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Characteristics of Living Things

Movement An action by an organism or part of an organism causing a change of position or place
Respiration The chemical reactions that break down nutrient molecules in living cells to release energy
Sensitivity The ability to detect or sense changes in the environment (stimuli) and to make responses
Growth A permanent increase in size and dry mass by an increase in cell number or cell size or both
Reproduction The processes that make more of the same kind of organism
Excretion The removal from organisms of toxic materials, the waste products of metabolism and
substances in excess of requirement
Nutrition The taking in of nutrients which are organic substances and mineral ions, containing raw
material or energy for growth and tissue repair, absorbing and assimilating them.
Cell part or
Organelle
Is it found in a
plant cell?
Is it found in an
animal cell?
Description of its function
Cell membrane X X Controls what enters and leaves the cell
Cell wall X Stop cell bursting
Chloroplast X Photosynthesis occurs here
Cytoplasm X X Liquid fills cell
Mitochondrion X X Respiration happens here
Nucleus X X Carries DNA
Nuclear Membrane X X Protects nucleus
Vacuole X Stores cell sap
Ribosomes X X To produce protein




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Exceptions
1. Red Blood Cells have no nucleus
2. Muscle cells have many nuclei
3. Root hair cells have no chloroplast because they have no sun








Absorption of Nutrients Experiment
Hypothesis: If I increase the surface area, it will absorb more nutrients
Method:
1. Cut three cubes of agar. These are your model cells. One should be a cube with sides
1cm, the next with sides of 1.5cm and the last with sides of 2cm. Weight each cell and
note the weights in the table. Calculate the surface area and volume of each cube
2. Measure out equal amounts of NaOH into three beakers
3. Place one cell into each beaker at the same time, starting a stopwatch simultaneously
4. You should see agar starting to change color
5. When the smallest cell has completely changed color, stop the stopwatch and remove
all three cells from the NaOH (note down the time the experiment ran for)
6. With a scalpel remove the part of each cell that changed color and re-weight just the
inside part (ignore everything that changed color). Note the weights in the table
7. Calculate the percentage of the cell which absorbed NaOH
Cell Surface area Volume Weight of
cell (g)
Weight of agar
which didnt
change color (g)
% of cell which
didnt absorb
NaOH
Cell A: 1cm 6cm
2
1cm
3
0.8 0.8 0%
Cell B: 1.5cm 13.5cm
2
3.375cm
3
3.1 0.2 6.45%
Cell C: 2cm 24cm
2
8cm
3
8.1 3.4 41.98%


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Diffusion
Diffusion is the movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of low
concentration, until they are evenly spread out.
All living cells rely on diffusion to live.
Getting raw materials for respiration (dissolved substances and gases)
Removing waste products (e.g. from respiration)
Photosynthesis in plant (raw materials in, waste products out
Respiration Gas exchange
In breathing you exchange carbon dioxide and oxygen between alveoli in the lungs and the blood. This
is an example of diffusion.
Respiration in cells

Photosynthesis
Carbon dioxide diffuses in through the stomata. Oxygen and water diffuses out of the stomata
3 things affect diffusion:
Temperature
Concentration
Thickness of membrane



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Osmosis
It is the net movement of water across a selectively permeable membrane from a high concentration to
a low concentration
Selectively permeable membrane
The cell membrane has small holes in it. Small molecules can pass through, but larger ones cant
Osmosis in plant cells


Osmosis in animal cells


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Active Transport
Active transport is movement of molecules across a membrane against a concentration gradient using
energy (doesnt work with water)
Potassium
Phosphorus
E.g. Uptake of digested sugars and proteins in a humans small intestine
E.g. Uptake of mineral ions (e.g. K
+
) by root hair cells
Diffusion, Osmosis and Active Transport
Osmosis
Involves water only
How water keeps plant cells turgid
Is passive
High to low concentration
Requires a semi-permeable membrane
Diffusion
How oxygen leaves a leaf
Is passive
High to low concentration
Active Transport
Requires energy
Against a concentration gradient
Requires a semi-permeable membrane



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Blood Vessels
Vena Cava Big vein entering the heart coming from the body
Veins - carry blood back to the heart
Venule - Small veins
Pulmonary Vein Carries blood from the lungs to the heart (oxygenated blood)
Aorta Big artery going to the body and leaving the heart
Arteries - carry blood to the body
Arterioles Small arteries
Pulmonary Artery Carries blood from heart to the lungs (deoxygenated blood)

The renal artery takes blood to the kidneys
The hepatic artery takes blood to the liver
Veins have valves to keep the blood flowing in the right direction






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Red blood cells
Contain hemoglobin and carry oxygen around the body. They have no nucleus and a large surface area.

Platelets
They are small bits of cells that lie around waiting for a cut to happen so that they can clot.

White blood cells
Kill invading microbes by producing antigens or engulfing the microbe
Lymphocytes produce antibodies
Antibodies immobilize the bacterium
Phagocytes engulf the bacterium or virus and destroy them




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Plasma
Plasma carries Red blood cells, platelets and white blood cells. Plasma also carries CO2 and water as well
as taking away waste products to the lungs/kidneys.

Pulse rate
Measured in bpm (beats per minute)
This raises your pulse rate:
o Adrenaline
o Exercise
To measure the pulse rate, you push you arteries against a bone (e.g. on your wrist). You will
feel the artery expanding
Heart
Name Function
Aorta Sends oxygenated blood to the body
Vena Cava Brings deoxygenated blood from the body
Pulmonary Artery Carries deoxygenated blood to the lungs
Pulmonary Vein Carries oxygenated blood to the heart
Septum Separates the right and left side of the heart
Right Atrium Collects deoxygenated blood and pumps it to the left ventricle
Left Atrium Collects oxygenated blood and pumps it to the right ventricle
Right Ventricle Pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs
Left Ventricle Pumps oxygenated blood to the body via the Aorta
Tricuspid valves (right) Atrio-ventricular valves prevent backflow of blood into the artria when
ventricles contract
Bicuspid valves (left) Atrio-ventricular valves prevent backflow of blood into the artria when
ventricles contract
Tendon Stops valves inverting
Semi-lunar valves Prevent backflow to the ventricles


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Respiration Experiments



Inhale = A bubbled
Exhale = B bubbled
B turned cloudy because we
breathe out more CO2 than we
breathe in.
Breathe out against it and
condenses the water
Test for water (turns pink)
Same as Experiment 1. Tube B
will be warmer

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Using a Spirometer









Breathing In and Out
Breathing In Breathing Out
Intercostal Muscles Contract Relax
Ribs move Outwards Inwards
Diaphragm Downwards Upwards
Pressure in chest Decreases Increases

Alveoli
1. They have thin walls (one cell thick)
Small diffusion
2. They have a large surface area
Lots of them and round shape
3. They are moist
Gases dissolve in water
4. A Concentration gradient is maintained
By the blood flowing and further breathing
Oxygen molecules diffuse across the lining of the alveoli into the blood in the capillary, moving from
higher to lower concentration
Carbon dioxide molecules diffuse across the lining of the capillary out of the blood into the alveolus,
moving from higher to lower concentration. The large number of alveoli increases the surface area of
the lungs and therefore increases the rate of diffusion.

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Aerobic
Glucose + oxygen Carbon dioxide + water (+ energy)
Anaerobic
Yeast= Glucose Ethanol + Carbon dioxide
Humans= Glucose Lactic acid + Carbon dioxide
Lactic acid can be broken down by oxygen
o That is why you breathe hard after sprinting
o This is called Oxygen dept.
Fermentation anaerobic respiration in yeast.
o Used for:
Bread
Beer
Wine
Lung Diagram


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Cilia and Goblet Cells
Goblet cells line the air tubes between the mouth and lungs. They make mucus which traps bacteria and
dust. There are also tiny hairs called cilia lining these tubes. These hairs beat the dirt and germs up to
the throat.
Smoking
Tar Causes lung cancer
Nicotine the addictive drug. It causes heart disease
Carbon Monoxide Reduces the amount of oxygen that the blood can carry

Experiment to investigate respiration in germinating seeds





Bung
Soda Lime
Cotton wool
Seeds
Water
Capillary Tube

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Homeostasis


Body temperature: 37C
Enzymes work best at 37C (40C but we do not want to risk denaturing)
Homeostasis organisms that maintain their body functions (e.g. Temperature)
Poikilotherms Dont maintain their temperature. (e.g. Crocodile). They live in warm, places
Hypothalamus Temperature indicator (in the brain)
External Temperature Decreases External Temperature Increases
Decrease in sweating Sweating
Hairs stand up Hairs lie flat
Vasoconstriction of skin arterioles Vasodilation of skin arterioles
Shivering







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Insulin

Glycogen Stored glucose in a non-soluble solution
Glucagon, Insulin Hormones

Function of the Kidney
Excretion
Urea
o Waste product
o Toxic
o Breakdown of proteins and amino acids
o In the liver
Osmoregulation
1. Ions
o E.g. Sodium
o From food
o Excess amounts
2. Water
o From food and drinks
o Excess amounts
o Lost as sweat, breath or in the urine


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Ultrafiltration
Ultrafiltration takes place in the Bowmans Capsule
Substances which are small enough are squeezed out of the blood in the glomerulus e.g.
o Water
o Urea
o Ions
o Glucose
o Amino Acids
These form the glomerular filtrate
Selective Reabsorption
Reabsorption occurs in the first convoluted tubule
Useful substances e.g.
o Glucose/amino acids (ALL)
o Ions
o Water
Are taken back into the blood by:
Diffusion
Osmosis
Active transport
Anti-Diuretic Hormone (ADH)
Is a Hormone
Produced by the Pituitary Gland
Travels in the blood
Controls the amount of water that the kidney reabsorb








(Some)
Dehydrated Over Hydration
Release more ADH
Release less ADH
Reabsorb more water
Reabsorb less water
Urine:
Less volume
More concentrated
Darker in colour

Urine:
More volume
Less concentrated
Lighter in colour


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Solutions for Diabetes
Test blood for sugar levels
Insulin injections before every meal
Regulation the amount of sugar in your diet
Other hormones increasing glucose level
Adrenaline Short term for physical activity
Thyroxin Controls growth and development (long term)
Growth Hormone Controls cell division (long term)

Kidney Diagram


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Digestion
Proteins Are made of amino acid
Carbohydrates Are made of glucose
Lipids Are made of fatty acids + glycerol













Making a model gut
1. Using a dropping pipette, three-quarters fill one length of Visking tubing with starch solution.
Fasten the tubing with a knot or rubber band
2. Hold this under a running tap to remove any solution from the outside
3. Place the tubing in a beaker with water
4. Repeat with a second piece of Visking tubing but this time fill it half-full with starch solution and
one-quarter full with amylase solution. Mix gently
5. Now place both beakers in a water bath at 35C for 30 minutes
6. After this time, test the water in each beaker for starch (using iodine solution) and for sugar
(using Benedicts solution). You will need to split the water in each boiling tube into two first
7. Record your results


Ingestion
Digestion
Absorption
Use
Egestion
Faeces

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Beaker with starch Beaker with starch + amylase
Test for starch No starch No starch
Test for sugar No sugar Sugar present

Human Digestive System











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The effect of pH on enzyme action
1. Into two test tubes, add 2 cm
3
of 1% pepsin solution, and into another two put the same volume
of water
2. Put a few drops of 0.1M hydrochloric acid into one pepsin tube and a few drops of 0.05M
sodium hydroxide into the other
3. Repeat with the tubes containing water
4. Now add 5cm
3
of egg-white suspension to each tube
5. Place all four tubes in a water bath at 37C for 30 minutes
6. After this time, examine each tube and record the appearance of the egg-white suspension. Also
put a small sample of the suspension into a colorimeter and record the absorbance of light.
Tube Pepsin + Acid Pepsin + alkali Water + acid Water + alkali
Appearance of
egg-white
Colorless Cloudy Cloudy Cloudy
Colorimeter
reading
(absorbance of
white light)

96.1%

55.8%


60.9%

62.2%
Part of the Digestive
system
Function
Mouth Teeth Mechanically digest food
Saliva:
o Chemically digests food
o Amylase (Starch Maltose)
Oesophagus Connects mouth to stomach. Movement by Perstasis
Stomach Digests proteins Pepsin (Best at pH2) (Proteins Amino Acids)
HCl Kills bacteria, Keeps pH2
Liver Bile:
o Emulsification (emulsifies fats)
o Neutralises acid
Pancreas Pancreatic fluid:
o Amylase (starch Maltose)
o Protease (Protein Amino Acids)
o Lipase (Lipids Fatty acids + glycerol)
Small intestine Digestion + absorption
Villi (Large surface area), Micro Villi
Maltase ( Maltose glucose)
Large intestine Water is absorbed
Mucus is added
Bacteria digest some fibre
Rectum Stores faeces

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Balanced Diet
Nutrient Functions Food Sourcs
Carbohydrates Provide glucose Meat
Fats Used for storing Chocolate
Protein Production of new cells Eggs
Fibre Healthy digestive system Vegetables
Water For hydration Water
Vitamin A Healthy bones Carrots
Vitamin C Formation of immune system Citrus fruits
Vitamin D Absorb calcium Eggs
Iron Healthy red blood cells Meat
Calcium Healthy bones Milk

Enzymes
Enzymes are biological catalysts They speed up the chemical reactions that take place inside all cells,
but without being used up in the process
Enzymes are protein molecules

Enzymes speed up reactions by lowering the activation energy (Ea) of a reaction
If the temperature and pH changes sufficiently beyond an enzymes optimum, the shape of the enzyme
irreversibly changes (Denatures)



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Tube
A B C D E
Substance
Milk 6 6 6 6 6
Phenolphthalein 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
Bile salts 1 1 0 0 1
Water 0 1 1 2 0
Lipase 1 0 1 0 1
Temperature 37C 37C 37C 37C 5C
Result First to go
Cloudy
Nothing Second to go
cloudy
Nothing Took a long
while to go
cloudy

Hormone A substance produced to stimulate specific cells into action
Tests for:
Starch Iodine solution turns Starch black
Glucose Benedict solution turns glucose Orange to Green to Brick Red
Protein Biuret solution turns Protein Pink or Purple




Enzyme is
denaturing
Molecules
gain
kinetic
energy

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Microvilli

1. More surface area
2. Microvilli wall is one cell thick
3. Good Blood flow
4. Lacteal provides alternate route








Cross Section of Leaf













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