The Titanic

The Titanic was built by the White Star Line. The owners of the company thought that if
ocean liners were big and luxurious enough more people would travel with them.
The Titanic was designed to be the largest in a series of three ships made by the White Star
line. It was 268 metres long, 28 metres wide, and weighed 45 000 tons. It produced enough
power to travel at a speed of 24 knots (about 40km per hour).
The bulk of the ship was divided into compartments. They were separated by steel doors
that did not let any water through. The ship could still move and float if 3 or 4 of the 16
compartments were filled with water.
The Titanic was more like a floating hotel than a ship. It cost $7.5 million and it was unlike
any other ship that had ever been built. Palm trees and other expensive plants decorated
the luxurious hallways and corridors. The ship could carry 2 600 passengers and a crew of
900.

The Titanic - The World's Largest Luxury Liner

On April 10, 1912 over 2200 passengers boarded the Titanic
on its maiden voyage to New York. Many of them were
immigrants who saved all their money for the journey. First class passengers had to pay
between $2 500 and $4 500 for a private room and a bath, third class passengers had to
share rooms and paid $35 each.


Although the ships owners said the Titanic was unsinkable many problems before the first
voyage were overlooked. Safety regulations at that time were not very strict. The ship only
had 16 life boats, enough for about 1 500 passengers. It was only tested for a few hours and
never went at full speed. The telegraph system on board was new and not many people
knew how to operate it.

During the night of April 14, 1912 the waters of the North Atlantic had a temperature of
about -2 C. At noon on that day the radio operators got messages from other ships about
icebergs that were nearby. The Titanics captain, Edward Smith, did not care about these
warnings. He was captain of a steel giant that could not sink. The only thing he cared about
was setting up a new world speed record. The Titanic was to be the fastest ship that ever
sailed from Southampton to New York.

The night was clear and the Titanic sped on. When a big iceberg was sighted the first officer
shut down all the engines. But it would have taken the ship about half a mile to come to a
full stop. Even though, on the surface, the ship stayed clear of the iceberg, it ripped a big
hole in the hull. At once the compartments began to flood with cold, icy water. The
bulkheads were lowered but it was too late. Water flooded at least five compartments.

Route of the Titanic

The collision with the iceberg was so slight that the
passengers hardly heard it. Most of them didnt take any
notice and continued dancing and having fun. Some passengers were asleep in their cabins.
The bow of the ship dipped under the waters surface and the back part of the ship began
to rise. After a short time the Titanic broke into two pieces. When Captain Smith realized
that the Titanic was sinking he had a distress signal sent out but the nearest ship was a
hundred kilometres away.

As time went on chaos emerged and passengers rushed to the boat deck. Women and
children were allowed on the lifeboats first. Lights flickered and electricity was finally gone.
At 2:20 a.m. the Titanic disappeared into the Atlantic Ocean.

The Carpathia, which was the nearest ship, came to the scene about two hours later and
picked up the freezing passengers in their lifeboats. By early morning the news of the
disaster had gone around the world. The worlds largest ocean liner, the Titanic, had sunk
on its maiden voyage, killing 1513 people.
Words
although = while
board = to go on a ship
boat deck = the level of the ship where the lifeboats were
bow = the front part of a ship
bulk = the main part of
bulkheads = a wall that divides the ship into many compartments
collision = crash
compartment = sections, big rooms
corridor = hallway
crew = all the people who work on a ship
decorate = to make something look very attractive by putting something pretty on it
design = make
dip = to go under
disappear = to go away so that you cannot see it any more
disaster = catastrophe, tragedy
distress signal = to send a signal out when you are in danger
divide = separate
electricity =the power that is in wires and cables. It is used to give us light and run
machines
emerge = come up, start
first officer = the officer who is just below the captain of a ship
flicker = to go on and off
float = to stay on the surface of the water
flood = to cover with water
full speed = as fast as something can go
hull = the part of the ship that is in the water
immigrant = a person who goes to another country to live or work there
lower = to bring down
luxurious = expensive
maiden voyage = the first trip of a ship
message = note
ocean liner = a big ship that could carry many passengers and sail from one
continent to another
operate = work, function
owner = the company that built the ship
pickup = rescue
realize = see
rip = tear
rise = to go up
rush = hurry, run fast
safety regulations = things that are done so that something is safe
sail = to move on water
separate = divide
share = to use together
shut down = stop
sight = to see
slight = small, not important
speed = how fast something moves
stay clear = not get into contact with; to be far away from
steel = a very strong metal
strict =exact
surface =the top layer of something
take notice = to realize that something happened
telegraph = an old method of sending messages using radio signals
unsinkable = it could not sink
voyage = a journey by ship
weigh = how heavy something is
wide =broad












Titanic Exhibit at Las Vegas Hotel
Over 1,500 people died when the ocean liner Titanic hit an iceberg in the North Atlantic in
1912. The unsinkable ship, as the Titanic was called by many, caused one of the biggest
disasters of history. Now the story of the Titanic is told at an exhibition at a Las Vegas
hotel. Visitors get a boarding card with a name of one of the passengers and can find out
what happened to them. They can also observe many artefacts and original items that were
on the Titanic. Even a huge iceberg is on display to give visitors a feeling of how cold it was
when the Titanic hit disaster.
Words
actual = real
artefact = tool or object from the past
boarding pass = a piece of paper that allows you to go on a ship or plane
china = hard white material that you make when you bake clay at a high
temperature
considered = thought to be
disaster = catastrophe
discover = to find for the first time
essence = spirit, heart
exhibit = show, display
fate = the things that happened to someone
feature = show
furnished = with furniture like tables, chairs etc..
hull = the main part of the ship that is in the water
hypothermia = an illness you get when it is very cold
jewellery = small things that you wear for decoration
memorial wall = place that reminds people of someone who has died
noteworthy = famous
ocean liner = very big ship with many passengers
on display = is shown
perish = die
replica = the exact copy of something
supposedly = what many people believed was true
survive = to live on
toiletry = things you need when you go to the restroom
unadorned = plain, very simple
wreck = the ruins of the ship




The Oasis of the Seas - The Biggest Cruise Ship in the World
The Oasis of the Seas is the worlds largest cruise ship. It can carry up to 6,200 passengers,
who are served by over 2000 crew members. The vessel is 40% bigger than any other cruise
ship in the world , has a weight of 225,000 tons and is five times the size if the Titanic. It has
a total of 15 decks and is as high as a twenty- storey building.
The ship was built in Finland and is owned by Royal Caribbean International. Its maiden
voyage is scheduled for early December 2009. The ship is stationed in Fort Lauderdale
Florida, from where it will go on week-long cruises of the Caribbean Sea.
The Oasis of the Seas has virtually everything a tourist can dream of. Biggest attraction is a
giant open-air theatre for 750 passengers that is a swimming pool by day and an
entertainment arena at night. Passengers can wander through a park full of real trees and
exotic plants, eat and drink in 24 restaurants or travel up and down between decks in a
movable bar. There is something for everyone: a small golf course, a basketball court, an ice
rink and two rock-climbing walls for those looking for athletic activities. Mothers can leave
small children in nurseries while they go shopping in the ships boutiques.
The best and latest technology makes the Oasis of the Seas one of the most modern ships
on the seas. But, the captain says, its very easy to manoeuvre because everything is
automated and runs with computers.
The owners hope that the Oasis of the Seas will earn them a lot of money. The vessel cost
over 1.5 billion dollars to build and with a starting price of about 1,700 Euros for a nine day
cruise it is not exactly cheap. But spending a holiday on the worlds biggest ship should be
worth something.
Words:
attraction = an interesting place
automated = things go or work by themselves
court = an area for playing games
cruise = a holiday trip on sea
cruise ship = a large ship that people spend holidays on ; it has restaurants, bars and
other attractions
entertainment = things that make people and make them happy
exotic = from faraway places
ice rink = area where you ca go ice- skating
maiden voyage = the first journey or trip that a ship makes
manoeuvre = steer, to move in a certain direction
movable = something that can move and is not fixed in one place
nursery = a place where young children are taken care of while there parents work
or are somewhere else
open-air = something that exists outdoors
schedule = plan
serve = work for
size = how big something is
stationed = the home port of the ship
story = floor
technology = equipment, machines and computers on the ship
vessel = ship
virtually = almost nearly
wand = walk around a place
weight = how heavy something is













Earthquakes
An earthquake is one of the worst natural disasters on our earth. We think that the ground
we stand on is very stable, but it isnt. It moves quite a lot. In the last few decades scientists
have been able to find out why earthquakes happen.
Earthquakes happen when there is a sudden vibration in the earths crust. Its like a large
lorry that travels down your street. When it passes by, you feel your house shake.
Earthquakes can be caused by a lot of things :
Volcanoes that suddenly erupt
Meteorites that hit the earth
Undergrounds explosions
Buildings that fall apart

But most earthquakes happen because the earths plates move.
In the middle of the 20th century scientists found out that continents do not always stay in
the same place. They have been moving on plates for millions of years. The earths surface
is made up of many such plates. Where two plates meet magma comes out of the inner part
of the earth . These areas are called faultsbreaks in the earths crust.

How plates move
When two plates move away from each other lava or magma comes out of the earth. Most
of this happens at the bottom of oceans, where the earths crust is very thin. Lava cools
down when it reaches the water and underwater mountains are formed.
When plates push towards each otherone of them slides under the other. Rocks are
pushed up and new mountains are formed.
Some plates slide past each other for example, one moves north and the other moves
south . When these plates move along faults a lot of energy is released and the biggest
earthquakes happen.

Plates move away from each other
Plates move towards each other
Plates slide past each other
We only hear about earthquakes once in a while , but they really happen every day. There
are more than 3 million earthquakes every yearabout 8,000 every day or one every 11
seconds.
But most of them are very weak or they happen in places where nobody lives. Some of
them take place on the sea floor.

Where do earthquakes happen ?
Earthquakes occur all over the world but there are places
where they happen more often. Big earthquakes can be found where plates meet.
80% of the worlds earthquakes happen around the Pacific Oceannear the east coast of
Asia and the west coast of America. Japan has over 2,000 earthquakes every year and
California and South America are also very active earthquake zones. The edge of the Pacific
Ocean is also called the Ring of Fire because there are also many active volcanoes in this
region.

Earthquake Waves
When there is a sudden movement in the earths crust, energy moves in the form of waves .
Its like dropping something into water.
Body waves move through the inner part of the earth and surface waves travel over the
earths surface.

Body waves can travel very fastup to 8 km a second. They travel through rock , water and
gas . When they reach other places on the earths surface they can be registered there.
They are usually the first waves to get to the surface.
Surface waves cause the most damage, but they move very slowly. These waves come at
the end of an earthquake.

Man-made Earthquakes
Sometimes people can make earthquakes happen. They can fill man-made lakes with water
after building a damor they test atomic bombs underground. Some of these tests can help
scientists find out how quakes happen.

How earthquakes are measured
With a machine called a seismograph scientists can tell where an earthquake happened and
how strong it was.
The place in the earth where the movement takes place is called the focus or hypocentre.
From here, waves start to spread out in all directions. This focus can be very near to the
surface or it can be hundreds of km below it. The area on the surface exactly above the
focus is called the epicentre. This is the place where the waves hit first and where the most
damage is done.

Whenever an earthquake hits us you hear how powerful it is. The Richter Scale is used to
rate the magnitude of earthquakes. Small quakes have a rating of under 4. You wont see a
lot of damage here. Medium-sized earthquakes reach between 5 and 7 on the scale, and
the really big ones are above 7. The largest earthquake that has ever been registered was at
9.5 on the Richter scale.
There are more than 100 seismograph stations all over the world. When the earth shakes
seismologists compare the information they get and then they can tell where the
earthquake really happened.

Effects of earthquakes
Earthquakes make the ground move. Buildings shake and many of them collapse. Landslides
also happen when rocks get loose.
Another danger is fire. In 1906 San Francisco was hit by a big earthquake and many houses
burned down because they were made of wood.

San Francisco earthquake of 1906
When an earthquake occurs on the sea floor, big waves - called tsunamishit the coast.
They often come without any warning and they kill many people and destroy buildings and
streets near the coast.
Earthquakes also can lead to diseases, especially in developing countries. When water
supplies are destroyed people dont have safe water to drink. Sometimes earthquakes also
hit hospitals where injured people are treated.
Dealing with earthquakes
We understand earthquakes a lot better today than we did 50
years ago, but we still cant do very much about them. They are so powerful, that we cannot
control them.
Scientists can tell us in which regions earthquakes will probably happen, but they cant tell
us exactly where.
So what can we do about earthquakes? We can make our houses we live in and buildings we
work in safer. Today architects use materials that wont collapse when an earthquake hits
like steel and concrete.


The biggest earthquakes in history
856
200,000 people are killed in one of the deadliest earthquakes in history in Damghan, Iran.
1138
An earthquake in Aleppo, Syria kills 230,000
1556
The deadliest earthquake in history hits Shensi province in China. Almost 1 million people
are killed.
1755
The most serious earthquake in Europe hits Lisbon, Portugal. The whole city is destroyed.
About 70,000 people get killed.
1906
The city of San Francisco is hit by a large earthquake. A big fire destroys most of the city.
About 500 people die.
1908
Messina, Sicily is totally destroyed by a large earthquake . About 70,000 people are killed.
1923
Tokyo, Japan is destroyed by an earthquake with a magnitude of 8.3 . 150,000 people are
killed.
1960
The strongest earthquake ever recorded hits Chile. It reaches 9.5 on the Richter scale.
20,000 people die.
1964
The strongest earthquake in North America hits Anchorage Alaska. Ocean waves reach a
height of 20 metres. 200 people are killed.
1976
The biggest earthquake ever recorded in China leaves 242,000 people dead.
Words
cause = the reason for something
collapse = to fall down
compare = to exchange the information you have with others
concrete = a very hard material made of cement
crust = the top part of the earth
damage =destruction
decade = ten years
destroy =damage , ruin
developing countries = the poorest countries in the world
direction =way
disaster = when something very dangerous happens and a lot of people die
edge =border ,outer part of
erupt = to break out or explode
especially =above all
fault = where two plates meet
height =how high something is
injured = hurt
landslide = rocks move down mountains and destroy houses or block roads
lead to =to be the reason for
loose =movable, to come free, not fixed
lorry = a car that carries lots of goods
magma = rock in the inner part of the earth that is liquid
magnitude = how strong or powerful an earthquake is . It is measured on the Richter
scale
man-made = something caused or made by a person
medium-sized = not so big and not so small
movement =when something moves
occur = happen
once in a while = sometimes
plate = the earths crust broke up into many plates and the continents move on
these plates
rate =rank, measure how strong something is
reach = get to
reach =go from .... to
record =write down, keep information
registered = recorded
release =let go
safe water = clean water
serious = dangerous
slide =move, go down
spread out = to move
stable = it doesnt move
sudden =unexpected, quick
supplies =reserves
surface =the top layer
take place = happen
towards each other =here: two objects move to each other
treat =care for, take care of
volcano = a mountain that often explodes and rock, gas and lava come out of it
weak = not very strong
zone = places, areas





















Plate Tectonics - What Causes Earthquakes
Geologists who study the Earth tell us that the continents and oceans are always moving.
Sometimes this movement is quick and sudden and is what causes earthquakes. The Earth's
surface is not as smooth as it may look from far away. Continents float on the Earth's outer
skin, the crust. When hot, melted rock comes up from the inside of the Earth new crust is
created. The old crust is pushed away and moves deeper down into the Earth where it is
melted again. This movement of crust and continents is called plate tectonics.
The Earth's crust is not in one big piece. It consists of up to 20 plates. These plates
sometimes crash into each other, at other times they move away from each other. When
plates move, the continents move with them. Where these plates come together
earthquakes occur.
Modern instruments show us that 90% of all earthquakes happen where these plates come
together. Other earthquakes take place near the coasts of continents.
California, for example, is geologically not a part of North America. It lies on the Pacific plate
which is moving northwest. The North American plate, on the other hand, is moving in the
opposite direction. The line on which this happens is called the San Andreas Fault. Los
Angeles is about 50 km away from this fault. Many smaller faults are in and around the city.
The Earth's continents have not always been in the place they are today. Hundreds of
millions of years ago there was only one continent, called Pangea. This huge continent
broke apart about 200 million years ago and started drifting into all directions.
Scientists found out that some of the rocks found in Brazil were the same as the rocks found
in Western Africa. They also discovered that the ocean floor and the continents are not
made up of the same material. Very often hot, melted rock comes up in valleys in the
middle of oceans. It becomes hard and presses older rock away. The new ocean floor of the
Atlantic is pushing Europe and America apart from each other. Not fast, but slowly, at the
speed of 2 cm a year.
When the ocean floor presses against a continent it is forced down and melts again. That is
why the Earth does not become bigger. New ocean floor is created, older one is destroyed.
Volcanoes also occur where plates come together. Scientists call these places "hot spots",
areas where melted rock comes out of the inner part of the Earth. The Hawaiian Islands, for
example, are in the center of one of these hot spots.

Words
area = place, region
cause = lead to
coast = where the ocean meets land
consist of = to be made up of
create = make, produce
crust = the hard outer layer of the Earth
destroy = to damage something so badly that it does not exist any more
discover = to find out for the first time
drift = move slowly
earthquake = when the Earth suddenly shakes; it destroys buildings and sometimes
people are killed
fault =a large crack in the Earths outer layer
float = here: to move on
force = here: to make something move
huge = very big
melt = if something turns into liquid
movement = to change your position and go from one place to another
occur = happen
opposite = other
plate = one of the large sheets of rock that form the surface of the Earth
quick = fast
scientist = someone who works in a laboratory or is trained in science
smooth = flat, even
speed = how fast something is
sudden = unexpected
surface = the top part of the Earth
valley = an area of lower land between two lines of mountains
Amasia The Earths New Supercontinent
The theory of plate tectonics proves that the Earths continents swim on plates and are
constantly in motion. During the geologic history of the Earth they have crashed together a
few times. Modern research shows that this will happen again within the next 150 million
years. Land masses travel at a speed of only a few millimeters to two centimeters every
year.
Predictions show that the next big supercontinent could form over the North Pole as
America and Asia drift together.
The last time there was such a large continent was about 300 million years ago. Pangaea
was a vast landmass on which dinosaurs roamed. Its center was Africa and about 150
million years ago it broke apart into several plates that drifted away from each other.
Scientists think that during the course of the Earths history, which goes back 4.5 billion
years, there have been at least three such supercontinents.
According to computer models the Americas and Asia seem to be drifting to the north and
will meet somewhere over the North Pole. The Arctic Sea will be gone and the Caribbean
Sea will also disappear. Such a landmass, called Amasia, would take up most of the northern
hemisphere and then slowly move southwards towards the equator. While Australia is also
moving north and will presumably collide with East Asia to join the supercontinent,
Antarctica may remain isolated over the South Pole.
Scientists can find out how such continents have moved during billions of years by analyzing
magnetic rocks. Findings show how far away landmasses have been from the Earths
magnetic poles during the course of history.

Words
according to = as shown by
analyze = examine, study
billion = a thousand million
Caribbean Sea = sea between Central, North and South America
collide = crash
constantly = always
disappear = go away
drift = move , float
finding = result
hemisphere = half of the world
join = meet
land masses = continents
magnetic pole = one of the two points that are near the North and South Poles of
the Earth. They are not fixed but move around and the needle of a compass points to
them
motion = moving
plate tectonics = the study of how large sheets of rock move on the Earths surface
predict = to say how and why something will happen in the future
presumably = probably
prove = show
remain = stay
research = to study something in order to find out new facts about it
roam = wander around
scientist = a person who is trained in science and works in a laboratory
several = many
speed = how fast something is
vast = very big












Geologic History of the Earth
Geologists are scientists who study the structure of rocks and the history of the earth. By
looking at and examining layers of rocks and the fossils they contain they are able to tell us
what the earth looked like at a certain time in history and what kind of plants and animals
lived at that time.
Scientists think that the earth probably was formed at the same time as the rest of our solar
system, about 4.6 billion years ago. The solar system may have begun as a cloud of dust,
from which the sun and the planets evolved. Small particles crashed into each other to
create bigger objects, which then turned into smaller or larger planets. Our earth is made up
of three basic layers. The centre has a core made of iron and nickel. Around it is a thick
layer of rock called the mantle and around that is a thin layer of rock called the crust.

When the earth formed over 4 billion years ago it was totally different from the planet we
live on today. There were no plants or animals, only rock, desert, water and ice. The
atmosphere probably consisted of carbon dioxide and steam with almost no oxygen to
breathe.

The Precambrian Time
The oldest period of the earths history lasted from the beginnings four and a half billion
years ago to about 600 million years ago. At first simple forms of one-celled life developed
in the oceans. Later on bacteria and algae evolved. Towards the middle of the Precambrian,
about 2 billion years ago, more complex organisms, sponge-like creatures and soft-bodied
animals lived in the seas. During this time there was no life on land because there was not
enough oxygen to breathe.
As the Precambrian came to an end the oceans were full of life. Plants started absorbing the
carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and turned it into oxygen. Early continents formed,
but they looked quite different than they do today.

The Paleozoic Era
The Paleozoic Era lasted from about 600 million to about 240 million years ago. Geologists
divide this era into six periods. From the earliest to the latest these are the Cambrian,
Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous and the Permian.
Although most animals and plants still lived in the oceans, life started to develop on land
and by the end of this era there was life in both the sea and on land. The earliest living
things on land were simple plants and mosses, the first creatures to appear on land were
animals that looked like spiders, scorpions and insects.
The middle of the era was dominated by all sorts of fish and invertebrates. Early
amphibians, animals that could live on land and in the water, appeared. During the
Carboniferous period the first reptiles evolved and insects grew to an enormous size.
The end of the era was the time of big forests and swamps. The earth got hot and wet.
Plants and big trees died and were buried in sediments.
Over millions of years they turned into gigantic coal deposits which we find in the eastern
United States, Europe, Russia and China.
During the Paleozoic era the land masses were constantly moving and by the end of the era
they joined together to become a single continent called Pangaea. As these land masses
collided several mountain chains, like the Appalachian and Ural Mountains emerged.
The Mesozoic Era
The Mesozoic era lasted from about 240 million to about 65 million years ago. At the end of
the Paleozoic about 90 % of all living creatures on earth died out. We dont really know
what caused this to happen but many scientists think that our climate started to change
dramatically. Maybe a big volcanic eruption thrust gas into the earths atmosphere or
maybe a large asteroid hit the earth and dust blocked out sunlight for many years.
The Mesozoic era is often called the age of dinosaurs because they dominated the earths
landmasses. Reptiles were the most powerful and fearsome creatures of that time. The
archaeopteryx was a flying reptile, probably the first bird on earth. Some dinosaurs like the
Tyrannosaurus Rex were meat eating predators; others only ate plants and leaves. The 30
meter long brontosaurus was the largest land animal that ever lived. During the Mesozoic
era the first mammals also appeared on earth but they were very small and could not
match the size and greatness of dinosaurs.

In this era Pangaea started breaking up and land masses formed the continents we know
today. They started moving in all directions. By the end of the Mesozoic era South America
had separated from Africa; Australia and Antarctica was one continent and North America
had started to move away from Eurasia. Just like the Paleozoic era before it, the Mesozoic
also ended abruptly. About 65 million years ago 75 per cent of all animals on earth,
including the dinosaurs died out. Geologists are pretty sure that a large asteroid hit Mexico
and sent dust into the atmosphere that blocked out sunlight for years. It killed off many
plants and animals could not survive without food.

The Cenozoic era
The Cenozoic era started about 65 million years ago and continues on into the present. It is
divided into the Tertiary period which ended about 1.8 million years ago and Quaternary
period.
After the death of the dinosaurs and other reptiles mammals started to dominate life on
earth. In the early Cenozoic era horses, rhinoceroses, pigs, camels, deer and cattle started
to evolve. As time went on mammals got bigger and bigger. Elephants and mammoths
roamed the plains and forests.

The wooly mammoth
About 2 to 4 million years ago apelike creatures lived in
Africa. Apes that looked like humans appeared 2 million years
ago, but the first real humans came to earth much later, maybe even less than 200 000
years ago.
During the Cenozoic era continents continued to move and crash into each other. Layers of
rock folded and moved upward. During this era the biggest mountains of the world, the
Alps, Himalayas, Rocky Mountains and Andes have taken shape. In the last 2 million years
large parts of the earth have been covered by huge ice sheets. In four Ice Ages, which were
separated by warmer periods, glaciers moved across the northern hemisphere. The surface
of the seas sank by about 100 meters and turned many shallow parts of the oceans, like the
North Sea, into land. Great Britain, for example, was a part of the European mainland and
became an island when the ice melted about 20,000 years ago. The glaciers built up huge

deposits of rock and reshaped mountains and valleys into todays form. On the southern
continents it rained a lot and turned these areas, like the Sahara desert, into green forests
and grasslands.

Words
abruptly = very quickly
absorb = to take something in
algae = very simple plants that grow in or near water
although =while
amphibian = animal that lives on land and in the sea
apelike = like an ape or monkey
appear = to be seen for the first time
asteroid = a small planet like object that moves around the sun
at first = in the beginning
basic = main, important
beginning = start
billion = one thousand million
block out = keep out, not let in
breathe = to take air into your lungs and send it out again
bury = if something is hidden under the ground
carbon dioxide = gas that is produced when you breathe out
Carboniferous = later part of the Paleozoic era
cattle = cows
cause = lead to
certain = special
collide = to crash against
complex = something that has many different parts
consist of =to be made up of
constantly = always
contain = have
continue = to go on
core = the hard centre of an object
cover =if something is over something else
create = make
creature = a living thing
crust = the hard outer layer of the earth
deer = a large wild animal that can run very fast, has thin legs , eats grass and has
horns
deposit =layer of rock that has metal or minerals in it
desert = a large area of hot, dry land
develop = grow
direction =route, way
divide =break up, separate
dominate = control, to be the most important
drift = to move slowly away from each other
dust = dry powder made up of dirt
emerge = to come into being
enormous = very very big
era = time in history
eruption = if a volcano explodes and sends out smoke, fire and rock into the sky
Eurasia = the land mass of Europe and Asia
evolve = grow, develop
examine = to look at something very carefully because you want to find out more
about it
fearsome = very frightening
fold = to bend something
fossil = an animal or plant that lived many thousands of years ago and that has been
preserved in rock
gigantic = very big
glacier = a large mass of ice which moves slowly down a mountain valley
grassland = a large area of grass covered with wild grass
greatness = here: power
hemisphere = half of the earth north or south of the equator
huge = very big
human = a person
ice sheet = layer of ice
including =together with
invertebrate = a living thing that does not have a backbone
join = to become one
layer =material that lies between two other substances
location = place
mainland = the area of land that forms a country , not the islands
mammal = an animal that drinks milk from its mothers body when it is young
mammoth = an animal like a large hairy elephant that lived on earth thousands of
years ago
match = to be the same as
melt = to become water
moss = a very small green plant that that grows on the ground or wet rocks
mountain chain = group of mountains , usually in a line
nickel = a hard silver-white metal
oxygen = a gas that is in the air and which we need to breathe
particle = a very small piece of something
period = a part of an era
plains = a large area of flat land
predator = an animal that kills and eats other animals
present = today
probably =likely
quite = very
real =true, original
reptile = animal whose body temperature always changes. It usually lays eggs to
have babies
reshape = to get a new form
rhinoceros = a large heavy African or Asian animal with thick skin and one or two
horns on its nose
roam = to walk or travel for a long time without having a place to go
scientist =a person who is trained in science
sediment = material that falls down to the bottom of the sea
separate = divide into parts
separate = to move away from
shallow = not deep
size =how big something is
solar system = the sun and the planets that go around it
spider = a small creature that has eight legs and catches insects
sponge =a soft material with small holes in it that can absorb water or other liquids
steam = gas that comes up from hot water
sure =certain, there is no doubt
surface = the top layer of something
survive = to go on living
swamp = land that is always wet or covered with water
take shape = form
thrust = to send out quickly and with a lot of power
towards =just before
upward = to the top
valley = an area of land between mountains, usually with a river that flows through it












Magnets and Magnetism
A magnet is a piece of rock or metal that can pull other metals towards it. The force of
magnets is called magnetism. Together with gravity and electricity it is a basic force of
nature. Early humans discovered magnets and magnetism thousands of years ago. They
found out that certain types of rock, called loadstone, pulled iron and other metal objects
towards it. After some time they found out that thin pieces of such a rock would always
point in one direction if you hung it on a piece of thread . The ends of such a metal are the
poles of a magnet. All magnets have a magnetic field around them, the force between the
two poles.

Magnets attract or repel other metals. This is because every magnet has two poles: a north
and a south pole. North and south poles attract each other but two north poles or two
south poles push each other apart.
Our planet is also a big magnet with a North and a South Pole. But the Earths magnetic
poles are not in the same place as the geographic poles. The magnetic North Pole, for
example, is in northern Canada. Compasses always point to the magnetic poles, not to the
geographic ones.
Magnetism comes from electrons , the tiny particles that fly around the nucleus of an atom.
They are negatively charged and produce a very weak magnetic field. When many of these
electrons point towards the same direction they can pull metals to them.
It is also possible to make a magnet by taking an existing one and rubbing another piece of
metal with it. If you keep rubbing the new piece of metal in the same direction its electrons
will start to point in that direction , thus creating a new magnet.
If a magnet keeps its magnetic field all the time we call it a permanent magnet. However ,
not all magnets are permanent . Some objects become magnets only when electricity
passes through them. They are called electromagnets. There are many examples of such
electromagnets in everyday life: car motors, railway signals, loudspeakers .

Magnetism and electricity
In the 1700s scientists discovered that magnetism and electricity had similar features. Just
like magnets have two poles, electricity has positive and negative charges . A positive and a
negative charge attract each other and two negative or two positive charges repel each
other.
After they had found this out they started making useful tools and machines with the help
of electricity and magnetism. The Danish physicist Oersted sent electricity through a wire
and put a compass near it. To his surprise the compass needle moved. Soon after that the
first electromagnet was made by making a wire into a coil and sending electricity through it.

Use of magnets
The first magnetic instruments were compasses which sailors used to guide them on their
journeys . Today, magnets can be found in many areas of everyday life. They are in washing
machines, hold doors shut and work in generators and electric motors. Credit cards have
magnetic strips on them that give you financial information. Magnetic audio and videotapes
as well as disks have many tiny magnetic particles which are used to store sounds, pictures
and other information.
In medicine a magnetic resonance imaging machine (MRI) can create exact pictures of
organs and bones inside the human body . It is much better and more exact than x-rays .
Powerful electromagnets are attached to big cranes that can move iron and steel. In some
parts of the world trains travel on tracks that are magnetized . These trains, called maglev,
are lifted above the tracks and do not have any contact with them. They travel at speeds of
up to 480 km an hour.

Superfast maglev train in Japan
Magnets in animals
Scientists have also discovered that some animals, like pigeons , dolphins and turtles may
have some magnetic particles in their body. They are able to detect the Earths magnetic
field and find out their location.
Words
attach = connect
attract = to pull an object towards another one
basic = important, main
charge =electricity that is put into a battery or another electrical object
coil =a wire that is wound in a circle ; when electricity passes through it it gives you
light or heat
crane = a tall machine that is used to lift heavy things
create = make
credit card = small plastic card that you use to buy things and pay for them later
detect = find
direction =way , course
discover = to find out for the first time
dolphin = a very intelligent sea animal like a fish with a long grey pointed nose
electricity =the power that is carried by wires and cables to make machines work or
give light or heat
electron = a very small particle that moves around the nucleus of an atom
force = power
generator =machine that produces electricity
gravity = the power that makes something fall down to Earth
guide = lead
hanghung =fall from an object
however =but
journey = a long trip
lift = raise
lodestone = a piece of iron that acts like a magnet
loudspeaker = something that makes sounds louder
magnetize = to make iron or steel able to pull other pieces of metal towards itself
needle =pointer
particle =very, very small element of something
permanent = something that lasts forever
pigeon = a grey bird with short legs that you can often find in cities
point = show
repel = to push an object away from another one
rub = to press your hand backward and forward over an object
sailor = a person who works and lives on a ship
scientist =a person who is trained in science
speed =how fast something is
store = to keep facts and information in a place for a longer time
strip =narrow piece
thread = a long thin string of cotton
thus =therefore, that is why
tiny = very, very small
tool = something that does a certain job
towards = in the direction of
track = two metal lines on which trains travel
turtle = a reptile that lives mostly in water and has a hard shell
useful = helpful
videotape =material that you record pictures and sounds on
weak = not very strong
wire = a very thin piece of metal through which electricity travels
x-rays = rays that can go through objects of your body and can be used for taking
pictures of inside organs









Tsunamis - Killer Waves
On December 26, 2004 a great underwater earthquake near the coast of Indonesia caused
the greatest tsunami in history. 280,000 people died and many coastal villages were wiped
out.
The word tsunami comes from the Japanese : tsu means harbour and nami waves. A
tsunami is a series of ocean waves that can travel over hundreds of kilometres at a very high
speed. They are hardly seen in the open ocean, but when they reach the shallow water near
the coast they get taller and tallerup to 30 metres. The waves are so powerful that they
can destroy everything that gets in their way.
Tsunamis are created by earthquakes on the ocean floor. The earths crust is made up of
many plates that always move. Where such plates meet one of them may move on top of
the other. When a plate moves upward it pushes the water above normal sea level. That is
when a tsunami is born.

Tsunami in southern Asia - Christmas 2004
The energy of the earthquake creates waves that spread into all directions very quickly. In
the open ocean tsunamis can reach a speed of up to 900 kilometres an hour. When a
tsunami approaches the coastline it slows down to maybe 50 km an hour. The water has
nowhere to go so it piles upin some cases it gets taller than a ten-story building. It crashes
onto the coast and destroys houses, beaches, roads without difficulty.
Tsunamis cause most damage when an underwater earthquake occurs near a coastal
region. The waves can reach the coast within minutes and the population there cannot be
warned in time. There is almost no way of escaping.
If quakes happen very far from land it may take the killer waves a few hours to reach the
coast. People can be warned and get to a safe place.
On the beach people who witness a tsunami approaching will see a great rise and fall of
water. Sometimes the water near the beach will completely disappear and a few minutes
later the first of the great waves can reach the shore. In some cases tsunamis dont arrive as
one big wave but as a strong flood.

People, especially tourists, often make mistakes when they
see a tsunami approaching. Curious crowds stay at the beach
and watch the giant waves come in. When they realize how tall these waves are, it may be
too late to run. The best thing to do is to try to run as far inland as possible and try to reach
high ground.
Many regions around the Pacific Ocean have warning centres and special plans on how to
evacuate people when a tsunami comes close. The Pacific Tsunami Warning Centre is
located on the Hawaiian Islands. It detects the rise of ocean water and underwater
earthquakes and reports information to many other stations in other countries. Local
governments must then decide what to do.
On December 26, 2004 the worlds most powerful earthquake in 40 years occurred off the
coast of Sumatra, Indonesia. The tsunami that it set into motion hit the coastal areas very
quicklyduring the middle of the Christmas season. Thousands of Europeans were on the
beaches of Thailand, Indonesia, Sri Lanka and other islands when the tsunami hit. It is
thought that about 280,000 people died.
Words
approach = to come nearer
cause =lead to
coastline = where land meets the ocean
create = make
crust = the hard outer part of the earth
curious = if you want to know something
damage =harm, destruction
detect = to find out or discover something
destroy =harm, damage, so that you cannot use something any more
disappear = go away so that you cannot see it
earthquake = a sudden shake of the earth that causes a lot of damage
evacuate = to bring people away from a dangerous place
disappear = you cannot see it any longer
flood = a lot of water
harbour = a place where ships stay
inland = away from the coast
local = regional
locate = to be in a certain place
occur = happen
pile up = to become taller and taller

plate = large sheets of rock that form the earths surface
population = the people who live in a country
reach = get to
realize = see, find out
rise = to become taller
sea level =the average height of the sea , used to measure mountains and other
places
series = many
set into motion =to start moving
shallow = not very deep
speed =how fast something is
ten story = ten floors high
wipe out =destroy
witness = someone who sees something and can tell you how it happened

















Floods
A flood is a body of water that covers land which is normally dry. Floods are common
natural disasters that can affect millions of people around the world. They destroy houses
and buildings, and carry soil away from valuable farming land. Floods can also contaminate
drinking water and lead to diseases. They are often caused by rivers, but overflowing lakes
and seas can also cause flooding.
Flooding has always been a part human history. Many ancient civilizations developed along
waterways and rivers because people needed water for their fields.
Floods are not always destructive natural events. Before the Assuan High Dam was built
yearly floods in Egypt brought along nutrients and made the land around the Nile very
fertile. Every year floods during the monsoon season in Bangladesh deposit fertile soil but
also kill thousands of people and leave millions homeless.

How do floods occur?
At least once a year the plains around large rivers are flooded.
This is due to the amount of water that rivers bring with
them, because of heavy rainfall or melting snow in the
mountainous regions. Thunderstorms can cause flash floods, in which small rivers can swell
quickly and carry up to ten times the normal amount of water.
Rivers that flow slowly carry water, sand and silt. They build up their own beds, making
them higher than the land around them. The Huang He, or Yellow River, in China and the
Mississippi in North America are examples for such rivers. Flooding here builds up slowly
but causes more damage because more land is affected.
Coastal regions can also be affected by flooding. After earthquakes on the ocean floor
tsunamis can bring up to 15-metre high waves and flood the coast many miles inland. In
2004, a devastating tsunami in the Indian Ocean killed over 250,000 people in Indonesia, Sri
Lanka, Thailand and other countries.
Tropical storms, cyclones and hurricanes also lead to flooding. Hurricane Katrina caused a
massive flooding of the whole Mississippi Delta in 2004. Most of New Orleans had to be
evacuated because of widespread flooding.

Low-lying countries are in permanent danger of being flooded. A large section of The
Netherlands, for example, lie below sea level. In the past, ocean water from the North Sea
flooded much of the country. Today a series of dikes and dams protect the land behind the
coast.
Floods are also caused by humans. Trees and plants normally help absorb too much water.
When forests are cut or burned down, water from rainfall flows down barren land and
produces mudslides. Too much water pressure on dams can lead to cracks in the concrete
or even cause a dam to break completely.

Flood protection
Today flood protection has a high priority in countries that are in danger. Dams are built
along rivers to regulate the flow of water. They are often connected with hydroelectric
power plants. In some areas rivers are dredged and their beds are laid deeper. In alpine
regions reservoirs are built to hold back water and control the flow of small rivers.
London is protected from flooding by the Thames Barrier, a construction that moves up and
stops water from getting in to London when it reaches a certain height.
In many areas, authorities provide quick and unbureaucratic help for people who have
suffered from flooding. Special boats pick up people who are trapped on roofs or on the
upper floors of buildings. Shelters are set up for people who are left homeless. Rebuilding
after massive floods often takes months and sometimes even years.
Words
absorb = take in
affect = to have an effect on
ancient = old
authorities = people who work in government organizations
barren = without vegetation
barrier = wall, blockade
bed = flat ground at the bottom of a river
build up = create
certain = special
coastal = where sea and land meet
common = something that happens often
concrete = material used for making buildings; it is made up of water, stones,
cement and sand
contaminate = poison; to make something dirty so that you cannot use it any more
crack = small break
cyclone = tropical storm
damage = destruction
delta = an area where a river divides itself into many smaller rivers and flows into
the ocean
deposit = leave a layer of material in a place
destroy = damage completely
destructive = causing damage to people or things
devastating =shocking, destructive
dike = wall to keep back water from flowing into land that lies lower
disaster = an event that destroys things and can kill or hurt many people
disease = illness
dredge = to remove mud from the bottom of the sea or a river
due to = because of
earthquake = when the crust of the earth suddenly moves; earthquakes cause a lot
of damage
evacuate = to bring people away from a dangerous place
fertile = here: if soil is able to produce good food or crops
flash flood = heavy rain that covers a region with water in a very short time
homeless = without a place to live
hydroelectric power plant = building located on a river or high up in the mountains
that produces electricity from the power of water
inland = away from the coast
massive = great, very much
melt = when snow or ice turn into water
monsoon = heavy rain that falls in many parts of South Asia between April and
September
mudslide = when a lot of wet earth suddenly falls down the side of a hill; this usually
happens after heavy rainfall
nutrient = chemical or food that gives plants what they need to grow
occur = happen
overflow = if a river or lake is so full of water that the material inside moves over its
edges
permanent = never-ending; something that is here to stay
plains = large flat areas of land
priority = importance
protection = defense, safety
rebuilding = to build again after something has been destroyed
regulate = to control
reservoir = a man-made lake where water is kept
sea level = the average height of the sea
section = part
shelter = place to live
silt = sand, mud and soil that a river carries ; it slowly settles down to the bottom
soil = the top part of the earth
suffer = to feel pain
swell = to become larger
thunderstorm = storm with thunder and lightning
trap = if you cannot escape from a place
tsunami = very large ocean wave caused by an underwater earthquake
unbureaucratic = without forms to fill in
valuable = important


















Stress - Signs, Symptoms and How to Manage Stress
Stress is a feeling we have when we react to events that dont make us feel very good. Such
events can happen at school, like a test or examination, at your office, like getting a new
boss or in your private life, like preparing for a divorce.
Our body has certain hormones that it releases during times of stress. In this period more
adrenalin gets into your blood. The hormones make your heartbeat go up and change your
blood pressure and the way you breathe. Blood vessels become wider and let more blood
pass through. Our body heats up and produces sweat to cool it down.
Stress response is what your body does to fight stress. It makes you handle stress and do
well during such situations. Stress response happens, for example, when you are in a car
and step on the brakes to avoid an accident. Or when you are the one chosen to shoot a
penalty in a football game that may decide if you win or lose.

Stress can also be long term, like preparing for a difficult exam or having private problems
with your parents, teachers or friends. Stress happens when you work too much and dont
have the time to relax. This long-term stress keeps your body alert and pumps hormones
into your bloodstream for a longer time. This can hurt your body, make you tired and
weaken your immune system.
Although the right amount of stress can be good, too much stress isnt. A little stress can
motivate you to study hard. But if stress lasts too long your body cant cope with it any
more. Some people overact to stress and even make small problems seem difficult to solve.
They feel worried, upset and anxious all the time.
Signs of stress
People who are experiencing long-term stress may have the
following symptoms:
panic attacks
the feeling of constant pressure on them
they change moods quickly

stomach problems, headaches
sleeping problems
drink too much alcohol
smoking
depression

How to keep stress under control
Managing stress is not an easy thing to do. Knowing how to de-stress can keep it under
control
Dont think you can do everything. Concentrate on the things that are important
Be realistic- Dont try to be perfect!
Get enough sleep! It helps your body relax
Learn simple breathing exercises and use them in stressful situations
Read a book or take a relaxing bath
Treat your body well. Get enough exercise, go for long walks or a run
Give your body the right food and enough vitamins.
Think positively. Many people who endure long-term stress are pessimistic.
Solve small problems. This gives you a feeling that you are in control. It gives you
confidence and you can manage bigger problems better.
Words
adrenalin = a chemical that your body produces; it makes your heart beat faster
when you are afraid, or excited
alert = aware, awake
although = while
amount = quantity
anxious = nervous
avoid = keep away from
blood pressure = the force with which blood travels through your body
brake = a tool that makes your car stop or go more slowly
breathe = to take air in through your mouth or nose and push it out
choose- chosen = select
confidence = feel good
constant = always
cope = deal with
de-stress = fight off stress
divorce = to end a marriage and break up
endure = suffer from
exercise = keep fit, work out, do some training
experience = have
heartbeat = the sound of your heart as it pumps blood through your body
hormone = a chemical that your body produces
immune system = the system by which your body protects itself against a disease
long term = last a longer time
manage = deal with
mood = how you feel
overreact = to react to something with too much emotion
prepare = get ready for
pressure = stress
relax = rest
release = set free
solve = work out
stress response = how you react to stress
sweat = drops that come through your skin when you are hot , are frightened or do
exercise
symptom = sign
upset = troubled, sad
weaken = to make weaker















Alcohol is More Dangerous than Heroine
A recent study in the UK has found out that alcohol is , surprisingly, more dangerous than
heroin or crack. Scientists examined 20 drugs and their effects on people and society. While
heroin and crack were considered to be very harmful to individuals, heroin, alcohol and
cocaine are the worst for society. The study found out that alcohol had the worst overall
effects.
The study also said that tobacco was at least as harmful as cocaine. Ecstasy, LSD and
marijuana were considered to be the drugs that cause the least damage. Substances were
marked from 0 to 100 on a scale. Alcohol received 72, the highest rating, while heroine was
rated at 55 and crack at 54.
Researchers looked at 16 factors, including a drugs effect on the brain and body, how it
affects the crime rate as well as the costs for the economy. Although cocaine is more
addictive, alcohol is the most harmful drug our society because it is most widely used. It
does the most damage to the world around us.
Alcohol is drunken by a large part of the population as a social drink. It makes you happy
and loosens you up. When it enters the brain it produces a chemical called dopamine. This
makes you feel happy and without stress.
However , too much alcohol consumption can lead to the destruction of almost all parts of
your body. People who drink alcohol are more likely to drive in a drunken state or commit
violent acts.
The World Health organization estimates that alcohol causes about 3 million deaths every
year, including suicides, car accidents and heart and liver diseases.
Banning alcohol is not the same as forbidding LSD, cocaine or other drugs. It is part of our
culture, but the report concludes that governments should do more to educate the
population and point out the dangers of alcohol consumption. Especially younger people
are at a high risk. They like to combine energy drinks with alcohol. These alcopops taste
good, contain a lot of alcohol and are high on calories, which leads to obesity.

Words
addictive = something that you need all the time; you cannot stop using it
affect = influence
although = while
cause = lead to
commit = do
consider = believe, think
consumption = use
crack = an illegal drug ; form of cocaine
destruction = complete damage
effect = influence ; what something does
estimate = to try to guess the size of something
examine = look at closely
factor = one of many things that must be examined
harmful = dangerous
however = but
individual = a single person; not a group
liver = organ in your body that cleans your blood
loosen up = to stop worrying and become more relaxed
mark = to show somethings position in a list
overall = general
receive = get
recent = new, fresh
researcher = a person who studies something in detail
scale = level
scientist = person who is trained in science or works in a laboratory
social = common, public
society = people in general
state = condition, situation
substance = here: drugs
suicide = to kill yourself
widely = a lot; commonly










Asthma
Every year in spring millions of people around the world suffer from asthma. It is a time
when flowers blossom and grass is cut.
Asthma is an illness that narrows the breathing passages. As a result, not enough air can
enter and leave your lungs. According to the World Health Organisation over 230 million
people around the world are suffering from asthma. Among children it is the most chronic
disease. While asthma occurs in almost all countries, asthma-related deaths happen mainly
in the poorer countries of the Third World.
In America over 25 million people and 7 million children develop asthma every year. The
disease is more common among African Americans. The death rate among this group is five
times as high as among whites.
The WHO warns that asthma rates are increasing by 50 % every ten years. Asthma also
causes a loss of business and does damage to the economy because many people stay at
home when they are ill.
Asthma occurs when tissue in your throat begins to expand or swell. Muscles in these
passages become tighter and cells begin to produce some sticky substance, which makes
airways even smaller. This makes it difficult for air to flow into your lungs.
When this happens we call it an asthma attack. Victims fight to get enough air into their
lungs, sometimes they have to cough and they breathe heavily. Sometimes asthma victims
have a pain in the chest. Such an illness can deeply influence a person's health and may
even lead to death.

Asthma inhaler can help you
with your breathing
Doctors are not sure what causes asthma. Some argue that
environmental influences are the main factors; however, some doctors claim that genes
are also responsible for asthma. Almost half of the parents who suffer from asthma will also
pass it on to their children. 70% of all people who have asthma also suffer from allergies,
when the body reacts in an unusual way towards mostly harmless substances.
Many things can trigger asthma attacks, sometimes pollen that fly through the air, at other
times dust, animal hair, mold or dampness. Air pollution from motor vehicles, factories,

smoking, household sprays and other chemicals can lead to asthma. Exercising in cold
weather can also trigger an asthma attack.
Many doctors prescribe asthma patients albuterol. Asthma victims often use a machine that
turns this medicine into a fog-like spray that is connected to a mask that fits over your nose
and mouth. It helps reduce the swelling of the airways.
There are some things that individuals can do to reduce the suffering caused by asthma.
They should know when and how to take their medicine and how to treat asthma attacks
when they occur.
There are also new methods that have been tried out. Researchers have tested a new
vaccine that protects people from dust. It produces dust particles of its own and makes the
human body immune to dust.
Words
according to = as reported by
allergy = if you become ill or your skin gets red because of something you have eaten
or something you have touched
asthma-related = connected with asthma
blossom = to produce flowers
breathing passage = parts of your body that help you take air in and blow it out, like
your throat and lungs
cause = lead to
chest = the front part of your body between your neck and your stomach
chronic = never ending
claim = say
common = widespread
connect = link to
dampness = wetness
deeply = very much
disease = illness
dust = dry powder made up of very small bits of dirt
economy = system by which a countrys money and goods are produced
environment = the world around us
exercise = to do sport
expand = to become bigger
factor = reason
flow = move
fog = cloudy air that has small droplets of water in it
gene = part of a living cell that controls what you look like, how you grow etc..
harmless = not dangerous
heavily = here: to have problems breathing
immune = you cannot catch a disease
influence = change
lead to = to be the cause of
loss = to no longer have something
mold = soft green or grey material that grows on food if you keep it too long or if it is
kept in warm wet air
motor vehicle = car, motorbike, bus or other objects that have an engine and can
drive
narrow = to make smaller
occur = happen
particle = a very small piece of something
pass it on = give it to
pollen = powder produced by flowers that are carried to other flowers of the same
type by the wind or by insects
prescribe = to say what medicine an ill person should get
reduce = to make smaller
researcher = a person who studies something in order to find out more about it
spray = liquid that comes out of a container in very small drops
sticky = wet and thick
substance = material
suffer = to have pain, if something hurts you
swelling = an area in your body that has become larger than normal
throat = the passage between the back of your mouth to your lungs; you use it to
swallow food
tight = to pull together
tissue = material that forms out of cells in your body
trigger = to make something happen very quickly
vaccine = medicine that has bacteria or a virus in it and can protect a person from an
illness
victim = here: person who suffers from asthma









Air Pollution
Air pollution is caused by many things
the increasing number of cars on our roads
growing cities
the fast development of our economy
industrialisation
Air pollution, as we know it today, started with the Industrial Revolution in Europe in the
19th century. In the last few decades, it has become the major problem for our
environment.
Clean air is normally made up of nitrogen (76 %) , oxygen (22%) , carbon dioxide and a few
other gases.

When harmful elements get into the air they may cause health problems and can also
damage the environment, buildings and soil. They make the ozone layer thinner and
thinner and lead to the warming of the earths atmosphere and climate changes.
Our modern life style has led to dirtier air over the years. Factories, vehicles of all kinds, the
growing number of people are some things that are responsible for air pollution today. But
not all pollution in the air is caused by people. Forest fires, dust storms and volcano
eruptions can lead to the pollution of the atmosphere.
Major pollutants and where they come from
Carbon monoxide is a colourless gas that is set free when wood, petrol or coal are not
completely burned. It is also in products like cigarettes. Because of it , less oxygen enters
our blood and it makes us confused and sleepy.
Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas that gets into the atmosphere when we burn coal , oil
or wood.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are gases that come from air-conditioning systems or
refrigerators. When they get into the air they rise high into the atmosphere ( about 2050
km above the earths surface). There, they get into contact with other gases and destroy the
ozone layer. We need the ozone layer because it protects us from the suns ultraviolet rays.
Lead is in petrol, paint, batteries and other products. It is very dangerous if it gets into our
bodies . In some cases it can even cause cancer .

There are two types of ozone that we know of : Natural ozone is in the upper part of our
atmosphere , but on the ground, people produce ozone too. Traffic and factories cause
ground ozone. It is especially dangerous to children and older people. It makes them tired
and doctors suggest not to go outdoors when there is too much ozone in the air.
Nitrogen oxide causes smog and acid rain. It is produced when you burn fuels like coal and
oil. It can lead to breathing problems especially when children go outside in the wintertime.
Sulphur dioxide is a gas that gets into the air when coal is burned in power plants. Paper
factories and other chemical industries also produce sulphur dioxide. This pollutant can lead
to lung diseases.

Acid rain
Another result of air pollution is acid rain. It happens when sulphur dioxide and nitrogen
oxide get into the air. When it rains the water that comes down on us has these dangerous
substances in it.
Acid rain can also be caused by volcanic eruptions. Volcanoes send poisonous gases high up
into the atmosphere.
Acid rain leads to the destruction of forests, lakes and soil. Many lakes and rivers have been
poisoned over the decades and even some types of fish have disappeared. Buildings also
corrode because of acid rain.
The pollutants can travel in the air for a long time before they come down to earth . Thats
why its sometimes hard to tell where dangerous pollutants originate. Acid rain that
destroys forests and lakes in Austria and Germany may come from power stations in
Eastern European countries.
What can we do about air pollution ?
The job of cleaning up our air is difficult but not impossible. Choosing other forms of energy
, like solar energy, wind energy or tidal energy could be used for controlling pollution.
Cities like London have shown that better air quality can be achieved in a short time. But we
individuals can also help make the air around us cleaner !
Walk or ride a bike to school or to your friends home.
Take a bus or a train to work
Organize car pools.
Dont use spray cans anymore!
Make sure that your parents get a pollution check on the car every year !
Trees give us oxygen and take in carbon dioxide. They clean the air around us. Take
care of them !
Switch off the lights when you leave the room. Only use the number of lights that
you really need.
Dont overheat your room during the winter months. Its better to wear a pullover
than to be in a room that is too warm.
Smog
Smog is a combination of smoke and fog. It occurs when gases from burnt fuel get together
with fog on the ground. When heat and sunlight get together with these gases, they form
fine, dangerous particles in the air.
Smog occurs in big cities with a lot of traffic. Especially in the summertime, when it is very
hot, smog stays near the ground. It is dangerous to our breathing and in smog areas we
cant see very well.
Smog was first discovered in Great Britain in the 19th century, during the beginning of the
Industrial Revolution. At that time people used coal for heating and cooking. Factories also
used coal to produce iron and steel. Smoke got together with wet, foggy air and turned
yellow. The smog often stayed over cities for many days. It caused lung diseases and
breathing problems. Thousands of people died in London every year.
Today, cities that have a high population and are located in hot, subtropical areas have the
biggest smog problemsLos Angeles, Mexico City or Cairo.
A lot has been done to prevent smog recently. Factories use coal that doesnt have that
much sulphur in it. And cars are much cleaner today. In some cities, cars arent even allowed
to drive on smog days.

Words
achieve =reach, get
acid rain = rain that has poisonous gases in itit can damage our environment
air conditioning = a system that makes the air in buildings or in a car cooler
air pollution = things that make our air dirty, so that it damages our environment
areas = places
breathing =to pull in air through your mouth into your lungs
cancer =a very dangerous disease in which cells in the body start to grow in an
unusual way
car pool = a group of people who travel to work together in one car
carbon dioxide = the gas that is produced when animals breathe out
check = to find out if something is safe
confused = if you cant think clearly or dont know what is happening
damage =destroy, harm, make worse
decade = a period of ten years
destruction =damage, ruin
development =growth
disappear = if something doesnt exist anymore or you cant see itits gone
discover = to find something for the first time
dust =dry powder that is made up of small particles of dirt
economy =the system of how a country buys and sells its products ; also the financial
system of a country
environment = the air, water, ground around us
eruption = when a volcano sends out lava and gas
especially =above all
fuel = a material like gas, oil or coal that can be burned to get energy
greenhouse gas =gases like carbon dioxide that makes the atmosphere thicker and
causes the greenhouse effect
impossible = something that cant be done
increasing = growing
lead = a grey metal that melts easily and is very poisonous
life style = the way we live
lung disease = a disease that makes it very difficult or impossible to breathe
nitrogen =a colourless gas that forms most of the earth's air
nitrogen oxide = when nitrogen gets together with oxygen
occur = to happen
originate = come from
outdoors = outside the house
overheat = to make something too hot
oxygen =a gas in the atmosphere that we can breathe and that animals and plants
need to live
ozone =a poisonous blue gas that is a type of oxygen
ozone layer =layer of gases in the sky that stops harmful rays from the sun from
reaching the earth
particle = a very, very small piece of somethingyou can hardly see it
poisonous = something that can lead to a disease or even kill you
pollutant =material that makes air or water dirty
population = all the people that are living in a country or a city
power stations = a building where a lot of electricity is produced
prevent =stop something from happening
protect =defend, guard
ray = a line of light that comes from the sun or the moon
responsible =to blame
set free =release
soil =the top part of the earth on which plants grow
solar = everything that comes from the sun
spray can =a can from which you can spray paint onto things
substance = material that can be solid , liquid or a gas
sulphur dioxide = a poisonous gas that causes air pollution
surface =the top layer of something
tidal = everything that comes from the waves of a sea or an ocean
vehicles = a machine with an engine in it that can take people from one place to
another . Cars, buses or motorcycles are vehicles.










Ozone and the Ozone Layer
Ozone is a kind of oxygen in which each molecule has three atoms instead of two. The
formula is O3 . Ozone is often produced when electricity passes through the air. That is why
there is often an unpleasant smell after a thunderstorm or around electrical equipment .
Ozone is a blue gas that is explosive and poisonous .It is denser than oxygen and condenses
into a dark blue liquid at - 112 C. This liquid freezes at 251 C.
Ozone is used in many industries. Factories use it for chemical reactions because it reacts
more easily than oxygen does. Ozone also kills germs , which makes it useful for removing
bad smells and sterilizing drinking water. Ozone is also used to bleach color out of other
substances .
Ozone occurs in our atmosphere in two forms. Near the ground even small amounts of
ozone can cause health problems. It irritates your eyes and can lead to coughing and
asthma . Ozone is especially dangerous on clear days when exhaust fumes or cars pollute
the air. Older people and babies are often told to stay indoors because ozone may weaken
your immune system .
About 30 -50 km above the Earths surface there is a layer of ozone in the atmosphere that
protects us. It absorbs harmful ultraviolet rays from the sun. If too much of this radiation
reaches the Earth it may injure your eyes and lead to skin cancer and other diseases .
In the 1970s scientists found out that chemicals released into the atmosphere have been
destroying this ozone layer . The first hole in the ozone layer was found over Antarctica. In
the last 20 years this hole has been getting bigger and now lies over some parts of Australia,
New Zealand and the northern hemisphere as well.
The hole in the ozone layer is caused by CFCs , chemicals often used in spray cans and
refrigerators . They escape into the atmosphere and break up the ozone molecules.
Words
absorb = take in
amount = quantity, how much of something
asthma = if you have difficulty breathing
bleach = to make something pale or white
cause = lead to
CFC = gas used in refrigerators and spray cans; scientists believe it destroys the
ozone layer
condense = to turn into a liquid
dense = thick
destroy = damage completely
disease = illness
electricity = the power that is in wires and cables; it gives us light and heat and
makes machines work
equipment = machine and other tools
escape = get away into
especially = above all
exhaust fumes = the gases that are produced when a car is running
explosive = it can explode
factory = place where products are made
germ = bacteria; small living things that can make you ill
hemisphere = half of the earth
immune system = the system that helps your body protect itself against diseases
indoor = inside the house
injure = hurt
irritate = your eyes get red and you have to rub them because they hurt
liquid = fluid, something water
occur = happen
oxygen = a colourless gas that is in the air ; it is necessary for animals and plants to
live
ozone layer = the part of the atmosphere that keeps harmful rays from reaching us
poisonous = it can lead to death if it gets into your lungs or body
pollute = to make dirty
protect = defend, guard
radiation = energy that is sent out as waves that you cannot see
refrigerator = machine that keeps food cool
release = let free
remove = take away
scientist = a person who is trained in science
skin cancer = a disease in which skin cells start to grow in a way that is not normal
sterilize = disinfect, purify, to make clean
substance = material
surface = the top layer of an object
thunderstorm = storm with thunder and lightning
ultraviolet ray = light that comes from the sun and makes your skin darker
unpleasant = bad
weaken = to make weaker







Diabetes - Symptoms, Causes and Treatment
About 200 million people all over the world suffer from a disease called diabetes.
Sometimes people dont even know that they have it because they you cant see any
symptoms. But if you dont treat it it may cause health problems and sometimes may even
be deadly.
Diabetes happens when the body has too much sugar in it. It is the energy we need and
comes from the food we eat. Normally, a hormone called insulin regulates how much sugar
the body needs.
There are two type of diabetes. Type 1 normally occurs when people are young or are
becoming adults. Some cells in the body are destroyed and it cannot produce any more or
not enough insulin.
Type 2 is the most common type of diabetes. Adults have problems changing food into
energy. It usually starts at around the age of 30. The older you get the higher the risk is of
getting diabetes.

Symptoms
People who have diabetes are often very thirsty and they urinate a lot. Your skin can
become dry and and you may get very tired. Diabetes can lead to heart diseases, kidney
problems and may even cause death.
Causes
Doctors do not know exactly what causes diabetes . If your parents or grandparents have it
you also have a higher chance of getting it. Overweight and not enough exercises can also
put you at a higher risk. High blood pressure may also lead to diabetes.

How to Treat Diabetes
People who have Type 1 diabetes must get insulin every day. Usually they inject it into their
body. Older people who have Type 2 diabetes can control it by eating healthy food and
doing a lot of exercise.
Words
blood pressure = the force with which blood travels through your body
cause = lead to
common = happening often
diabetes = a disease in which there is too much sugar in your blood
insulin = something that your body produces that turns sugar into energy
kidney = one of two organs in your back that takes bad things out of your blood and
makes urine
regulate = control
suffer = to feel pain
symptom = a sign that you have a health problem or illness