This article was downloaded by: [McGill University Library]

On: 22 March 2013, At: 18:25

Publisher: Taylor & Francis
Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House,
37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK
Polar Geography
Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information:
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tpog18
Physicalgeographic description of the fildes peninsula
(South Shetland Islands)
I. M. Simonov
a
a
ArcticAntarctic Institute, Leningrad
Version of record first published: 23 Dec 2008.
To cite this article: I. M. Simonov (1977): Physicalgeographic description of the fildes peninsula (South Shetland Islands),
Polar Geography, 1:3, 223-242
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10889377709388627
PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE
Full terms and conditions of use: http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions
This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic
reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to
anyone is expressly forbidden.
The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents
will be complete or accurate or up to date. The accuracy of any instructions, formulae, and drug doses should
be independently verified with primary sources. The publisher shall not be liable for any loss, actions, claims,
proceedings, demand, or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in
connection with or arising out of the use of this material.
PHYSICAL-GEOGRAPHIC DESCRIPTION OF THE FILDES PENINSULA
(SOUTH SHETLAND ISLANDS)
I. M. Simonov
(Arctic-Antarctic Institute, Leningrad)
From: Antarktika, No. 14, 1975, pp. 128-145.
Abstract: The Fildes Peninsula of King George (Waterloo) Island, in the South
Shetland group, represents an example of a periglacial landscape in the Subantarctic belt.
Such a landscape differs significantly from that of Antarctic oases. The Fildes Peninsula is
distinguished by a cool, moist climate and a well developed plant and animal life while
the oases of Antarctica are cold deserts, with dry continental air, strong winds and a
sparse flora and fauna. The physical geography of the Fildes Peninsula is described in
detail, based in part on work of the Soviet Union's Bellingshausen station, established on
the peninsula in 1968.
The archipelago of the South Shetland Islands, extending more than 400 km
from southwest to northeast, lies near the northern tip of the Antarctic Peninsula.
The archipelago is separated from the peninsula by Bransfield Strait and from South
America by Drake Passage. King George (Waterloo) Island is the largest in the
archipelago and Fildes Peninsula is at its southwestern end. This peninsula is about
10 km long and 2- 4 km wide. It is washed on three sides by the waters of Drake
Passage, Fildes Strait, and Maxwell Bay. Most of the Fildes Peninsula is free of ice;
glaciers cover only the extreme northeastern part. The Soviet scientific research
station Bellingshausen has been in operation on the Fildes Peninsula since February
1968. Extensive hydrometeorological and physical-geographic studies at this station
have yielded a considerable volume of data for describing the natural characteristics
of this region. Bellingshausen station is located on the east coast of the peninsula,
on the sand-and-shingle terraces of Ardley Bay, 300 m from shore. Its coordinates
are 6212'S lat. and 5854'W long, and its elevation is 15.7 m above sealevel.
The landforms of Fildes Peninsula consist of low hills with absolute elevations
of 100150 m and made up of volcanic rocks, mainly basalts, tuffs, andesites, and
agglomerates (Grikurov and Polyakov, 1968; Barton, 1965). According to Soviet
geologists (Grikurov and Polyakov, 1968), the lava portion of the section,
150250 m thick, is of Neogene age. The extrusive rocks are underlain by
sedimentary rocks of aleuritic-pelitic composition with andesite lenses. The visible
thickness of these deposits, on the northeast coast, does not exceed 2025 m. C. M.
Barton identified remains of a flora that made it possible to date the lower portion
of the section provisionally as Paleogenic.
The upper portion of the section is represented by Quaternary deposits
consisting of a mantle of eluvial-diluvial formations and recent marine sands and
shingle.
Along with stratified formations, volcanic plugs (necks) and dikes are common
on Fildes Peninsula. Necks are found on the west and east coasts and stand out
sharply in the landscape as precipitous cliffs 100150 m high. The necks consist, as
a rule, of dark gray andesites. One of the largest and most prominent volcanic plugs
is located on the west coast of the peninsula. It is Flat-Top Rock, which forms a
peninsula of the same name. The rock is 145 m high and more than 100 m across.
223
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
M
c
G
i
l
l

U
n
i
v
e
r
s
i
t
y

L
i
b
r
a
r
y
]

a
t

1
8
:
2
5

2
2

M
a
r
c
h

2
0
1
3

yj
ii
5
10
Fig. 1. Geomorphological map of the Fildes Peninsula.
Legend: 1-slope of ice dome 6-recent abrasion ledge
2-marine abrasion terrace 7-old abrasion ledge
3low-hill exaration-denuda- 8terminal moraine
tion area 9volcanic plugs
4aggradational marine terrace 10lakes
5ice cliffs 11 channels of ephemeral
streams
224
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
M
c
G
i
l
l

U
n
i
v
e
r
s
i
t
y

L
i
b
r
a
r
y
]

a
t

1
8
:
2
5

2
2

M
a
r
c
h

2
0
1
3

z o o -
Fig. 2. Profile of denudation levels on King George (Waterloo) Island.
Legend- I-recent abrasion platform
II-aggradational marine terraces
IIIold abrasion terrace
IVlow-hill exaration-denudation area
1bedrock
2-ice dome
Dikes are found throughout the peninsula and vary in thickness from several
centimeters to a few meters. Morphologically, the dikes form distinct linear ridges
50100 m long and 57 m high, consisting of fine-grained andesites and basalts.
Faulting, which led to the formation of a network of fractures, played an
important part in the development of the macro- and mesorelief of the peninsula.
The basins of most of the lakes and the valleys of the largest streams and located
along the fault lines in the present surface relief (Figs. 1 and 2). The Fildes
Peninsula has the following topographic features: an ice dome, an
exaration-denudation plateau, an old abrasion surface, a recent abrasion platform,
and aggradational marine terraces (Zamoruyev, 1972a, b; Govorukha, 1973a).
The small ice dome, part of the island's ice sheet, occupies the
northeasternmost part of the Fildes Peninsula. Its absolute elevation is about 245 m.
It is separated from the main ice sheet of King George (Waterloo) Island by a flat
saddle 1.01.5 km wide, which is the continuation of Collins Harbor.
The southern slope of the dome, facing the Fildes Peninsula, has a relatively
flat (512), smooth surface with a small crevasse zone 1.5 km from the ice edge.
On the sea side it forms a vertical cliff 10-20 m high, from which ice blocks calve
from time to time. The alimentation line is at an elevation of 120 m. In summer it
separates the snow-covered surface of the dome from the ice surface of the ablation
zone, which extends in a broad band along the edge of the ice sheet.
The exaration-denudation plateau occupies the central and southern parts of the
Fildes Peninsula. In some places it forms large blocks with absolute elevations of
100150 m, separated by valleys along the fracture zones.
225
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
M
c
G
i
l
l

U
n
i
v
e
r
s
i
t
y

L
i
b
r
a
r
y
]

a
t

1
8
:
2
5

2
2

M
a
r
c
h

2
0
1
3

An old abrasion terrace, separated from the exaration-denudation relief by an
old abrasion ledge, covers a large part of the northeast coast of the Fildes Peninsula
at elevations of 3050 m. The terrace is a slightly undulating plain 0.51.0 km
wide that slopes gently toward the northwest. Some data make it possible to
identify terraces of an elevated complex, located at an altitude of 80100 m
(Zamoruyev, 1972b). These terraces are relatively old and were formed, in our
opinion, even before the South Shetland Islands became covered with glaciers.
The recent abrasion platform is a zone of active wave denudation. It extends
along the entire northwest shore of the peninsula in a 15-km wide belt. This zone is
a shallow zone with depths to 1015 m, in which small islands and reefs are
scattered. This part of the sea is virtually inaccessible to navigation. The platform is
separated from the old abrasion terrace by an abrasion ledge 3040 m high,
reaching 100 m or more in some places where the sea approaches the blocks of
exaration-denudation relief.
There is no abrasion platform off the east shore of the Fildes Peninsula because
of rapidly increasing depths. This part of the sea is submerged because of the
subsidence of the bottom.
The presence of aggradational marine terraces on the Fildes Peninsula and
Ardley Island is also associated with the activity of the sea. These terraces are most
prominent on the shores of Ardley, Kamenistaya, and Gidrografov bays. There are
as many as seven to eight old offshore bars here. The terraces consist of beach
deposits, i.e., shingle, gravel, and sand.
The recent topography of the Fildes Peninsula was formed as a result of glacial
exaration and subsequent denudation. The formation of closed basins and
depressions, now occupied by lakes, is associated with glacial exaration.
No sculptural glacial formations, typical of the periglacial zone of Antarctica
(roches moutonnees, glacial striations, etc.) have been preserved here because of the
weakness and instability of the bedrock. Recent formations are represented only by
a terminal moraine extending 3 km along the edge of the ice dome. The moraine
consists of an ice core and moraine mantle 1040 cm thick. The morainal material
is represented by fine earth with a large amount of rock debris and boulders. The
stony material is poorly rounded. Petrographically the fragments consist of the
volcanic rocks that form the Fildes Peninsula.
An active layer, no less than 1 m thick, forms in summer at the surface of the
permafrost of the Fildes Peninsula. The temperature of the upper layers of the
ground becomes positive in November. Thawing is very slow. The average thickness
of the active layer was only 0.1 m on December 15, 1970. Heat penetrates most
rapidly into the active layer in December-January. The maximum thawing depth was
0.7 m at the end of December, 0.8 m in mid-January, and reached 1.0 m in early
February. The active layer was completely frozen in April. Such relief-forming
processes as frost weathering, nivation, and solifluction are also common on the
Fildes Peninsula.
Frequent transitions of rock surface temperatures through 0C and the repeated
freezing of meltwater result in intense rock shattering. Rock weathering products
form a mantle of eluvial-diluvial deposits and fill depressions with loose material.
226
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
M
c
G
i
l
l

U
n
i
v
e
r
s
i
t
y

L
i
b
r
a
r
y
]

a
t

1
8
:
2
5

2
2

M
a
r
c
h

2
0
1
3

The fine fraction, containing a large amount of loamy sand, loam, and rock debris,
predominates in the eluvial deposits.
The flat-topped hills and stepped ledges of the central and southern parts of the
peninsula owe their origin to nivation, which is extremely intense because of the
presence of a large amount of snow that melts slowly in summer. In the moist
maritime climate of the South Shetland Islands and in the presence of easily
destructible volcanic rock, nivation and frost weathering are among the present-day
relief-forming processes that take an active part in the modeling of the relief.
The numerous snowfields scattered over the entire peninsula are not associated
with any particular altitude level. The largest snowfields, extending to hundreds of
meters and tens of meters thick, are confined to southern slopes. The snowfields
produce specific relief features, i.e., nivation cirques, sometimes reaching 5070 m
in diameter.
Solifluction on slopes is sometimes so intense that linear soil flows form, which
sometimes merge into a single flow forming actual soil streams. To estimate the
solifluction rate in trains at the foot of slopes, V. V. Zamoruyev and L. S.
Govorukha set up solifluction study plots in 19681970, which showed that soil
can move at a rate of 1555 cm/year (Govorukha, 1973b). Solifluction trains,
which are continuously fed by the meltwater of the snowfields, consist of loams,
loamy sand, and fine rock debris. Larger rock fragments are also sometimes found
in the surface layer.
Another form of frost action creating a specific relief is patterned ground. It is
found wherever loose material accumulates on horizontal or gently sloping surfaces
in the form of spots on fine earth, stone polygons, and striped ground.
Eolian weathering does not play as important a role in the formation of the
relief of the peninsula as it does in Antarctic oases (Smirnov, 1971). This is
attributable to the relatively weak winds throughout the year and also to the low
strength of the rocks of the peninsula, which are rapidly destroyed by physical
weathering.
Biogenous weathering is more active here. The numerous mosses and lichens
growing on the permafrost surface promote biochemical processes as a result of
which rocks and minerals decompose and organic residues accumulate and
mineralize.
Climate. The Fildes Peninsula has a moist and cool oceanic climate with small
seasonal temperature variations. Its weather is similar to that in the drift ice zone
(Antarctic Atlas, 1969; Bugayev, 1963). The sky is continuously covered with low
clouds, and fog, snowfall, and rain are frequent.
The climate of the peninsula is determined by the geographic position of the
South Shetland Islands near the Antarctic front, surrounding waters and underlying
surface.
The presence in summer of snow- and ice-free surfaces that absorb a
considerable part of the incident solar energy is reflected in the solar radiation
budget and, consequently, in the temperature of the surface air layer.
227
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
M
c
G
i
l
l

U
n
i
v
e
r
s
i
t
y

L
i
b
r
a
r
y
]

a
t

1
8
:
2
5

2
2

M
a
r
c
h

2
0
1
3

The surface of the peninsula has a positive annual radiation budget, which
amounts to about 17 kilocalories/cm
2
. It is positive for seven months (from
October through April).
The total monthly radiation budget of the underlying surface at Bellingshausen
in the period 19681970 was (in kilocalories/cm
2
): 6.2 in January, 2.7 in
February, 1.7 in March, 0.1 in April, 1.0 in May, 1.0 in June, 0.9 in July, 0.6 in
August, 0.3 in September, 0.4 in October, 1.3 in November, and 8.8 in December.
Global radiation is low on the peninsula, amounting to an annual total of
6065 kilocalories/cm
2
, which is half that in East Antarctica (130
kilocalories/cm
2
). Because of low solar elevation and considerable cloudiness, total
annual direct radiation is also small. Its contribution to total incoming solar energy
does not exceed 10-15%.
It should be noted, however, that the most important role in the heat budget
of the Fildes Peninsular is played by turbulent heat exchange, which is determined
by the physical-geographic conditions of the water masses surrounding the island
and by atmospheric circulation.
The sea has a tremendous effect on the formation of the climate of the South
Shetland Islands. The water masses are much warmer in winter (1.8C) than the
lower layers of the atmosphere and have a warming effect on the climate. The
opposite is true in summer. The low temperature of the surface water layer of
Drake Passage and Bransfield Strait (0.5C) lowers the summer air temperature of
the Fildes Peninsula.
Being located in the zone of action of the Antarctic front, the region of the
South Shetland Islands is characterized by extreme cyclonic activity. The cyclones
continuously affect the weather of the Fildes Peninsula, forming a specific oceanic
island climate. As in other regions of the Antarctic coast, two types of cyclones can
be distinguished: zonal cyclones that move latitudinally and cyclones having a
meridional component. The first type of cyclones, which are generated at the
boundary of two different air masses, antarctic and temperate, are shallow and of
limited activity. They move from west to east above the South Shetland Islands
along a circular trajectory. The cyclones of the second type are deeper, frequently
embracing the entire troposphere. They are accompanied by strong invasions of
warm air masses from the north. Three meridional cyclone trajectories approach the
South Shetland Islands from temperate latitudes: Pacific, South American, and
Falkland. They produce strong advection of heat toward the islands and cause
drastic weather changes. The weather is cloudy with precipitation during an invasion
of warm air from the north. Low stratus and stratocumulus clouds, northerly winds,
high relative humidity, and a relatively high air temperature are observed. The
atmospheric phenomena of cyclonic weather include haze, fog, and alternating
snow, drizzle, wet snow, and rain. Glaze also occurs at freezing temperatures. The
rate of glaze formation is fairly high and frequently hazardous, particularly for
antennas and towers. As much as 400 grams of ice formed on a 25-cm steel wire
2 mm in diameter within one day in August 1970.
Another type of cyclonic weather is also observed. With a slowly moving
cyclone, warm oceanic air meeting with cold Antarctic air forms a stationary
228
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
M
c
G
i
l
l

U
n
i
v
e
r
s
i
t
y

L
i
b
r
a
r
y
]

a
t

1
8
:
2
5

2
2

M
a
r
c
h

2
0
1
3

occluded front. In that case freezing weather with southeasterly storm winds and
blowing snow is observed.
Besides the advection of air masses, natural conditions in the South Shetland
Islands are also affected by the Antarctic anticyclone. Cold air masses from the
interior of the continent propagate far north along the Antarctic Peninsula,
producing anticyclonic weather in the South Shetland Islands. Cold "dry" weather
with air temperature and humidity considerably below the monthly average is
observed in such periods, and low-level clouds and a weak southerly wind develop.
The South Shetland Islands have typical features of a marine climate: an
insignificant annual air temperature amplitude, high relative humidity, and
considerable cloudiness throughout the year.
The average values of major meteorological elements at Bellingshausen station
are given in Table 1 for 1968-1970.
The fact that the South Shetland Islands have a marine climate is also
supported by the small break between the average annual air temperatures
(particularly the average winter temperature) and the average summer temperature,
as observed in Antarctic oases.
The average annual temperature in 19681970 on the Fildes Peninsula was
2.9C, while the summer temperature (December, January, February) was 0.4C.
The average temperature in the five-month winter was 5.3C. Let us note, for
comparison, that the average winter temperatures in Molodezhnaya oasis and in the
Schirmacher Ponds are -15.7 and -15.2C, respectively, and the summer
temperatures, 0.9 and 1.6C. Furthermore, the amplitude of air temperature
fluctuations in the course of the year is relatively insignificant on the Fildes
Peninsula. In 1970, the absolute temperature minimum are 26.3C (August) and
the absolute maximum 6.2C (January).
The prevailing winds are westerly (21.4%), easterly (18.5%), northwesterly
(18.1%), and northerly (16.4%). The annual wind speed pattern is similar to that at
other Antarctic stations: it is maximal in winter and minimal in summer. The
maximum average monthly wind speeds in 19681970 were observed in June (7.6
m/sec) and September (7.8 m/sec). Cyclonic southeasterly winds are most intense,
they are accompanied by a drop in temperature, heavy snowfall, and blowing snow.
Atmospheric humidity also varies with the season. The moisture content of the
air is higher in summer (5.5 mb) than in winter (3.6 mb). The highest moisture
saturation occurs during the passage of northwesterly cyclones, which bring ample
precipitation. Relative humidity decreases during anticyclonic weather. Generally,
however, the relative humidity is high on the Fildes Peninsula, averaging 83% over
the year. On some days, the relative humidity of the surface air layer is as high as
100%.
Middle- and low-level clouds are most typical. Stratiform clouds predominate.
Precipitation occurs in the form of rain, snow, drizzle, wet snow, and rime.
According to precipitation-gage readings, the annual amount of precipitation
averages more than 700 mm. The number of days with precipitation averages about
300 a year and fog and glaze are frequent,
229
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
M
c
G
i
l
l

U
n
i
v
e
r
s
i
t
y

L
i
b
r
a
r
y
]

a
t

1
8
:
2
5

2
2

M
a
r
c
h

2
0
1
3

to
o
TABLE 1
Average Values of Meteorological Elements at Bellingshausen Station (1968-1970)
Elements I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII Year
Atmospheric pressure, mb
Air temperature, C
Wind speed, m/sec
Absolute humidity, mb
Relative humidity, %
Total cloudiness, tenths
Low-level clouds, tenths
Precipitation, mm
993.2
0.6
5.6
5.2
83
9.3
8.2
36.8
985.8
0.4
7.0
7.1
84
9.5
9.1
.73.0
991.0
-1. 0
6.2
4.8
82
8.9
7.4
47.6
988.5
-2. 9
7.4
4.4
83
8.9
7.6
75.3
989.6
-6. 2
6.3
3.4
82
8.5
6.4
69.7
990.7
-8. 2
7.6
3.1
83
8.5
6.5
89.2
991.2
-5. 2
7.2
3.8
86
9.0
7.0
63.8
991.3
- 6. 3
6.9
3.5
85
8.6
7.1
79.0
987.1
-2. 9
7.8
4.5
84
9.3
8.0
65.5
986.8
-2. 9
7.3
4.2
84
9.1
7.9
61.9
986.3
- 1. 1
7.1
4.9
86
9.1
8.2
75.0
990.1
-0. 3
6.0
5.3
84
8.9
7.3
36.4
989.8
-2.9
6.8
4.4
84.0
8.9
7.4
773.2
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
M
c
G
i
l
l

U
n
i
v
e
r
s
i
t
y

L
i
b
r
a
r
y
]

a
t

1
8
:
2
5

2
2

M
a
r
c
h

2
0
1
3

Lakes. The climate and topography have predetermined the drainage system of
the Fildes Peninsula. Because of the presence of permafrost everywhere and of the
thinness of the active layer, ground waters are poorly developed. Surface runoff,
which feeds numerous lakes in summer, predominates. There are no river valleys in
the generally accepted sense, but valleys (hollows) of tectonic and glacial origin,
which are used by present-day watercourses. Small, short erosion valleys 14 m
deep and 510 m wide, entrenched in the bedrock or unconsolidated marine
deposits, are found only in some places. Streams are fed by snow and rain and their
level is highest in mid-summer, when snow melting is intense. A rise in the level of
streams by 1020 cm is also observed during heavy rains. The streams near the edge
of the ice dome are also fed by ice melt. The width of the ablation zone of the
dome is about 1000 m, where, in addition to snow, a layer of ice 25 cm thick melts
on the average in summer. The level of most' of the streams is regulated by lakes
and the peaks are smoothed. The streams break up in mid-November and the largest
of them freeze up no earlier than in April. The streams freeze to the bottom in
winter and have no runoff.
There is a particularly large number of lakes on the Fildes Peninsula (see Fig.
1). The insufficient drainage of the youthful surface together with ample
precipitation and the sink-ravine topography produced a dense network of lakes.
There is a total of about 60 lakes on the Fildes Peninsula (including the Ardley
Peninsula). The largest of them are listed in Table 2 with a brief description. The
lake regime depends largely on the origin of the lake basins. According to the
formation of the lake beds, there are the following lakes on the Fildes Peninsula:
lagoon, glacial, tectonic-exaration, suffosion, and ice-dammed lakes.
Lakes of lagoon origin are found along the east coast of the Fildes Peninsula
and along the south coast of the Ardley Peninsula. The elevation of these lakes
varies from 3 to 20 m above sea level. The lakes are shallow, not exceeding 5 m in
depth. They are separated from the sea by gravel-sand bars.
Lake beds of tectonic origin occur along fault zones. Lakes Kitezh, Dlinnoye,
and Slalomnoye have this type of bed confined to fracture lines that dissect the
Fildes Peninsula from the northwest to the southeast. Subsequently, the basins of
such lakes were subjected to exaration, which deepened and widened the bottoms
of these basins.
The Lake Glubokoye basin is of an entirely different kind. It is a volcanic
crater whose edge consists of strongly fissured volcanic rocks (tuffs and xenoliths).
The lake is drained through filtration of water along cracks in the eastern wall of
the lake bed. This filtration does not cease even in winter, producing a large naled
on the beach of Korablya inlet (Orlov, 1971).
The beds of glacier lakes were formed by the plowing activity of the glacier.
These lakes are shallow, 1-3 m deep, and are found throughout the peninsula.
Pond-like suffosion lakes are abundant, they are located at the foot of slopes and
along the valleys of streams. Their beds were formed as a result of the removal of
the fine earth by meltwater. Snow patches that block the path of meltwater
frequently produce a rise in water level and the formation of dammed lakes.
Lakes with temporary drainage predominate in terms of water balance.
Maximum drainage occurs in January-February, when the maximum air temperature
231
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
M
c
G
i
l
l

U
n
i
v
e
r
s
i
t
y

L
i
b
r
a
r
y
]

a
t

1
8
:
2
5

2
2

M
a
r
c
h

2
0
1
3

TABLE 2
Lakes of Fildes Peninsula
Lake
Kitezh
Glubokoye
Dlinnoye
Slalomnoye
Burevestnik
35*
50
51
52
53
54
55
31
56
2
4
8
9
Area,
tho us. m
1
145.0
56.3
19.2
26.3
3.7
7.2
5.6
0.4
3.0
0.9
4.5
2.3
3.2
2.3
2.3
0.6
1.5
0.3
Maximum
measured
depth, m
10.0
16.0
4.3
6.6
6.0
4.7
6.7
3.3
1.5
1.4
2.5
2.5
1.1
3.0
5.3
1.8
1.3
0.7
Origin o f bed
Tectonic-exaration
Volcanic
Tectonic-exaration
Same
Exaration
Same
"
Dammed
Exaration
Same
Exaration-dammed
Exaration
Exaration-dammed
Exaration
Same
Exaration-dammed
Same
Fed by
Snow-rain
Snow-ice-rain
Snow-rain
Same
i f
"
Descriptio n o f lakes
Runo ff
Runoff in summer
Runoff in summer and
partly in winter
Runoff in summer
Same
"
"
"
"
Thermal Ice regime Salt
regime co ncentratio n
Direct Becomes free Fresh
stratification of ice
Inverse
stratification " "
Direct
stratification " "
Same " "
tt tt tt
tt t tt
tt tt tt
t t tt
tt tt tt
tt tt t
i tl tt
tt tt it
tt tl tt
it tt tl
tt it tt
tt tt l
tt J
t l t t t>
Numbers designate unnamed lakes shown on Fig. 1.
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
M
c
G
i
l
l

U
n
i
v
e
r
s
i
t
y

L
i
b
r
a
r
y
]

a
t

1
8
:
2
5

2
2

M
a
r
c
h

2
0
1
3

becomes established, and the lake beds overflow with meltwater. Chains of lakes are
frequently encountered. Some of the lake beds are filled with so much meltwater
that it flows over their edges, through a chain of lakes, and along several streams
toward the sea. One such chain of lakes is in the Bellingshausen station area at the
shore of Ardley Bay.
There are few lakes without outlet and those are found on the surface of the
old abrasion terrace and in the depressions of the exaration-denudation low-hill area.
The lake water is fresh. The amount of salt in the water, brought by winds from
the sea, reaches 1.5%o (Simonov, 1973a).
The climatic characteristics of the region have left their imprint on the ice
regime and water temperature of the lakes. The lakes on Fildes Peninsula are
completely covered with ice for more than 10 months. The ice-free period in most
of the lakes lasts from the end of December to March. Relatively deep lakes (Kitezh
and Glubokoye) become free of ice 1520 days later than other lakes. They also
freeze up much later than the other lakes. In 1970, Lake Kitezh froze up only by
April 15. Ice thickness increases gradually, reaching 80-90 cm by the end of
winter. Ice formation in these lakes has specific features that distinguish them from
the high-latitude lakes of the Arctic and Antarctic (Govorukha, Simonov, 1965;
Simonov, 1971). Ice growth from above takes place here with participation of
rainfall and glaze formation. The occasional early disappearance of lake ice is
attributable to ashfall after volcanic eruptions on Deception Island. Such a
phenomenon was observed by us in August 1970 when the snow surface of the
Fildes Peninsula became covered with a film of ash within a few hours. As much as
170 grams of ash fell per square meter of surface.
The snow on the lake ice is fairly deep, amounting to no less than 0.5 m by
the end of winter. It melts slowly, remaining on the surface of the ice until
January-February and delaying its disappearance.
The lakes in question have an unusual water temperature because of the
meteorological conditions and ice regime. The water temperature is relatively low
throughout the year. The reason is that the lake waters lose a large amount of heat
in summer through melting of a huge amount of snow and also because of heat
exchange with the relatively cold air. Another reason is low solar radiation, which
plays a fairly small part in the warming of the lake waters on the South Shetland
Islands, where cloudiness is considerable throughout the year. In this respect, the
lakes in question differ considerably from the lakes of Antarctic oases, where solar
radiation rather than advection is the main source of heating of lake waters.
The bottom deposits of the lakes are rich in organic sediments. Seasonal
stratification is well defined in sediment samples. The lake deposits are represented
mainly by light gray oozes with layers of water mosses, sometimes reaching a
thickness of 12 cm. An ever present component of lake sediments are dead diatom
and bacterial valves and algal residues interlayered with the oozes. Ash layers of
varying thickness, testifying to repeated volcanic eruptions on Deception Island,
were found in some cores.
The lakes are rich in phyto- and zooplankton. Copepods of the order
Cyclopoidea were found among invertebrates. Well-warmed, shallow bodies of water
are particularly rich in their reddish-orange bodies.
233
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
M
c
G
i
l
l

U
n
i
v
e
r
s
i
t
y

L
i
b
r
a
r
y
]

a
t

1
8
:
2
5

2
2

M
a
r
c
h

2
0
1
3

TABLE 3
Lichens on the Fildes Peninsula
Lichen species
Fructicose
Neuro po go a antarcticus (Dr) Lamb.
Neuro po go n fasciata Torrey
Himato rmia lugubris (Hue) Lamb.
Stereo caulo a sp.
Ramalina terebrata Hook, et Tayl
Sphaero pho rus sp.
Clado nia sp.
Po lycaulio na regain (Vain) Hue.
Crustaceous
Lecidea sp.
Rhiz o carpo n sp.
Cro cynia sp.
Rino dina turfacea (Wahleub.) Kaerb.
Rino dina Petermanii (Hue).
Lecauo ra sp.
Calo placa sp.
Pertusaria sp.
Buellia sp.
Ochro lechia sp.
Foliose
Omphalo discus antarcticus Llaao.
Xantho ria mawso nii Dodge.
Physcia sp.
Gasparrinia sp.
Site o f findings
Widespread on Fildes and Ardley peninsulas
Common. Endemic species, typical of the
Subantarctic.
Common
Common. Endemic species, typical of the
Subantarctic
Found near neating grounds on Fildes and
Ardley peninsulas. Endemic species,
typical of the Subantarctic
Common. Endemic species, typical of the
Subantarctic
Same
Surface of rocks of northern exposure on
Fildes and Ardley peninsulas. Endemic
species, typical of the Subantarctic
Rock on the shore of Gidrografov Bay,
Antarctic Peninsula
Summit of hill in central part of Fildes
Peninsula
Common in the form of a white coating
on the Fildes Peninsula
Common on the Fildes Peninsula
Same
Surface of a rock on Albatross Island
Shore of Ardley Bay
Central part of Fildes Peninsula
Western part of Ardley Peninsula
234
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
M
c
G
i
l
l

U
n
i
v
e
r
s
i
t
y

L
i
b
r
a
r
y
]

a
t

1
8
:
2
5

2
2

M
a
r
c
h

2
0
1
3

So ils. The Fildes Peninsula has primary Subantarctic soils. There is no
continuous soil cover. Primitive soils are found in spots under the moss-lichen sod
or an algal crust where fine earth accumulates.
According to the data of A. I. Orlov (1973), primary Subantarctic soils contain
1% to 17% humus, which is concentrated in the upper part of the soil profile. The
sources of organic substances are plant detritus and the plasma of microorganisms.
The organic matter decomposes slowly because of the low temperature and
excessive moisture.
In some places, primary soil formation is characterized by the accumulation on
the surface of rocks and fine earth of organic residues (guano, feathers, and the
bones of birds and marine animals) that are rich in nitrogen and phosphorus.
Chemical analysis of the primary soils revealed patterns typical of the soil cover of
the Subantarctic natural belt. It was found that the humus content decreases down
the soil profile, while organic substances concentrate in its upper horizons. The
content of poorly soluble salts and organic acids increases with depth, probably
because of excessive wetting and the presence of permafrost at a depth of 12 m.
Vegetatio n. Sporogenous plants, algae, lichens and mosses predominate in the
vegetation of the Fildes Peninsula and, unlike continental Antarctica, a
representative of vascular plants, i.e., Deschampsia antarctica Desv., also appears
here. The vegetation does not form a continuous cover. It has a complex mosaic
structure because of the substrate and wetting. Lichens, the most undemanding
plants when it comes to habitat, are most common. They grow on rock surfaces,
bedrock fragments, mosses, and fine earth. The lichens found on the Fildes
Peninsula are listed in Table 3. All the lichens in the collection of A. I. Orlov and
the author were identified by N. S. Golubkova, member of the Botanical Institute
of the Academy of Sciences USSR. Fructicose species of the genera Neuro po go n,
Stereo caulo n, Himato rmia, Sphaero pho rus, Ramalina, and Clado nia, growing mainly
on a rocky substrate, predominate markedly among lichens. The majority of the
species of these genera are endemic, typical of the Subantarctic belt. The lichens
frequently form a continuous green carpet measuring several tens and even hundreds
of square meters. Such green areas are found particularly often at the summits of
flat hills and on their northern, northwestern and western slopes.
Foliose lichens are rare, but of much larger size than the same lichens found by
us in the oases of Enderby Land and Queen Maud Land (Simonov, 1971) in East
Antarctica.
Crustaceous lichens are abundant on the Fildes Peninsula and neighboring
islands. They grow both on a rocky substrate and on the surface of moss sod and
fine earth. Most frequent among these lichens are Buellia, Cro cynia, Calo placa,
Pertusaria, Lecidea, Ochro lechia, and Rhiz o carpo n.
Parts of slopes and depressions that are continuously wet are covered with
green moss cushions. In some places the moss carpets occupy areas tens and
hundreds of meters square, attracting attention by their light green color. Most
common among mosses are Po lytrichum alpinum Hedw., Drepano cladus uncinatus
(Hedw.) Warnst, and Andreaea gainii Card. Our moss collection from the Fildes
Peninsula was identified by L. A. Volkova, a member of the Botanical Institute of
235
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
M
c
G
i
l
l

U
n
i
v
e
r
s
i
t
y

L
i
b
r
a
r
y
]

a
t

1
8
:
2
5

2
2

M
a
r
c
h

2
0
1
3

the Academy of Sciences USSR. A representative of the aquatic mosses,
Drepano cladus sp., was found at the bottom of Lakes Kitezh and Glubokoye.
Colonies of microscopic algae Cyano phyta, Bacillario phyta, Chlo ro phyta, and
Xantho phyta are widespread on the Fildes Peninsula. They populate in large
amounts not only wetted substrates (depressions, the shores of numerous lakes, and
stream banks), but also bodies of water and snow and ice surfaces. Red, yellow, and
green spots on the surface of melting snow and ice form as a result of the
development of snow algae, Chlamido mo nas nivalis, Chlo ro sphaera antarctica, and
Chlo rella ellipso idea.
Widespread among blue-green algae are species of the genus Nasto s. They cover
the soil surface with a brown film. The algal species Oscillato ria, Lyngbya, and
Symplo ca are common in bodies of water where they form felt-like films on the
bottom. Most common among green algae is Prasio la crispa, which forms green
carpets at the sites of accumulation of animal remains. It is particularly abundant in
the northeastern part of the Ardley Peninsula, where it has displaced other plant
associations.
Flowering plants of the grass family grow on the Fildes Peninsula. They belong
to the Deschampsia antarctica Desv. species. Flowering plants are found on the east
shore of Lake Kitezh, on northwestern slopes covered with mosses and lichens
(Orlov, 1973), on the shore of Lake Glubokoye, and in the central part of Ardley
Peninsula. These plants form cushions with a very dense sod among the mosses and
lichens. The grass cushions are rounded, 56 cm in diameter, and no more than
5 cm high. They grow isolated from each other, as a rule, but fairly compactly. The
plants are yellowish-green in summer and yellow in autumn.
Animal wo rld. The fauna of the Fildes Peninsula consists basically of
invertebrates, birds, and mammals (Simonov, 1973b). The invertebrates have not
been studied extensively and information on them is sparse and fragmentary.
Protozoans are represented by Pseudopodiata, flagellates, and infusorians that
inhabit bodies of water, moist soil, and moss sod. Together with other animals they
play an important part in soil formation processes. The worms include nematodes,
free-living flatworms, and rotifers. Arthropods are represented by tardigrades,
crustaceans, arachnids, and insects.
Birds. The cold-tolerant marine avifauna of the Fildes Peninsula is the
remainder of a rich preglacial Antarctic avifauna (Simpson, 1946), which has
adapted to the new conditions after cooling set in. Most numerous are penguins and
petrels. Three species of penguins are found on the Fildes and Ardley peninsulas:
the Addlie (Pygo scelis adeliae), the gentoo (P. papua), and the chinstrap (P.
antarctica). The most numerous colonies, counting many thousands of birds, are
found on the northeastern tip of the Ardley Peninsula (Fig. 3).
The first penguins appear on the peninsula in September. Pairs form and nests
are constructed in October-November, and eggs are laid in December. The first
chicks appear in January. The young birds molt in February-March, after which the
penguins leave the shores of King George (Waterloo) Island.
Petrels and related birds (order Procellariiformes) include the giant petrel, Cape
pigeon, Wilson's petrel, snow petrel, silver-gray fulmar, and Antarctic petrel.
236
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
M
c
G
i
l
l

U
n
i
v
e
r
s
i
t
y

L
i
b
r
a
r
y
]

a
t

1
8
:
2
5

2
2

M
a
r
c
h

2
0
1
3

* VF>
Fig. 3. Adelie penguin colony on Ardley Peninsula.
The giant petrel (Macro nectes gigantus) nests on the west coast of the Fildes
Peninsula and on the shores of Ardley and Gidrografov bays. Most of the birds
appear in September-October. Egg laying takes place in November. The chicks
appear in mid-January and remain in the nests until May. They molt in April and
their down is replaced by dark cinnamon-brown feathers.
A small colony of Cape pigeons (Daptio n capensis) is located on the southern
tip of the Fildes Peninsula and on the islands of Fildes Strait. The birds arrive in
October and egg laying begins in December. The first chicks appear in late January.
Cape pigeons remain in the Fildes Peninsula area until May.
Individual Wilson's petrels (Oceanites o ceanicus) nest in rock crevices on the
west and east coasts of the Fildes Peninsula. Egg laying and hatching occur in
December, chicks appear in January, and the birds, leave the Fildes Peninsula in
February-March.
The snow petrel (Pago dro ma nivea), silver-gray fulmar (Fulmarus glacialo ides),
and Antarctic petrel (Thalasso ica antarctica) are birds of passage. Small flocks of
these birds appear irregularly in the Fildes Peninsula in spring and autumn. Some
researchers class these birds among species that nest on the South Shetland Islands
(Krylov, 1968; Korotkevich, 1972).
Lariformes are represented by two families, skuas and gulls.
The brown skua (Catharacta skua lo nribergi) nests near penguins and petrel
colonies on the Fildes and Ardley peninsulas. The skuas arrive in mid-October,
hatch in December, and the chicks appear in January. They begin to fly in March
237
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
M
c
G
i
l
l

U
n
i
v
e
r
s
i
t
y

L
i
b
r
a
r
y
]

a
t

1
8
:
2
5

2
2

M
a
r
c
h

2
0
1
3

and in April the skuas leave the South Shetland Islands. The skua is a bird of prey.
It destroys nests, eats chicks and eggs, and hunts small birds.
The nests of Dominican gulls (Larus do minicanus) are found on the
southeastern tip of the Fildes Peninsula and on the shore of Gidrografov Bay. The
eggs are laid in November-December and hatched in December. Chicks appear in
January.
Small colonies of terns or sea swallows {Sterna vitata) are found on the west
and east coasts of the Fildes Peninsula. These birds arrive in September-October, lay
eggs and hatch in November-December. Chicks appear in January. Small flocks of
terns keep off the shores of the Fildes Peninsula until March.
The sheathbill or white plover {Chio nis alba) is one of the species of the order
Charadriifo rmes that inhabits Subantarctic islands. It is an omnivorous bird. It feeds
on mollusks, algae, penguin eggs, and the excrements of birds and marine animals.
These birds appear on the Fildes Peninsula in mid-March and 7080 of them remain
in the Bellingshausen area throughout the winter. As spring arrives, the sheathbills
disappear. In 1970 they were last seen on November 5.
According to some scientists (Murphy, 1936; Jones, 1963), the South Shetland
Islands belong to the nesting regions of the sheathbill and some investigators
(Krylov, 1968) include the Fildes Peninsula among their nesting areas. According to
observations in 19691970, no nesting grounds of the white sheathbill were
discovered on the Fildes Peninsula. A sheathbill, banded on Signy Island (South
Orkney Islands) (Jones, 1963), was caught on the South Shetland Islands. This
suggests that the sheathbills that winter over on the Fildes Peninsula spend the
summer in the South Orkney Islands and, possibly, also in the South Sandwich
Islands and South Georgia Island.
Fig. 4. Elephant seals on the west coast of the Fildes Peninsula.
238
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
M
c
G
i
l
l

U
n
i
v
e
r
s
i
t
y

L
i
b
r
a
r
y
]

a
t

1
8
:
2
5

2
2

M
a
r
c
h

2
0
1
3

Small flocks of the blue-eyed cormorant (Phalacro co rax atriceps) are observed
in summer on the east and west coasts of the Fildes Peninsula, where they establish
occasional nesting grounds.
Mammals are best represented on the Fildes Peninsula by Pinnepedia. The
family of true seals (Phocidae) is most numerous, including the elephant seal,
Weddell seal, crab-eating seal, and leopard seal. Fur seals represent the family of
eared seals (Otariidae).
The elephant seal (Miro unga leo nind) is found on the beaches of the west and
east coasts of the Fildes Peninsula. Males arrive singly at the west coast at the end
of September and the females arrive at the sealing grounds in early October. Fights
develop among males in the sea and on the shore (Fig. 4) and the winner forms a
harem. Whelping begins in mid-October. The pups begin to molt for the first time at
the age of one month and their dense black fur is replaced by a silver-gray hairy
coat. The young start to learn swimming and food gathering in December. At that
time a large group of animals, consisting of preadolescent elephant seals, arrives at
the sealing grounds. The harems break down. The total animal population on the
beaches is about 800 individuals in December. Molting takes place in
January-February. At that time groups of 15-20, more rarely 40- 50 seals lie at a
distance of 100-200 m from the sea and do not enter the water. The number of
elephant seals decreases sharply in April and they finally leave the shore of King
George (Waterloo) Island in May.
The Weddell seal (Lepto nycho tes Weddelli) is common on the fast ice and
shores of King George (Waterloo) Island. These seals spend the entire winter on the
fast ice and appear on the shore only in early spring. Mass whelping begins in
mid-September and continues for one month. Newborne pups are 100120 cm long
and covered with dense, soft cinnamon brown-gray fur. Molting of the pups ends at
the end of November and the embryonal fur is replaced by a stiff, hairy dark gray
coat.
The crab-eating seal (Lo bo do n carcino phagus) frequents the ice of the open sea.
It is the most numerous seal species in the Antarctic. It feeds exclusively on
crustaceans, mainly krill. Crab-eating seals can be found on the shores of the Fildes
Peninsula only in spring, when they appear in hundreds on the fast ice of the
Ardley Bay as the ice edge recedes to the south. In 1970, about 300 crab-eating
seals appeared at the shores of the Fildes Peninsula in the last decade of September.
When the fast ice is carried away, the main group of crab-eating seals leaves the
shore of King George (Waterloo) Island.
like elephant seals, the southern fur seals (Arcto cephalus australis) are
polygamous. They form harems on the beaches during the breeding season. There
are no harems on the Fildes Peninsula. Individual animals or groups of 35 seals
can be found on the beaches of the west coast in summer. The reason for this is
that the fur seals on the South Shetland Islands were almost completely decimated
at the end of the 19th century because of their valuable fur. Only a few of these
valuable animals remain on the islands at the present time.
The leopard seal (Hydrurga lepto nyx) is a rare guest on the shores of the Fildes
Peninsula. It is most frequently encountered on the fast ice of Ardley Bay when
crab-eating seals arrive at the coast of King George (Waterloo) Island. The leopard
seal is a predator. It stays by itself and does not form groups.
239
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
M
c
G
i
l
l

U
n
i
v
e
r
s
i
t
y

L
i
b
r
a
r
y
]

a
t

1
8
:
2
5

2
2

M
a
r
c
h

2
0
1
3

TABLE 4
Average Monthly and Average Annual Air Temperature and Annual Amplitude
(Antarctic Atlas, 1969)
Statio n
Bellingshausen
Orcadas
Grytviken
Heard
So uthern
latitude
6?'12'
6045'
54 16'
53
o
01'
'Western
lo ngitude
5834'
4443'
3630'
7323'
/
0.6
0.2
4.6
3.2
/ / /// IV
Inner Subantarctic
0.4 -1.0
0.4 -0.5
-2.9
-3.1
Outer Subantarctic
5.3 4.6
3.3 3.0
2.5
2.5
According to the natural conditions of the Fildes Peninsula, described above, the
South Shetland Islands belong in terms of landscape to the inner Subantarctic
oceanic zone, which is part of the Subantarctic natural belt. The southern boundary
of this zone is the Antarctic divergence line, corresponding to the southernmost
position of the Antarctic atmospheric front. The outer Subantarctic oceanic zone
lies to the north of the inner zone; it borders on the temperate belt along the line
of the Antarctic convergence (Buynitskiy, 1956). The boundary between the two
zones runs along the edge of the drift ice when it is most extensive (in winter). The
drift-ice edge generally coincides with the position of the zero isotherm of the
annual air temperature (Antarctic Atlas, 1966). Separation of the Subantarctic belt
into zones is dictated by the differences in the natural conditions of the water areas
in question, characterized by specific features of the climate, manifest in such
natural components as ice and water masses. The inner Subantarctic oceanic zone
includes, besides the waters of the Southern Ocean, the South Shetland, South
Sandwich, and South Orkney islands, as well as the west coast of the Antarctic
Peninsula. This zone has the following types of landscapes: water-ice (drifting ice),
ice (the ice sheets of the islands and of the west coast of the Antarctic Peninsula),
and ice-free areas (periglacial areas). The water-ice landscapes of drifting ice
predominate.
The open waters of the Southern Ocean with occasional islands (South Georgia,
Heard) are the predominant landscapes in the outer Subantarctic oceanic zone.
Unlike the inner zone, the outer zone has a distinct marine climate and temperate
water and air masses have a much stronger effect in it. This is supported by data on
the air temperatures of the regions in question that lie in the two geographic zones
(Table 4). The annual amount of precipitation in the outer Subantarctic oceanic
zone (1300 mm), which is twice to three times as high as in the inner zone, also
testifies to its more marine climate.
The periglacial landscapes in the Subantarctic belt (such as the Fildes Peninsula)
differ significantly from those in Antarctica (oases). Whereas the periglacial regions
of the Subantarctic have a cool and moist climate, are rich in unconsolidated
material, and have a relatively well developed plant and animal life, the Antarctic
oases have very cold, dry continental Antarctic air, strong winds, and a very sparse
240
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
M
c
G
i
l
l

U
n
i
v
e
r
s
i
t
y

L
i
b
r
a
r
y
]

a
t

1
8
:
2
5

2
2

M
a
r
c
h

2
0
1
3

X
-2.9
-3.7
1.6
-1.0
XI
-1.1
-2.1
2.9
0.7
XII
0.3
-0.6
3.7
2.2
Year
-2.9
-4.4
1.8
1.2
Ampli
tude
1.6
11.0
6.6
4.3
V VI VII VIII IX
o ceanic z o ne
-6.2 -8.2 -5.2 -6.3 -2.9
-6.9 -10.0 -10.6 -9.8 -6.6
o ceanic z o ne
0.3 -1. 2 -1. 1 - 1. 3 0.2
1.4 -0. 2 -0. 4 -0. 6 -1. 0
plant and animal life. Antarctic oases constitute a stark, cold desert (Markov et al.,
1968; Simonov, 1971; Korotkevich, 1972), where physicochemical processes are
distinctly desert-like with formation on the rock surface of desert varnish and salt
efflorescences. There is nothing of the sort in the periglacial landscapes of
Subantarctic islands in the other geographic belt, where a marine climate prevails
and solifluction is widespread.
The Fildes Peninsula can hardly be called an oasis, as some researchers do
(Orlov, 1964; Zamoruyev, 1972b), since its natural conditions are in accordance
with the Subantarctic geographic belt (and are not an exception, as oases are),
which includes the South Shetland Islands. The existence of ice-free areas at sea
level in the Subantarctic is a natural, zonal phenomenon, produced by a particular
heat-moisture ratio. The presence of glaciers on King George (Waterloo) Island is a
manifestation of vertical zonality; they owe their existence to the mountain
topography and atmospheric circulation conditions.
Biblio graphy
Atlas Antarktiki (Antarctic Atlas). Vol. 1. Moscow-Leningrad, GUGK SSSR, 1966.
Atlas Antarktiki (Antarctic Atlas). Vol. 2. Leningrad, Gidrometeoizdat, 1969.
Bugayev, V. A. "Climatic Zones of the Antarctic." Rez ul'taty issledo vaniy po
pro gramme MGG. Meteo ro lo gicheskiye issledo vandya. Meteo ro lo giya, No. 5,
1963.
Buynitskiy, V. Kh. "The Antarctic convergence as the physical-geographic boundary
of the Antarctic". Vestn. LGU, seriya geo l. i geo gr., No. 24, 1956.
Govorukha, L. S. "Major denudation levels and recent geomorphological processes
on King George (Waterloo) Island". Trudy AANII, Vol. 318, 1973a.
. "Intensity of solifluction on King George (Waterloo) Island". Info rm.
byull. SAE, No. 89, 1973b.
and N. M. Simonov. "Some results of limnological investigations in
Franz-Josef Land". Iz v. VGO, No. 2, 1965.
Grikurov, G. E., and M. M. Polyakov. "Geological structure of the Fildes Peninsula,
the southwestern tip of King George Island". Info rm, byull. SAE, No. 71,
1969.
241
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
M
c
G
i
l
l

U
n
i
v
e
r
s
i
t
y

L
i
b
r
a
r
y
]

a
t

1
8
:
2
5

2
2

M
a
r
c
h

2
0
1
3

Zamoruyev, V. V. "Geomorphology of the South Shetland Islands".
Geo mo rfo lo giya, No. 1, 1972a.
. "Relief and recent relief-forming processes on Fildes Peninsula (King
George Island, South Shetland Islands)". Trudy SAE, Vol. 55, 1972b.
Korotkevich, Ye. S. Po lyamyye pustyni (Polar Deserts). Leningrad, Gidrometeoiz-
dat, 1972.
Krylov, V. I. "Marine mammals and birds in the Bellingshausen station area".
Info rm, byull. SAE, No. 71, 1968.
Markov, K. K.; V. I. Bardin, V. L. Lebedev, A. I. Orlov, and I. A. Suyetova.
Geo grafiya Antarktidy (Geography of Antarctica). Moscow: Mysl', 1968.
Orlov, A. I. "Problems in the physical-geographic regionalization of Antarctica". In:
Antarktika (Do kl. Ko missti z a 1963 g.) [Antarctica (Reports of the Commission
for 1963)]. Moscow: Academy of Sciences USSR, 1964.
. "Some results of limnological investigations on the Fildes Peninsula".
Info rm, byull. SAE, No. 81, 1971.
. "Geographical investigations on the Fildes Peninsula". Trudy SAE, Vol.
58, 1973.
Simonov, I. M. Oaz isy Vo sto chno y Antarktidy (Oases, of East Antarctica).
Leningrad: Gidrometeoizdat, 1971.
. "Lakes of the Fildes Peninsula on King George (Waterloo) Island".
Info rm, byull. SAE, No. 85, 1973a.
. "Animal world of the Fildes Peninsula". Trudy AANII, Vol. 318, 1973b.
Barton, C. M. "The geology of the South Shetland Islands III. The stratigraphy of
King George Island". Brit. Antarct. Surv. Sci. Rept., No. 44, 1965.
Jones, N. V. "The sheathbill, Chio nis alba (Gmelin), at Signy Island, South Orkney
Islands". Brit. Antarct. Surv. Bull, No. 2, 1963.
Murphy, R. C. Oceanic Birds o f So uth America. Vols 1, 2. New York, 1936.
Simpson, I. G. "Fossil penguins". Bull Amer. Museum Nat. Hist., Vol. 87, 1946.
242
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
M
c
G
i
l
l

U
n
i
v
e
r
s
i
t
y

L
i
b
r
a
r
y
]

a
t

1
8
:
2
5

2
2

M
a
r
c
h

2
0
1
3