]
1

+
08 . 6
22 . 24
! This e6uation "ields a limiting .alue %o E o% ';
cm
kV
%o long ga#s and a
.alue o% :A
cm
kV
%o
1
760
293

1
]
1

T
pd
$ &hich means a #essue o% <+A to at 'AC &ith 5 cm ga#! This the
0ea1do&n stength o% ai at oom tem#eatue and at atmos#heic #essue!
'!5A 4ost/Bea1do&n 4henomena and A##lications
4ost/Bea1do&n #henomenon is o% technical im#otance &hich occus a%te the actual 0ea1do&n has ta1en
#lace! Glo& and ac dischages ae the #ost/0ea1do&n #henomena and thee ae man" de.ices that o#eate
o.e these egions! In a To&nsend dischage )see (ig '!:* the cuent inceases gaduall" as a %unction o% the
a##lied .oltage %om #oint A! (uthe to this #oint B onl" the cuent inceases and the dischage
changes %om the To&nsend t"#e to Glo& t"#e )BC*! (uthe incease in cuent esults in a .e" small eduction
I .oltage acoss the ga# )CD* coes#onding to the nomal glo& egion! The ga# .oltage again inceases )DE*$
&hen the cuent incease moe$ 0ut e.entuall" leads a considea0le do# to the a##lied .oltage! This is the
A B
To&nsend da1
A0nomal
Glo&
Tansition
%om
Glo& to Ac
Tansition %om
Da1 to Glo&
dischage
Glo&
dischage
CURRENT )AM4*
A449IED
-O9TAGE
)-O9TS*
C
D
E
(
G
Ac
5A
/57
5A
/5'
5A
/C
5A
/+
5A
/:
5 5A
:
A
'7A
7AA
(ig!'!: d!c! .oltage cuent chaacteistic at an electical dischage &ith

electodes ha.ing no sha# #oints o edges
egion o% the Ac dischage )EG*! The #henomena occu in the egion CG ae the #ost/0ea1do&n #henomena
consisting o% glo& dischage CE and the ac dischage EG!
Glo& Dischage
A glo& dischage is chaactei3ed 0" a di%%used luminous glo&! The colo o% the glo& dischage de#ends on the
cathode mateials and the gas used! The glo& dischage co.es the cathode #atl" and the s#ace 0et&een the
cathode and the anode &ill ha.e intemediate da1 and 0ight egions! In a glo& dischage the .oltage do#
0et&een the electodes is su0stantiall" constant$ anging %om <7 to :AA - o.e a cuent ange o% 5 mA to 5AA
mA de#ending on the t"#e o% the gas! The #o#eties o% the glo& dischage ae used in? man" #actical
a##lications$ such as$ .oltage egulation )-R* tu0es$ %o ecti%ication and as an am#li%ie!
Ac Dischage
I% the cuent in the ga# is inceased to a0out 5 A o moe$ the .oltage acoss the ga# suddenl" educes to a %e&
.olts )'A/7A -*! The dischage 0ecomes .e" luminous and nois" )egion EG*! The cuent densit" o.e the
cathode egion inceases to .e" high
.alues o% 5A
:
to 5A
<
2
cm
A
! Acing is associated &ith high tem#eatue$ anging %om 5AAAC to se.eal
thousands degees celcius! The dischage contain .e" high densit" o% electons and #ositi.e ions$ and called
as ac #lasma! The stud" o% acs is im#otant in cicuit 0ea1es and othe s&itch contacts! It is con.enient high
tem#eatue high intensit" light souce! It is used %o &elding and cutting o% metals! It is the light souce in lam#s
such as ca0on ac lam#! @igh tem#eatue #lasmas ae used %o geneation o% electicit" though magneto/
h"do d"namic o nuclea %usion #ocesses!