U.S.

Department of Justice
Office of Community Oriented Policing Services
Problem-Oriented Guides for Police Problem-Specific Guides Series
No. 50
Traffic
Congestion
Around Schools
by
Nancy G. La igne
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Center for Problem-Oriented Policing Got
a Problem? Weve got answers!
Log onto the Center for Problem-Oriented Policing web site at
www.popcenter.org for a wealth of information to help you deal
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including
!"eb-enhanced versions of all currently available #uides
!$nteractive training e%ercises
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!Online problem analysis module.
&esigned for police and those who wor' with them to address
community problems, www.popcenter.org is a great resource in
problem-oriented policing.
Supported by the Office of Community Oriented Policing
Services, (.S. &epartment of )ustice.
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Problem-Oriented Guides for Police
Problem-Specific Guides Series Guide
No. !"
Traffic Congestion
Around Schools
Nancy G. La igne
*his pro+ect was supported by cooperative agreement ,-../C0"10..2
by the Office of Community Oriented Policing Services, (.S. &epartment
of )ustice. *he opinions contained herein are those of the author3s4 and do
not necessarily represent the )ustice &epartment5s official position.
6eferences to specific companies, products, or services should not be
considered an endorsement by the author3s4 or the )ustice &epartment.
6ather, the references are used to supplement discussion of the issues.
www.cops.usdo+.gov
$S78 2-9:-/;--;--<
=ugust -..<
About the Problem-Specific Guides Series i
%bo&t t'e Problem-("ecific G&ides (eries
*he Problem-Specific Guides summari>e 'nowledge about how
police can reduce the harm caused by specific crime and
disorder problems. *hey are guides to prevention and to
improving the overall response to incidents, not to
investigating offenses or handling specific incidents. 8either do
they cover all of the technical details about how to implement
specific responses. *he guides are written for police?of
whatever ran' or assignment?who must address the specific
problem the guides cover. *he guides will be most useful to
officers who
! Understand basic problem-oriented policing principles
and methods. *he guides are not primers in problem-
oriented policing. *hey deal only briefly with the initial
decision to focus on a particular problem, methods to
analy>e the problem, and means to assess the results of a
problem-oriented policing pro+ect. *hey are designed to help
police decide how best to analy>e and address a problem they
have already identified. 3= companion series of Problem-
Solving Tools guides has been produced to aid in various
aspects of problem analysis and assessment.4
! Can look at a problem in depth. &epending on the
comple%ity of the problem, you should be prepared to spend
perhaps wee's, or even months, analy>ing and responding to
it. Carefully studying a problem before responding helps you
design the right strategy, one that is most li'ely to wor' in
your community. @ou should not blindly adopt the responses
others have usedA you must decide whether they are
appropriate to your local situation. "hat is true in one place
may not be true elsewhereA what wor's in one place may not
wor' everywhere.
Are willing to consider new ways of doing police business. *he guides describe
responses that other police departments have used or that researchers have tested. "hile
not all of these responses will be appropriate to your particular problem, they should
help give a broader view of the 'inds of things you could do. @ou may thin' you cannot
implement some of these responses in your +urisdiction, but perhaps you can. $n many
places, when police have discovered a more effective response, they have succeeded in
having laws and policies changed, improving the response to the problem. 3= companion
series of Response Guides has been produced to help you understand how commonly-
used police responses wor' on a variety of problems.4
Understand the alue and the limits of research knowledge. Bor some types of
problems, a lot of useful research is available to the policeA for other problems, little is
available. =ccordingly, some guides in this series summari>e e%isting research whereas
other guides illustrate the need for more research on that particular problem. 6egardless,
research has not provided definitive answers to all the Cuestions you might have about
the problem. *he research may help get you started in designing your own responses,
but it cannot tell you e%actly what to do. *his will depend greatly on the particular
nature of your local problem. $n the interest of 'eeping the guides readable, not every
piece of relevant research has been cited, nor has every point been attributed to its
sources. *o have done so would have overwhelmed and distracted the reader. *he
references listed at the end of each guide are those drawn on most heavilyA they are not
a complete bibliography of research on the sub+ect.
Are willing to work with others to find effectie solutions to the problem. *he
police alone cannot implement many of the responses discussed in the guides.
)raffic Congestion %ro&nd (c'ools
About the Problem-Specific Guides Series iii
*hey must freCuently implement them in partnership with
other responsible private and public bodies including other
government agencies, non-governmental organi>ations,
private businesses, public utilities, community groups, and
individual citi>ens. =n effective problem-solver must 'now
how to forge genuine partnerships with others and be
prepared to invest considerable effort in ma'ing these
partnerships wor'. Dach guide identifies particular individuals
or groups in the community with whom police might wor' to
improve the overall response to that problem. *horough
analysis of problems often reveals that individuals and groups
other than the police are in a stronger position to address
problems and that police ought to shift some greater
responsibility to them to do so. 6esponse #uide 8o. :, Shifting
and Sharing Responsibility for Public Safety Problems, provides
further discussion of this topic.
*he COPS Office defines community policing as Ea policing
philosophy that promotes and supports organi>ational
strategies to address the causes and reduce the fear of crime and
social disorder through problem-solving tactics and police-
community partnerships.F *hese guides emphasi>e problem-
solving and police-community partnerships in the conte%t of
addressing specific public safety problems. Bor the most part,
the organi>ational strategies that can facilitate problem-solving
and police-community partnerships vary considerably and discussion
of them is beyond the scope of these guides.
*hese guides have drawn on research findings and police
practices in the (nited States, the (nited 0ingdom, Canada,
=ustralia, 8ew Gealand, the 8etherlands, and Scandinavia.
Dven though laws, customs and police practices vary from
country to country, it is apparent that the police everywhere
e%perience common problems. $n a world that is becoming
i# Traffic Congestion Around Schools
increasingly interconnected, it is important that police be
aware of research and successful practices beyond the borders
of their own countries.
Dach guide is informed by a thorough review of the research
literature and reported police practice and is anonymously
peer-reviewed by line police officers, police e%ecutives and
researchers prior to publication.
*he COPS Office and the authors encourage you to provide
feedbac' on this guide and to report on your own agency5s
e%periences dealing with a similar problem. @our agency may
have effectively addressed a problem using responses not
considered in these guides and your e%periences and
'nowledge could benefit others. *his information will be used
to update the guides. $f you wish to provide feedbac' and
share your e%periences it should be sent via e-mail to copsH
pubsIusdo+.gov.
Bor more information about problem-oriented policing, visit
the Center for Problem-Oriented Policing online at www.
popcenter.org. *his web site offers free online access to
! the Problem-Specific #uides series
! the companion Response Guides and Problem-Solving Tools series
! instructional information about problem-oriented policing
and related topics
! an interactive problem-oriented policing training e%ercise
! an interactive Problem Analysis Module
! a manual for crime analysts
! online access to important police research and practices
! information about problem-oriented policing conferences
and award programs.
Ac$no%ledgments #
%c*nowledgments
*he Problem-Oriented Guides for Police are produced by the Center
for Problem-Oriented Policing, whose officers are Jichael S.
Scott 3&irector4, 6onald K. Clar'e 3=ssociate &irector4 and
#raeme 6. 8ewman 3=ssociate &irector4. "hile each guide
has a primary author, other pro+ect team members, COPS Office
staff and anonymous peer reviewers contributed to each guide
by proposing te%t, recommending research and offering
suggestions on matters of format and style.
*he pro+ect team that developed the guide series comprised
Lerman #oldstein 3(niversity of "isconsin Law School4,
6onald K. Clar'e 36utgers (niversity4, )ohn D. Dc' 3(niversity
of Cincinnati4, Jichael S. Scott 3(niversity of "isconsin Law
School4, 6ana Sampson 3Police Consultant4, and &eborah
Lamm "eisel 38orth Carolina State (niversity.4
Jembers of the San &iegoA 8ational City, CaliforniaA and
Savannah, #eorgia police departments provided feedbac' on the
guides5 format and style in the early stages of the pro+ect.
Cynthia D. Pappas oversaw the pro+ect for the COPS Office and
research for the guides was conducted at the Criminal )ustice
Library at 6utgers (niversity by Phyllis Schult>e. Su>anne
Bregly edited this guide.
Contents #ii
Contents
About the Problem-Specific Guides Series.................................................................i
The Problem of Traffic Congestion Around Schools.....................................................&
'hat This Guide (oes and (oes Not Co#er.....................................................&
General (escription of the Problem.................................................................)
*actors Contributing to Traffic Congestion Around Schools.................................+
Population Trends and Changes in Transportation ,odes...................... +
Physical (esign -ssues .......................................................................
Ne% Schools/ 0esidential (i#isions/ and Changes in
School Assignment........................................................................
1nderstanding 2our Local Problem........................................................................... 3
School Administrators and Teachers .................................................&"
Local 0esidents............................................................................... &&
Other Commuters ........................................................................... &&
Transportation and Planning (epartment............................................&&
School 4us Companies ....................................................................&5
Parent Teacher Associations 6PTAs7 and School 4oards..........................&5
Scho
ol
4uildi
ng
Archi
tects
and
Land
scap
ers .......................................................................................................
&5
Neig
hbori
ng
4usin
esse
s ..........................................................................................................
&)
#iii Traffic Congestion Around Schools
As$ing the 0ight 8uestions ................................................................................... &!
-ncidents .................................................................................................. &!
Setting ..................................................................................................... &.
Times ....................................................................................................... &9
School System Conte:t .............................................................................. &;
(ri#ing <abits ........................................................................................... &;
Current 0esponses ..................................................................................... 5"
,easuring 2our =ffecti#eness ............................................................................... 5)
0esponses to the Problem of Traffic Congestion Around Schools ................................ 5!
General Considerations for an =ffecti#e 0esponse Strategy ............................. 5!
Specific 0esponses to Traffic Congestion Around Schools ................................ 5.
Changing Transportation ,odes ....................................................... 5.
-mplementing (rop-Off/ Pic$-1p/ and Physical (esign ,easures ........... )"
0esponses 'ith Limited =ffecti#eness ......................................................... ))
Appendi:> Summary of 0esponses to Traffic Congestion Around Schools .................... )!
=ndnotes ............................................................................................................ )3
0eferences ......................................................................................................... +&
About the Author ................................................................................................. +!
0ecommended 0eadings ...................................................................................... +9
Other Problem-Oriented Guides for Police .............................................................. !&
The Problem of Traffic Congestion Around Schools &
)'e Problem of )raffic Congestion
%ro&nd (c'ools
W'at )'is G&ide oes and oes Not Cover
*his guide begins by describing the problem and reviewing the
factors that increase the ris's of school traffic congestion. $t
then identifies a series of Cuestions to help you analy>e your
local problem. Binally, it reviews responses to the problem, and
what is 'nown about them from evaluative research and local
practice.
Bor the purposes of this guide, school-related traffic
congestion is defined as the overcrowding and bloc'ing of
streets on or near school property that is typically associated
with car transportation of children to and from school. "hile
routes to and from school are e%amined in the conte%t of this
problem, most of this guide is devoted to problems occurring
in the immediate vicinity of the schools that generate traffic-
related problems. = thorough review of the research indicates
that the vast ma+ority of problems pertaining to school traffic
congestion occur in middle and elementary schools. *his guide
therefore focuses primarily on causes of and ways to prevent
traffic around these subsets of schools, although most
responses could apply to a wide range of educational
institutions.
+ Traffic Congestion Around Schools
School traffic congestion is but one aspect of a larger set of
problems related to school traffic. *his guide is limited to
addressing the particular harms school traffic congestion
creates. 6elated problems not directly addressed in this guide,
each of which reCuires separate analysis, include the following
! Speeding in residential areas. Sometimes school congestion
creates speeding in the larger vicinity, as frustrated parents
and commuters try to ma'e up for lost time associated
with the congestion.
! 6ec'less driving, speeding, and traffic violations
associated with high school students5 driving themselves to
and from school.
! Cruising.
! Street racing.
! Loud car stereos.
Some of these related problems are covered in other guides in
this series, all of which are listed at the end of this guide. Bor
the most up-to-date listing of current and future guides, see
www.popcenter.org.
Binally, it is important to emphasi>e that this guide assumes
that you are interested in solving a school traffic problem that
already e%ists. =s with many crime, disorder, and public
nuisance problems, the best way to prevent school traffic
congestion is to Edesign it outF during the school site-planning
stage. "hile the issue of new school construction is beyond
this guide5s scope, several resources offer guidance on the best
way to design par'ing, drop-off, and pic'-up areas, and
procedures to ensure children5s safe and speedy transport to
and from new schools in the planning stages.
2
The Problem of Traffic Congestion Around Schools ,
General escri"tion of t'e Problem
School-related traffic congestion and the ris's such congestion
poses to the safety of the students, teachers, parents, residents,
and motorists in and around school locations is a significant
problem in communities both throughout the (nited States and
abroad. *he most obvious cause of traffic congestion around
schools is vehicles, and the biggest source of those vehicles is
parents5 dropping off and pic'ing up their children from school.
$n the (nited States, roughly three-Cuarters of school-aged
children are ta'en to school by car.
-
$n the (nited 0ingdom, the
share of children ta'en to school by car is estimated to be
between one-third
:
and one-half.
M
$n both countries, the rate of
increase in car transportation of children to school has been
significant, often creating serious traffic congestion problems.
/

=s described below, an increase in children ta'en to school by
car is +ust one contributing factor to the problem. Other factors
include changes in school purposes and populations, new
school construction, the addition or elimination of busing, and
the overall physical infrastructure, street layout, and traffic signs
and signals surrounding a school.
*raffic congestion alone causes inconvenience to drivers, leads
to lost time from the +ob, and can contribute to Eroad rage.F $n
addition to affecting parent drivers and other commuters,
school traffic congestion is a source of problems for students,
school staff, residents in and around schools, and local police
charged with enforcing traffic laws and responding to problems
raised by residents and schools. Jore importantly, congestion
can be a source of traffic crashes and child pedestrian in+uries
and deaths.
N
Child pedestrian in+uries due to traffic are more
li'ely to occur in settings with high traffic volume and on-street
par'ing, with children5s often emerging Emas'edF from behind
par'ed cars.
<
- Traffic Congestion Around Schools
.actors Contrib&ting to )raffic Congestion
%ro&nd (c'ools
(nderstanding the factors that contribute to your problem will
help you frame your own local analysis Cuestions, determine
effective measures, recogni>e 'ey intervention points, and select
appropriate responses to the problem of school traffic congestion.
*he following factors contribute to school traffic congestion.
Population Trends and Changes in Transportation Modes
"hile many factors contribute to the problem of school traffic
congestion, according to e%perts, the single greatest e%planation for
recent school traffic congestion is the growth of the school-aged
population over a relatively short time, combined with urban
sprawl.
;
7oth factors have led to an unanticipated volume of
students5 being ta'en to school by car, rendering original school
drop-off and pic'-up schemes 3including guidelines for when and
where parents may drop off, pic' up, and par'4, street layouts, and
traffic control measures ineffective in controlling congestion. =
related factor is the growth in car ownership and use, which has
been associated with a decline in parents5 willingness for children to
wal' or bi'e to and from school independently.
9
$ndeed, far fewer
children are wal'ing or bi'ing to school, with official statistics5
showing a M. percent decrease in school-aged children wal'ing or
bi'ing between 29<< and 299/.
2.
*his may be e%plained by changes
in the wor'force, with more wor'ing mothers5 ta'ing their children to
school by car on their way to wor'.
22
"hen as'ed, parents who choose to ta'e their children by car cite
distance, traffic ha>ards, time constraints, and bad weather as the
most common reasons for selecting this transportation mode.
2-

Other research has asserted that both road safety and
The Problem of Traffic Congestion Around Schools 5
Estranger dangerF are the 'ey e%planations for why parents are
increasingly ta'ing their children to school by car.
2:
One can
view such threats to child safety as both a cause and a symptom
of school congestion. On the one hand, parental concerns
about traffic ha>ards could lead more parents to drive their
children to school, thereby increasing congestion. On the other
hand, traffic congestion could lead to more child pedestrian
accidents, with bac'ed up cars5 bloc'ing the views of small
children crossing the street to enter school.
Ligh school student drivers may also contribute to traffic
congestion problems around schools, particularly because they
are ine%perienced drivers who often disregard traffic and
par'ing signs.
2M
Lowever, this source of the problem is easily
addressed by reCuiring students to get par'ing permits or to
par' in remote lots, or to prohibit students from driving to
school altogether.
2/
Perhaps for this reason, the literature on
this topic rarely attributes traffic congestion to student drivers.
36elated problems, such as vandalism, litter, and disorder
around high school par'ing lots, are Cuite common
2N
but are not
addressed in this guide4. 8onetheless, most of the effective
responses in this guide apply in the high school conte%t.
$n some +urisdictions, reduced budgets have led to the
elimination of busing systems, thereby increasing the use of cars
and the congestion they create. $n other school districts, busing
has increased to promote more racially and socioeconomically
balanced student bodies. $n some cases, however, busing can
contribute to congestion problems, such as when buses share the
same drop-off and pic'-up lanes as parents5 vehicles. Dven in
districts that provide busing with adeCuate space and effective
loading and unloading arrangements, some parents may prefer to
drive their children to school, thereby e%acerbating traffic
congestion.
/ Traffic Congestion Around Schools
Physical Design Issues
=s described above, the use of cars as a ma+or means of
transportation of children to and from school is ine%tricably
lin'ed to the design of the area surrounding the school.
8arrow streets or those that allow par'ing on both sides are
unli'ely to provide ample room for cars to maneuver. =reas
that are Elandloc'edF by cul-de-sacs may offer few alternative
routes into and out of the area surrounding the school, and
streets that become one-way during pea' school arrival and
departure times may create confusion rather than resolving
congestion issues.
Poorly timed traffic lights, entry and e%it routes designed
without consideration of overall commuting patterns, and a
lac' of temporary par'ing spaces may also be sources of
congestion problems. $n addition, congestion may be caused
by too many children5s being dropped off or pic'ed up at the
same time. Burthermore, the absence of pedestrian and bi'e
pathways and crosswal's and the presence of cars par'ed
along the ma+or thoroughfares leading to and from the school
can increase the harm traffic congestion causes by bloc'ing the
children5s visibility.
New Schools, Residential Subdivisions, and Changes in
School Assignent
$f not well planned, building a new school in an area may
result in traffic congestion. 8ew schools may be constructed to
anticipate the growth associated with new home construction,
but there may be no adeCuate plan for the traffic the school
generates. $ndeed, even new developments designed to be
pedestrian-friendly with wal'ways through the neighborhood
have encountered congestion problems around schools, due to
parental concerns about child safety.
2<
The Problem of Traffic Congestion Around Schools 9
Conversely, the construction of a new residential subdivision
may lead the school system to change the school assignment
process. Such changes can alter the school composition, with
younger students5 generating more parent drop-offs and pic'ups,
and students5 arriving from more remote destinations leading to
an increase in congestion caused by the addition of school
buses. Similarly, increases in the school population caused by
changing demographics may lead to the use of temporary
ErelocatablesF?trailer classrooms that by necessity are placed in
par'ing areas that would have otherwise served to decrease
congestion. *hese are +ust a few e%amples of how school traffic
congestion problems can be caused by the ever-changing si>e,
capacity, and population of schools and how, li'e sCuee>ing a
water balloon, changes in one or two schools in a school system
can affect traffic congestion around others.
1nderstanding 2our Local Problem 3
0nderstanding 1o&r 2ocal Problem
*he information provided above is only a generali>ed
description of school traffic congestion. @ou should use these
basic facts to help develop a more specific understanding of
your local problem. =naly>ing the local problem carefully will
help you design a more effective response strategy.
(ta*e'olders
*he following groups have an interest in the school traffic-
congestion problem and should be considered for the
contribution they might ma'e to gathering information about
the problem and responding to it.
Police
*his guide is written for police, not because they are the biggest
sta'eholders in solving traffic congestion problems, but because
they are often one of the first to be called when traffic
congestion develops around schools. Police are more li'ely to
be contacted only after tensions have developed among
residents, school staff, and parents over who is responsible for
the congestion. Police therefore are in a uniCue position to serve
as mediator between these groups, helping them to see'
common ground in developing and implementing effective
solutions and ultimately ma'ing their +obs easier by reducing
the number of calls for service generated by congestion, and the
traffic violations and traffic safety issues that often accompany
it.
&" Traffic Congestion Around Schools
Parents
"hen it comes to both understanding the underlying source
of the congestion problem and developing responses to it,
parents may be the single most important sta'eholder you
identify. *his is because parents5 decisions to drive their
children to school, their concern for their children5s safety,
and their regard for e%isting traffic rules can tremendously
affect the problem.
Students
"hile research indicates that most school traffic problems
occur around elementary and middle schools, in cases where
congestion is around high schools, students are significant
sta'eholders given that their driving and par'ing habits are
li'ely contributing to the problem. Student input in lower-
grade schools is eCually important, and can become critical if a
response strategy includes encouraging children to wal' or bi'e
to school.
School Adinistrators and Teachers
School staff often e%perience the aggravation of school
traffic congestion in eCual measure to parents. Some staff
may be inconvenienced by congestion in their own
commutes to and from the school. Others, such as the
principal and school administrators, bear the brunt of
complaints by parents and local residents. #iven that most
congestion occurs in and around school property, the child
safety concerns associated with traffic congestion become the
school5s responsibility, as well.
!ocal Residents
6esidents living near schools with congestion problems are
very much affected by the problem, and may also be
contributing to it. $magine being late for wor' and pulling
out of your driveway, only to reali>e that school traffic is at
its pea' and it will ta'e another 2. minutes +ust to travel a
tenth of a mile. 6esidents may become so frustrated by
repeated complaints to the school or local police with no
sign of resolution in sight, that they deliberately ignore signs
prohibiting street par'ing or ma'ing streets one-way during
drop-off and pic'-up times, further contributing to the
congestion problem.
"ther Couters
$n some areas, school traffic congestion is caused or
e%acerbated by commuters whose routes ta'e them past the
school or those who use residential roads around schools as
shortcuts to reduce travel time, despite the congestion they
may encounter around schools.
Transportation and Planning Departent
@our local transportation and planning department is also a
critical partner in understanding and addressing the problem
of school traffic congestion. *his agency can change or add
traffic signs, create one-way streets, and change the traffic-
light timing to increase traffic flow and reduce congestion
around the school.
1nderstanding 2our Local Problem &&
&5 Traffic Congestion Around Schools
School #us Copanies
$n cases in which congestion occurs around schools that have
busing, the bus companies are an important partner in
developing responses to the problem. Bor e%ample, if buses
are perceived as contributing to the congestion problem, the
school may determine that the best approach is to stagger bus
drop-off and pic'-up times andOor schedule those times so
that they do not coincide with parental drop-off and pic'-up
times.
Parent Teacher Associations $PTAs% and
School #oards
Bormal entities such as P*=s can conduct surveys of their
membership to better understand the nature of the problem, to
enlist their participation and support in developing and
implementing responses, and to aid in administering surveys
designed to assess the response5s impact.
School #uilding Architects and !andscapers
School architects and landscapers may need to be enlisted to
better understand possible and feasible changes to school
property, as well as to aid in drafting plans to reduce
congestion. $n addition, while most of the literature on school
traffic congestion pertains to schools already e%isting when a
traffic problem emerges, it is important to note that school
architects can play a critical role in designing out traffic
problems before new schools are erected.
1nderstanding 2our Local Problem &)
Neighboring #usinesses
$n some cases, schools are located near retailers or businesses
that generate their own traffic or that suffer from school-
generated traffic. *hese businesses represent another important
sta'eholder group in understanding and addressing the traffic
congestion problem.
%s*ing t'e 3ig't 4&estions
*he following are some critical Cuestions you should as' in
analy>ing your particular problem of school traffic congestion,
even if the answers are not always readily available. @our
answers to these and other Cuestions will help you choose the
most appropriate set of responses later on.
Incidents
$ncident data will enable you to measure the level and type of
traffic congestion problem occurring around the school3s4
affected by congestion. *o answer these Cuestions, it is useful
first to learn whether the school system andOor police
department has a mechanism for recording traffic congestion
complaints. $n some cases, police calls-for-service data may
provide the necessary details to e%tract this information. $n the
case of school-generated data, however, the school system is
li'ely to document only traffic safety issues, such as crashes
involving the in+ury or death of a child. $t is li'ely, therefore,
that the police officer assigned to the school 3or the patrol
area in which the school is located4 is the best source of
incident data. *he Cuestions to as' to obtain incident data
include the following
! Low many complaints does the school receive about traffic
congestionP
! Low many complaints do the police receive about traffic
congestionP
! "ho is ma'ing the complaints?residents, school staff,
parents, or all of the aboveP
! Low many vehicular crashes have occurred around the
schoolP
! Low many pedestrian in+uries and deaths have occurred
around the schoolP
As$ing the 0ight 8uestions &!
&. Traffic Congestion Around Schools
! Low many traffic violations have occurred around the
schoolP "hat types of violations are occurringP
! *o what degree is the traffic congestion caused by parent
drivers, and to what degree by non-parent drivers,
including bus drivers, commuters, and residentsP "hy are
each of these drivers in the area, and what are their
motivations for drivingP
! *o what degree do pedestrians contribute to traffic
congestionP
Setting
! "hat are the main access points to and from the school
3main drive, pedestrian entrances, side streets, etc.4P
! "here are the e%isting drop-off and pic'-up areasP
! =re there alternate drop-off and pic'-up sites that could
be usedP
! "here are the crosswal's and associated limit linesP
! "hat speed >ones e%ist in and around the schoolP &o
they appear to affect traffic flowP
! "here are no-par'ing >ones, bus-par'ing areas, bus-
loadingOunloading >ones, and student drop-off and pic'up
areas locatedP
! &oes the neighborhood have features that draw traffic
into the area at school drop-off and pic'-up timesP Bor
e%ample, are there area retailers or businesses whose
customers andOor employees contribute to the problemP
! Low many par'ing spaces are located on and around
school propertyP
! "hat is the average time it ta'es to drop off or pic' up a
child during pea' congestion hours 3including wait time
and time enteringOe%iting car4P
As$ing the 0ight 8uestions &9
! Low far is traffic bac'ed up entering and e%iting school at the
busiest times 3minimum, ma%imum, average4P
! "hat is the ma%imum number of students who could wal' to
school 3distance is less than one-half mile or other standard by
student age4P &o the children who wal' to school live closer to
the school than those who don5tP
= useful means to assist in answering these Cuestions about setting
is to conduct field observations at and around the school at
different times of day and days of wee' to find out where most
traffic is coming from, where people par', and where pedestrian
pathways and flows are located.
Q
Such observations may also
reveal whether any nonschool commuter traffic cutting through
the school area is contributing to the problem.
Ties
! =t what times of day is congestion at its worstP "hat days of
the wee'P "hat times of the yearP
! &o pea' congestion hours correspond with other eventsP
! =re incidents clustered in time, or spread over timeP
! $s congestion seasonal, with most problems5 occurring during
cold winter months, and no problems5 occurring during
summer recessP
Q @ou can find a useful resource to
guide such field observations in a
document produced by the 8ational
Lighway Safety *ransportation 7oard
that provides advice to those
conducting pedestrian and bicycle
crash analyses. See www.nhtsa.dot .
govOpeopleOin+uryOpedbimotOpedO
pbcat+an.2Oinde%.html.
&; Traffic Congestion Around Schools
School Syste Conte&t
$n most growing school systems, school assignment is
reevaluated each year. =s a result, even if your particular
problem is congestion around an individual school, the
problem must be considered in light of the larger school
system conte%t. *his includes identifying and anticipating any
significant changes, including the following
! Lave there been, or are there plans for, changes in school
assignment at both the school of interest and neighboring
schoolsP
! =re there plans for residential and commercial
development in the surrounding areaP
! =re there anticipated changes in traffic patterns and
physical infrastructure around the schoolP
! &oes the school have plans to add relocatable classrooms,
and if so, where will they be locatedP
*hese Cuestions underscore the importance of understanding
that any efforts to address school congestion problems must
be considered in light of the larger system, and that
congestion issues and your responses5 effectiveness must be
reassessed and may need to be amended each year.
Driving 'abits
"hen studying the issue in your local +urisdiction, it may be
useful to conduct a survey of parents to learn how often they
drive their children to school, their openness to other forms of
transportation, and their perceptions of the incidence and
severity of the congestion problem. $n analy>ing the problem,
a survey of parents can shed light on why they ta'e their
children by car, including the following response categories
! $t is Cuic'erOmore convenient.
! $t is on the way toOfrom wor'.
! *here is no other transportation.
! *he weather is bad.
! $t is too far to wal'.
! Jy children are too young to go to school alone.
! $ drop offOpic' up other 'ids.
! $ have concerns about child safety and Estranger danger.F
$f the chosen response to the problem is to reduce parental
driving, such a survey can help in developing a response that
spea's to parents5 motivations and concerns. Conducting a
similar survey after implementing your response will also
assist in your assessment of whether the response was
effective 3see EJeasuring @our DffectivenessF below4.
Other important Cuestions to pose to parent drivers include
the following
! Low often do you drive your children to schoolP &ailyP
Special occasions onlyP
! "hat alternative modes of transportation are availableP
! "hy do you choose particular routes and pic'-up and
drop-off pointsP
= Ewindshield surveyF posing similar Cuestions to parents and
other commuters stuc' in congestion around schools may also
be fruitful.
As$ing the 0ight 8uestions &3
5" Traffic Congestion Around Schools
Current Responses
Q
Bor guidelines on appropriate
signs, see the Bederal Lighway
=dministration5s Janual on (niform
*raffic Control &evices at httpOO
mutcd.fhwa.dot.gov.
"hat are the current practices in place to control traffic
congestionP "hat are the e%isting guidelines for student
drop-off and pic'-upP
"hat are the current street signs in and around the schoolP
$t is important to note the locations of all stop signs, traffic
lights, speed limit signs, and directional signs 3one-way or
street closure signs4, as well as any associated hours of
operation 3e.g., E8o entry between < a.m. and 9 a.m.F4.
Q
$s there a crossing guard on duty, and if so, at what times
of dayP
"hat are the e%isting police patrol patternsP =re
patrols assigned to coordinate with school arrivals and
departuresP &oes the school have a police resource
officer assigned to itP
"hat responses have wor'ed in the past, and for how
longP "hat past responses have yielded limited or no
effectivenessP
Once you have gathered information on street patterns, traffic
flows, and signs, a useful means of integrating all this information
in a way that leads to potential solutions is to map the locations
of these factors, either by hand or through the use of #eographic
$nformation System software. Such mapping can be useful to
understand the flows and nature of congestion within the larger
conte%t of the surrounding area. =t this point in the process, you
should begin to develop a list of possible responses designed to
address the underlying cause of your school traffic problem. $t is
often useful to survey parents, teachers, staff, and even students
to obtain their feedbac' on which of the proposed interventions
they
li'e best. "hile the popularity of the response should not be
the only criterion for its selection, if you have identified an
array of eCually effective responses, it is only logical to
implement the one that most people will support, particularly
because their compliance is critical to the intervention5s
success. Such a survey not only serves to narrow down the
list of possible interventions, but also will help to +ustify the
response ultimately implemented.
As$ing the 0ight 8uestions 5&
5eas&ring 1o&r 6ffectiveness
Jeasurement allows you to determine to what degree your
efforts have succeeded, and suggests how you might modify
your responses if they are not producing the intended results.
@ou should ta'e measures of your problem before you
implement responses, to determine how serious the problem
is, and after you implement them, to determine whether they
have been effective. @ou should ta'e all measures in both the
target area and the surrounding area. 3Bor more detailed
guidance on measuring effectiveness, see the companion guide
to this series, Assessing Responses to Problems: An ntroductory
Guide for Police Problem-Solvers!"
*he following are potentially useful measures of the
effectiveness of responses to school traffic congestion
! fewer vehicles around the school
! reduced time spent by parents5 dropping off and pic'ing up
children
! fewer complaints received by the school about traffic
congestion
! fewer complaints received by the police about traffic
congestion
! fewer vehicular crashes around the school
! fewer pedestrian in+uries and deaths around the school
! fewer traffic violations around the school
! lower percentage of parents5 using cars to ta'e children to
school
! improved perceptions of congestion among parents and staff.
,easuring 2our =ffecti#eness 5)
0esponses to the Problem of Traffic Congestion Around Schools 5!
3es"onses to t'e Problem of )raffic
Congestion %ro&nd (c'ools
General Considerations for an 6ffective 3es"onse (trateg7
@our analysis of your local problem should give you a better
understanding of the factors contributing to it. Once you have
analy>ed your local problem and established a baseline for
measuring effectiveness, you should consider possible responses to
address the problem.
*he following response strategies provide a foundation of ideas for
addressing your particular problem. *hese strategies are drawn from a
variety of research studies and police reports. Several of these
strategies may apply to your community5s problem. $t is critical that you
tailor responses to local circumstances, and that you can +ustify each
response based on reliable analysis. $n most cases, an effective strategy
will involve implementing several different responses. Law
enforcement responses alone are seldom effective in reducing or
solving the problem. &o not limit yourself to considering what police
can do carefully consider whether others in your community share
responsibility for the problem and can help police better respond to it.
*he responsibility of responding, in some cases, may need to be
shifted toward those who have the capacity to implement more
effective responses. *his is particularly true in the case of school
congestion problems, as solutions typically rely on the leadership and
cooperation of school staff, teachers, students, and parents. 3Bor more
detailed information on shifting and sharing responsibility, see
6esponse #uide 8o. :, Shifting and Sharing Responsibility for Public Safety
Problems4.
5. Traffic Congestion Around Schools
("ecific 3es"onses )o 3ed&ce )raffic Congestion
%ro&nd (c'ools
Changing Transportation Modes
Jany responses to the problem of school traffic congestion are
designed to reduce the number of children ta'en to school in
private vehicles. *hese efforts are often presented as
environmentally friendly programs that increase physical activity
among children, resulting in benefits far beyond that of reduced
traffic congestion. "ith any of these programs designed to change
parents5 and students5 behavior, incentives for participating as well
as changes designed to ma'e it easier to participate can go a long
way toward achieving congestion reductions. Jarin County,
California, for e%ample, implemented many of the responses
described below to encourage children to wal' or bi'e to school,
and e%perienced a /. percent increase in the number of children
wal'ing and bi'ing and a corresponding decrease of -9 percent in
car traffic around the school.
2;
Similar results have been achieved
in 7oston and Jinnesota,
29
as well as in +urisdictions throughout the
(nited 0ingdom
-.
and Canada.
-2
!. "ducating parents. @ou can educate parents about their
children5s using alternative transportation modes to and from
school, as well as the dangers and legal conseCuences of traffic
violations, and ways that parents play a role in reducing
congestion and increasing student safety by following the rules
of the road. @ou can provide such information in the P*=
newsletter or distribute it in fliers handed to parents while they
are waiting in school drop-off and pic'-up >ones.
0esponses to the Problem of Traffic Congestion Around Schools 59
#. "ncouraging students to walk or bike to school. @ou
could encourage students to wal' or bi'e to school if the
school curriculum integrates the health and environmental
benefits of wal'ing or bi'ing to school into the school
curriculum 3e.g., encouraging pupils to consider the impact
of different transportation choices on the environment as
well as their own physical health4. @ou can enhance such
programs by enabling students to earn points andOor
rewards based on how freCuently they wal' or bi'e to
school.
###!i#al$toschool!org
Adding crosswalks and crossing guards is one way to make walking
and biking to school safer and easier for students.
$. "ncouraging carpooling. Li'ewise, parents would have an
added incentive to carpool if you created a special e%press
carpool lane, enabling participating drivers to get in and out
of the school area?and on to their +obs or errands?faster.
5; Traffic Congestion Around Schools
%ity of Glendale& Ari'ona
Bor more information, see the
8ational Safe 6outes to School
Clearinghouse at www.
saferoutesinfo.org.
888 % 88fe
9
:r;
v.
<=;8)
>
9)O?
@9
A888fl
; i
()OP
W!6N
C!?236N
?N B
Programs such as %Safe &outes to School' employ tactics such as adding
crosswalks and crossing guards and encouraging parents to hae their children
walk or bike to school.
(. )apping out safe pedestrian routes. One such program
is called Safe 6outes to School,
Q
which is designed to
Eimprove children5s health and that of the overall
community by ma'ing wal'ing and bicycling to school
safer and easier.F *his is achieved by mapping out the
safest ways 3e.g., those that avoid busy intersections and
use sidewal's4 that children can travel by bi'e or wal' to
and from school, adding crosswal's and crossing guards,
and encouraging parents to have their children wal' or
bi'e to school. Jost local police agencies have basic
computeri>ed mapping capabilities that they could use for
this purpose. *he city or county planning department can
often provide an alternative source of mapping
e%pertise.
0esponses to the Problem of Traffic Congestion Around Schools 53
*. +mplementing a %walking school bus' program.
(nder such programs, a route is identified similar to a bus
route, but also selected with pedestrian safety in mind.
Parents are recruited to EdriveF the bus, wal'ing along the
predetermined route to pic' up children who are
registered by their parents to ErideF the bus and escort
them by foot to the school. Student sashes, school bag
tags, and bus stop signs are often used as part of the
program, as are bac'pac's and loc'ers to ma'e it easier
for children to wal' without having to haul a large volume
of boo's and school supplies with them. 8aturally, such
programs wor' only in neighborhoods that are near 3i.e.,
in wal'ing distance4 of the school.
Similar to wal'ing buses, cycle trains entail a group of
parents and pupils cycling to school together. Safe bi'ing
routes are mapped out in advance, and school bags and
lunch bo%es are transported in a bi'e trailer pulled by a
parent volunteer. =ny bi'ing program should include the
installation of loc'ers or other ways to accommodate and
secure the anticipated increase in bi'es on school
property.
Green %ommunities %anada Active ( Safe Routes to School
Programs such as %walking school bus' identify routes similar to bus
routes, but do so with pedestrian safety in mind.
)" Traffic Congestion Around Schools
-. +nstituting school busing. "hile this option is typically
viewed as cost-prohibitive, using buses or minivans to
transport children to school is nonetheless an effective
means of reducing the number of children ta'en to
school by car, as well as the congestion that accompanies
that transportation mode. $nstituting a busing program,
however, must involve a consideration of when and
where buses will load and unload. Otherwise, buses could
end up contributing to a congestion problem rather than
reducing it. Joreover, before initiating a new busing
system, it may be useful to survey parents to confirm
that they would use it.
Ipleenting Drop(")), Pic*(+p, and Physical
Design Measures
*he source of many congestion problems stems from poorly
planned drop-off and pic'-up procedures, as well as par'ing-
related physical design characteristics. =ltering these rules and
design characteristics can often resolve congestion issues with
little impact to parents5 and students5 daily routines. $n Plano,
*e%as, measures to reroute traffic through the designation of
one-way streets, the synchroni>ation of street traffic lights
with school dismissal times, additional signs, and other physical
design measures resulted in increases in traffic flow and a
reduction in crashes around the school.
--
$n the Phoeni% school
system, implementing a school safety program that included
changes to drop-off and pic'-up procedures reduced
congestion and yielded significant improvements to school
safety across the state.
Q
0esponses to the Problem of Traffic Congestion Around Schools )&
.. Altering drop-off and pick-up rules. @ou can reduce
congestion considerably by altering the times during
which parents can drop off or pic' up their children or by
staggering bell times. Lowever, parents who have multiple
children at the same school, yet different drop-off and
pic'-up times, may discourage these changes. = related
change would be to change or add drop-off and pic'-up
locations, encouraging alternative routes into and out of
the school area so that drivers would not all congregate
in one place. $nstituting EvaletsF at drop-off locations,
whereby school staff or volunteers escort children from
car to school, can also e%pedite the drop-off process. @ou
should implement any change in drop-off and pic'-up
procedures at the start of the school term to eliminate
confusion, accompanied by clear and detailed written
instructions.
/. Strategically funneling traffic. @ou can minimi>e some
types of congestion problems by directing different
types of traffic to different locations on and around the
school property. Bor e%ample, you could locate staff
par'ing behind the building, while buses pic' up and
drop off in one area and parents drop off and pic' up
their children in another area. *hese measures, however,
are often not available to schools that do not have
multiple areas serving these purposes, as well as those
that have outgrown the neighborhoods in which they are
located and therefore have little e%tra space to dedicate
to strategic funneling. $ndeed, in some situations, even if
space were available to create new entry, e%it, and par'ing
locations, area residents might ob+ect to the reduction of
green space caused by those changes.
)5 Traffic Congestion Around Schools
9R"stablishing curbing and parking 0ones. (sing curbing
and signs to e%tend drop-off and pic'-up >ones may
reduce congestion at the immediate school site. Creating
additional temporary par'ing areas along with safe
pedestrian routes from those areas to the school can also
have an impact. Such pedestrian routes might involve
creating new crosswal's andOor using a crossing guard. $n
addition, you could create no-par'ing >ones to restrict
street par'ing that might be adding to congestion and
restricting student pedestrians5 visibility.
2.R &erouting street networks. Often the simplest
solution to the school congestion problem is to reroute
streets to force drivers to see' alternative routes to and
from the school. *his is usually accomplished by creating
one-way streets or erecting Eno entryF signs on certain
streets leading to the school, which might be in effect only
during pea' drop-off and pic'-up hours.
22R Synchroni0ing traffic lights. One simple approach
to reducing school congestion is to e%amine traffic lights5
e%isting timing and to revise the lights5 timing to
synchroni>e with school start and dismissal times. *his
measure naturally reCuires coordinating with your local
traffic authority, and may not have an impact if the
lights5 timing is not a source of the congestion problem
to begin with.
0esponses to the Problem of Traffic Congestion Around Schools ))
3es"onses Wit' 2imited 6ffectiveness
!#. "nhancing the enforcement of e1isting traffic laws.
=s with similar, more EreactiveF police measures, such as
increased patrols, enhanced enforcement of e%isting traffic
laws is li'ely to have a positive but short-term impact on the
problem. =s soon as traffic enforcement reverts bac' to
preintervention levels, congestion is li'ely to increase again.
Q

Lowever, if patrols are assigned strategically to increase
presence during pea' arrival and departure periods, they may
serve as a very useful and effective complement to other
problem-solving measures.
!$. +ncreasing traffic fines. Often termed Edouble fines,F
elevated traffic fines have been used to control speed in
specified Esafety corridors.F @ou could employ similar
efforts to enforce >oning and par'ing rules designed to
reduce congestion. Lowever, evaluations suggest that
signs indicating increased fines achieve little long-term
impact.
-:
Q See response guide 8o. 2, The )enefits
and %onse*uences of Police %rac$do#ns& for
further information on how intensive
enforcement wor's.
%""endiC )!
%""endiCD (&mmar7 of 3es"onses to
)raffic Congestion %ro&nd (c'ools
*he table below summari>es the responses to school traffic
congestion, the mechanism by which they are intended to wor',
the conditions under which they ought to wor' best, and some
factors you should consider before implementing a particular
response. $t is critical that you tailor responses to local
circumstances, and that you can +ustify each response based on
reliable analysis. $n most cases, an effective strategy will involve
implementing several different responses. Law enforcement
responses alone are seldom effective in reducing or solving the
problem.
&espons
e 2o.
Page
2o.
&esponse 3ow +t 4orks 4orks 5est +f Considerations
%hanging Transportation Modes
2 -N Dducating
parents
6educes
volume of
vehicle traffc
Sparents ta'e
ownership of the
education process,
persuading each
other to see'
alternative
transportation
methods for their
children
Parents5 fears about child
safety and Estranger dangerF
must be assuagedA parental
education campaigns, unless
ongoing, are unli'ely to
achieve long-term effects on
their own
- -< Dncouraging
students to wal'
or bi'e to
school
6educes
volume of
vehicle traffc
Sit is integrated
into the school
curriculum, rather
than presented as a
one-time, stand-
alone effort
Providing loc'ers or
bac'pac's and limiting the
number of items children have
to ta'e to and from school
could facilitate compliance
: -< Dncourag
e
carpoolin
g
6educes
volume of
vehicle traffc
Se%press carpool
lanes are created,
providing easy drop-
off and pic'- up,
and rewarding
carpoolers by
enabling them to
bypass congestion
School administrators could
play a role in encouraging
carpooling by generating lists
of neighboring students and
distributing them to parentsA
some parents may have privacy
concerns regarding sharing
their children5s names and
addresses with others
). Traffic Congestion Around Schools
&espons
e 2o.
Page
2o.
&esponse 3ow +t 4orks 4orks 5est +f Considerations
M -; Japping out
safe pedestrian
routes
6educes
volume of
vehicle traffc
Sit is combined
with student and
parental
education
campaigns 3see
above4
Safe routes may differ by
transportation mode, reCuiring
different maps for wal'ers
versus bi'ers
/ -9 $mplementing a
Ewal'ing
school busF
program
6educes
volume of
vehicle traffc
Sit has
strong support
among
parents
6eCuires a great degree of
coordination and a dedicated
team of volunteers
N :. $nstituting
school busing
6educes
volume of
vehicle traffc
Sthe bus loading
and unloading
>ones are designed
carefullyA otherwise,
buses may
contribute to
congestion
7using is very e%pensive and
would reCuire strong political
support at the +urisdictional
levelA busing also reCuires the
support of parents and an
assurance from them that they
would allow their children to
be ta'en to school by bus
mplementing +rop-Off& Pic$-,p& and Physical +esign Measures
< :2 =ltering drop-
off and pic'-up
rules
Dliminates
pea' volume
times,
reducing
congestion
Sparents are
alerted well in
advance of any
change
@ou will need to ma'e special
e%ceptions for parents with
multiple school-aged childrenA
any carpool lanes would need
to be e%empt
; :2 Strategically
funneling
traffc
6educes
congestion
at 'ey
points
Sthere is adeCuate
space for
alternatives
Creating alternative par'ing
and pic'-up and drop-off
locations may be costlyA
may reduce green space
9 :- Dstablishing
curbing and
par'ing
>ones
6educes
congestion in
drop-off and
pic'-up areasA
improves
pedestrians5
visibility,
thereby
reducing crash
ha>ards
Syou use
crosswal's and
crossing guards to
ensure student
safety in wal'ing to
and from par'ing
areas
=ny new par'ing or >oning
schemes need to be
stringently enforced
Appendi: )9
&espons
e 2o.
Page
2o.
&esponse 3ow +t 4orks 4orks 5est +f Considerations
2. :- 6erouting street
networ's
6educes
congestio
n
S rerouting is
planned holistically,
considering traffc
light timing, pea'
congestion times,
and local
residential
concerns
6eCuires e%tensive
coordination with local traffc
and planning agencies
22 :- Synchroni>in
g traffc lights
6educes
congestio
n
S synchroni>ation
plans are designed
within the larger
conte%t of
residential and
commuter traffc
issues
Can be costly
Responses -ith .imited /ffectiveness
2- :: Dnhancing the
enforcement
of e%isting
traffc laws
&eters
driving or
unsafe
driving
Senforcement
is both random
and ongoing
6eCuires ongoing vigilanceA
otherwise, congestion
problems Cuic'ly revert
bac' to preintervention
levels
2: :: $ncreasing
traffc fnes
&eters par'ing,
thereby
reducing
congestion, and
deters unsafe
driving
S fnes are
stringently
enforced
Dvaluations of similar
schemes to control speeding
indicate little if any long-term
impact
6ndnotes
1
2
3
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
21
22
23
Jatthews 3299;4A also see Cooner et al. 3-..M4.
8ational Center for Chronic &isease Prevention and Lealth Promotion 3-..24.
&ere' Lalden Consultancy 3-..-4.
&ic'son 3-...4.
0earns and Collins 3-..:4A 7lac', Collins, and Snell 3-..24.
8ational Lighway *raffic Safety =dministration 3-..N4.
8ational Lighway *raffic Safety =dministration 3-..N4.
&owns 329994.
Lillman 3299:4.
#ranville et al. 3-..-4.
&ere' Lalden Consultancy 3-..-4.
7radshaw 3299/4.
Kalentine 3299N4.
St! Petersburg Times 3-../4.
&avis 3299N4A 0orec'i 329994.
Associated Press 329994A "iser 3-../4.
Oa'es 3-..:4.
=ppleyard 3-..:4.
=le%andria Lealth &epartment 3-..:4.
&epartment of Dnvironment, *ransportation, and 6egions 329994.
O57rien 3-...4A also see 7etter Dnvironmentally Sound *ransportation 3-..<4.
Plano Police &epartment 3-..M4.
)ones, #riffith, and Laas 3-..-4.
=ndnotes )3
0eferences +&
3eferences
=le%andria Lealth &epartment 3-..:4. Safe Routes to
School: Program Across the 0ation. =le%andria 3Kirginia4
Cardiovascular Lealth Pro+ect.
=ppleyard, 7. 3-..:4. EPlanning Safe 6outes.F Planning
3Jay4:MT:;.
Associated Press 329994. EOfficers Patrol School #rounds "ith
6adar #uns.F The Tope$a %apital-1ournal& 8ovember :, =N.
7etter Dnvironmentally Sound *ransportation 3-..<4. EOff-
6amp Program, a Student-Led Program &esigned to $ncrease
"al'ing, Cycling, Public *ransit, and Carpooling to School.F
www.best.bc.caOprograms=ndServicesOinde%.html 3accessed
Jarch 2N, -..<4.
7lac', C., =. Collins, and J. Snell 3-..24. EDncouraging
"al'ingA *he Case of )ourney-to-School *rips in Compact
(rban =reas.F ,rban Studies :;3<422-2T22M2.
7radshaw, 6. 3299/4. E"hy &o Parents &rive *heir Children to
SchoolPF Traffic /ngineering and %ontrol :N3242NT29.
Cooner, S., 0. Bit>patric', J. "ooldridge, and #. Bord
3-..M4. Traffic Operations and Safety at Schools: Recommended
Guidelines! Springfield 3Kirginia4 8ational *echnical
$nformation Service.
&avis, =. 3299N4. E*ight SCuee>e *here5s a Space Crunch in
Ligh School Par'ing Lots.F The Mil#au$ee 1ournal Sentinel&
September -N, Jetro, p. 2.
+5 Traffic Congestion Around Schools
&epartment of Dnvironment, *ransportation, and 6egions
329994. ESchool *ravel Strategies and Plans Case Studies
6eport.F London &epartment for *ransport. =vailable at
www.dft.gov.u'OpgrOsustainableOschooltravelO
localauthoritiesOschooltravelstrategiesandpla/<MNPversion=2
3accessed Jarch 2/, -..<4.
&ere' Lalden Consultancy 3-..-4. Revie# of Research on School
Travel! Ddinburgh Scottish D%ecutive Central 6esearch (nit.
&ic'son, J. 3-...4. ECharacteristics of the Dscort Dducation
)ourney.F Transport Trends! London &epartment of the
Dnvironment, *ransport, and the 6egions.
&owns, =. 3-..M4. Still Stuc$ in Traffic: %oping -ith Pea$-2our
Traffic %ongestion! "ashington, &.C. 7roo'ings $nstitution
Press.
??? 329994. ESome 6ealities =bout (rban Sprawl and
(rban &ecline.F 2ousing Policy +ebate 2.3M49//T9<M.
#ranville, S., =. Laird, J. 7arber, and B. 6ait 3-..-4. -hy +o
Parents +rive Their %hildren to School3 Ddinburgh Scottish
D%ecutive Central 6esearch (nit.
Lillman, J. 3299:4. %hildren& Transport& and the 4uality of .ife!
London Policy Studies $nstitute.
)ones, 7., =. #riffith, and 0. Laas 3-..-4. /ffectiveness of +ouble
5ines as a Speed %ontrol Measure in Safety %orridors! Salem
3Oregon4 Oregon &epartment of *ransportation 6esearch
#roup.
0eferences +)
0earns, 6., and &. Collins 3-..:4. ECrossing 6oads, Crossing
7oundaries Dmpowerment and Participation in a Child
Pedestrian Safety $nitiative.F Space and Polity <3-429:T-2-.
0ennedy, 6., and =. JcJullen 3-..:4. Safe Routes to School:
Programs Across the 0ation! =le%andria 3Kirginia4 =le%andria
Lealth.
0orec'i, 8. 329994. EBight for School Par'ing Places #rows
$ntense.F %hicago +aily 2erald& Jay 2<, p. 2.
Jatthews, ). 3299;4. E&esigning *raffic with Safety in Jind.F
School Planning and Management :<3M4 /;.
8ational Center for Chronic &isease Prevention and Lealth
Promotion 3-..24. 6+S-A.6-TO-S%2OO.: A Guide to
Promote -al$ing to School! =tlanta Centers for &isease Control
and Prevention, (.S. &epartment of Lealth and Luman
Services.
8ational Lighway *raffic Safety =dministration 3-..N4.
E*raffic Safety Bacts, -..M &ata Children.F www-nrd.
nhtsa.dot.govOpdfOnrd-:.O8CS=O*SB-..MO;.99.N.pdf
3accessed )uly -..N4.
Oa'es, =. 3-..:4. EStudents *read LightlyOJost &on5t "al' to
Leritage School.F The San +iego ,nion-Tribune& )anuary :., p.
72.
++ Traffic Congestion Around Schools
O57rien, C. 3-...4. E"ay *o #oU #etting 0ids to School the
Sustainable "ay.F Alternatives 1ournal -N3-4:/.
Plano Police &epartment 3-..M4. E$t *a'es a Killage Dasing
*raffic Congestion =round 7arron Dlementary SchoolF.
Submission for the Lerman #oldstein =ward for D%cellence
in Problem-Oriented Policing. www.popcenter .
orgOLibraryO#oldsteinO-..MO.M-:23B4.pdf 3accessed Jarch
2/, -..<4.
Plummer, &. 3-..-4. ESchool Gone *raffic Congestion Study,
-..-.F Jiami Jiami-&ade County Jetropolitan Planning
Organi>ation.
St! Petersburg Times 3-../4. E&istrict *a'es 6ight =pproach to
*raffic.F =pril 2, Dditorial, p -.
Kalentine, #. 299N. E=ngels and &evils Joral Landscapes of
Childhood.F /nvironment and Planning +: Society and Space
2M3/4/;2T/99.
"iser, P. 3-../4. ESchool Par'ing Lot $t5s a )ungle Out
*hereUF %hicago Sun-Times& =ugust -N, p. N;.
About the Author +!
%bo&t t'e %&t'or
Nancy ,- !a .igne
8ancy #. La Kigne is a senior research associate at the (rban
$nstitute in "ashington, &.C., where she directs several pro+ects
related to crime prevention, prisoner reentry, and the use of
mapping to understand and address a variety of criminal +ustice
problems. Prior to +oining the (rban $nstitute, La Kigne was the
founding director of the 8ational $nstitute of )ustice5s Crime
Japping 6esearch Center 3now 'nown as the J=PS program4A
research director for the *e%as Punishment Standards
CommissionA and a consultant to the Police D%ecutive 6esearch
Borum, the 8ational Council on Crime and &elinCuency, and the
8ational &evelopment and 6esearch $nstitute. La Kigne holds a
doctorate in criminal +ustice from 6utgers (niversity and a
master5s degree in public affairs from the (niversity of *e%as at
=ustin.
3ecommended 3eadings
!A Police Guide to Surveying Citizens and Their
Environments, 7ureau of )ustice =ssistance, 299:. *his
guide offers a practical introduction for police practitioners
to two types of surveys that police find useful surveying
public opinion and surveying the physical environment. $t
provides guidance on whether and how to conduct cost-
effective surveys.
!Assessing Responses to Problems: An
ntroductory Guide !or Police Problem"Solvers,
by )ohn D. Dc' 3(.S. &epartment of )ustice Office of
Community Oriented Policing Services, -..24. *his guide is
a companion to the Problem-Oriented Guides for Police series. $t
provides basic guidance to measuring and assessing
problem-oriented policing efforts.
!Conducting Community Surveys, by &eborah "eisel
37ureau of )ustice Statistics and Office of Community
Oriented Policing Services, 29994. *his guide, along with
accompanying computer software, provides practical, basic
pointers for police in conducting community surveys. *he
document is also available at www.o+p.usdo+.govOb+s.
!Crime Prevention Studies, edited by 6onald K. Clar'e
3Criminal )ustice Press, 299:, et seC.4. *his is a series of
volumes of applied and theoretical research on reducing
opportunities for crime. Jany chapters are evaluations of
initiatives to reduce specific crime and disorder problems.
0ecommended 0eadings +9
+; Traffic Congestion Around Schools
E#cellence in Problem"$riented Policing: The
%&&& 'erman Goldstein A(ard )inners. *his
document produced by the 8ational $nstitute of )ustice in
collaboration with the Office of Community Oriented
Policing Services and the Police D%ecutive 6esearch Borum
provides detailed reports of the best submissions to the
annual award program that recogni>es e%emplary problem-
oriented responses to various community problems. =
similar publication is available for the award winners from
subseCuent years. *he documents are also available at www.
o+p.usdo+.govOni+.
*ot Roc+et Science, Problem"Solving and Crime
Reduction, by *im 6ead and 8ic' *illey 3Lome Office
Crime 6eduction 6esearch Series, -...4. $dentifies and
describes the factors that ma'e problem-solving effective or
ineffective as it is being practiced in police forces in
Dngland and "ales.
$pportunity -a+es the Thie!: Practical Theory
!or Crime Prevention, by Jarcus Belson and 6onald K.
Clar'e 3Lome Office Police 6esearch Series, Paper 8o. 9;,
299;4. D%plains how crime theories such as routine activity
theory, rational choice theory and crime pattern theory
have practical implications for the police in their efforts to
prevent crime.
Problem Analysis in Policing, by 6achel 7oba 3Police
Boundation, -..:4. $ntroduces and defines problem
analysis and provides guidance on how problem analysis
can be integrated and institutionali>ed into modern
policing practices.
Problem"$riented Policing, by Lerman #oldstein
3Jc#raw-Lill, 299., and *emple (niversity Press, 299.4.
D%plains the principles and methods of problem-oriented
policing, provides e%amples of it in practice, and discusses
how a police agency can implement the concept.
Problem"$riented Policing and Crime Prevention,
by =nthony =. 7raga 3Criminal )ustice Press, -..:4.
Provides a thorough review of significant policing research
about problem places, high-activity offenders, and repeat
victims, with a focus on the applicability of those findings
to problem-oriented policing. D%plains how police
departments can facilitate problem-oriented policing by
improving crime analysis, measuring performance, and
securing productive partnerships.
Problem"$riented Policing: Re!lections on the
.irst /0 1ears, by Jichael S. Scott 3(.S. &epartment of
)ustice Office of Community Oriented Policing Services,
-...4. &escribes how the most critical elements of Lerman
#oldsteinVs problem-oriented policing model have
developed in practice over its -.-year history, and proposes
future directions for problem-oriented policing. *he report
is also available at www.cops.usdo+.gov.
Problem"Solving: Problem"$riented Policing in
*e(port *e(s2 by )ohn D. Dc' and "illiam Spelman
3Police D%ecutive 6esearch Borum, 29;<4. D%plains the
rationale behind problem-oriented policing and the
problem-solving process, and provides e%amples of
effective problem-solving in one agency.
0ecommended 0eadings +3
!" Traffic Congestion Around Schools
Problem"Solving Tips: A Guide to Reducing Crime
and 3isorder Through Problem"Solving Partnerships
by 0arin Schmerler, Jatt Per'ins, Scott Phillips, *ammy
6inehart and Jeg *ownsend. 3(.S. &epartment of )ustice Office
of Community Oriented Policing Services, 299;4 3also available
at www.cops.usdo+ . gov 4. Provides a brief introduction to
problem-solving, basic information on the S=6= model and
detailed suggestions about the problem-solving process.
Situational Crime Prevention: Success!ul Case
Studies, Second Ddition, edited by 6onald K. Clar'e 3Larrow
and Leston, 299<4. D%plains the principles and methods of
situational crime prevention, and presents over -. case studies
of effective crime prevention initiatives.
Tac+ling Crime and $ther Public"Sa!ety Problems:
Case Studies in Problem"Solving, by 6ana Sampson and
Jichael S. Scott 3(.S. &epartment of )ustice Office of
Community Oriented Policing Services, -...4 3also available at
www.cops.usdo+.gov4. Presents case studies of effective police
problem-solving on 2; types of crime and disorder problems.
4sing Analysis !or Problem"Solving: A Guideboo+ !or
5a( En!orcement, by *imothy S. 7ynum 3(.S. &epartment
of )ustice Office of Community Oriented Policing Services,
-..24. Provides an introduction for police to analy>ing problems
within the conte%t of problem-oriented policing.
4sing Research: A Primer !or 5a( En!orcement
-anagers, Second Ddition, by )ohn D. Dc' and 8ancy #.
LaKigne 3Police D%ecutive 6esearch Borum, 299M4. D%plains
many of the basics of research as it applies to police
management and problem-solving.
Ot'er Problem-Oriented G&ides for Police
Problem-Specific 6uides series7
2RAssaults in and Around 5ars, #nd "dition. Jichael S. Scott and 0elly
&edel. -..2. $S78 2-9:-/;--..--
-RStreet Prostitution, #nd "dition. Jichael S. Scott and
0elly &edel. -..2. $S78 2-9:-/;--.2-.
:RSpeeding in &esidential Areas. Jichael S. Scott. -..2. $S78
2-9:-/;--.--9
MRDrug Dealing in Priately 8wned Apartment Comple1es. 6ana
Sampson. -..2. $S78 2-9:-/;--.:-<
/R9alse 5urglar Alarms, #nd "dition. 6ana Sampson. -..2. $S78
2-9:-/;--.M-/
NRDisorderly :outh in Public Places. Jichael S. Scott. -..2. $S78
2-9:-/;--./-:
<R;oud Car Stereos. Jichael S. Scott. -..2. $S78 2-9:-/;--.N-2
;R&obbery at Automated <eller )achines. Jichael S. Scott. -..2.
$S78 2-9:-/;--.<-1
9R6raffiti. &eborah Lamm "eisel. -..-. $S78 2-9:-/;--.;-;
2.R <hefts of and 9rom Cars in Parking 9acilities. 6onald K.
Clar'e. -..-. $S78 2-9:-/;--.9-N
22R Shoplifting. 6onald K. Clar'e. -..-. $S78 2-9:-/;--2.-1
2-R 5ullying in Schools. 6ana Sampson. -..-. $S78 2-9:-/;--22-;
2:R Panhandling. Jichael S. Scott. -..-. $S78 2-9:-/;--2--N
2MR &ae Parties. Jichael S. Scott. -..-. $S78 2-9:-/;--2:-M
2/R 5urglary of &etail "stablishments. 6onald K. Clar'e.
-..-. $S78 2-9:-/;--2M--
2NR Clandestine )ethamphetamine ;abs, #nd "dition. Jichael
S. Scott. -..-. $S78 2-9:-/;--2/-.
2<R Ac=uaintance &ape of College Students. 6ana Sampson.
-..-. $S78 2-9:-/;--2N-9
2;R 5urglary of Single-9amily 3ouses. &eborah Lamm
"eisel. -..-. $S78 2-9:-/;--2<-<
29R )isuse and Abuse of >!!. 6ana Sampson.
-..-. $S78 2-9:-/;--2;-/
Other Problem-Oriented Guides for Police !&
!5 Traffic Congestion Around Schools
#?. 9inancial Crimes Against the "lderly.
0elly &edel )ohnson. -..:. $S78 2-9:-/;-----:
-2R Check and Card 9raud. #raeme 6. 8ewman. -..:.
$S78 2-9:-/;---<-M
--R Stalking. *he 8ational Center for Kictims of Crime. -..M.
$S78 2-9:-/;--:.-M
-:R 6un @iolence Among Serious :oung 8ffenders. =nthony =.
7raga. -..M. $S78 2-9:-/;--:2--
-MR Prescription 9raud. )ulie "artell and 8ancy #. La Kigne. -..M.
$S78 2-9:-/;--::-9
-2R +dentity <heft. #raeme 6. 8ewman. -..M. $S78 2-9:-/;--:/-:
-/R Crimes Against <ourists. 6onald ". #lensor and 0enneth ).
Pea'. -..M. $S78 2-9:-/;--:N-:
-NR Underage Drinking. 0elly &edel. -..M.
$S78 2-9:-/;--:9-;
-<R Street &acing. 0enneth ). Pea' and 6onald ". #lensor. -..M.
$S78 2-9:-/;--M--;
-;R Cruising. 0enneth ). Pea' and 6onald ". #lensor. -..M.
$S78 2-9:-/;--M:-N
-9R Disorder at 5udget )otels. 0arin Schmerler. -../.
$S78 2-9:-/;--M2-1
:.R Drug Dealing in 8pen-Air )arkets. =le% Larocopos and Ji'e
Lough. -../. $S78 2-9:-/;--M/--
:2R 5omb <hreats in Schools. #raeme 6. 8ewman. -../.
$S78 2-9:-/;--MN-.
--R +llicit Se1ual Actiity in Public Places. 0elly &edel )ohnson.
-../. $S78 2-9:-/;--M<-9
:MR &obbery of <a1i Driers. Jartha ). Smith. -../.
$S78 2-9:-/;--/.-9
:/R School @andalism and 5reak-+ns. 0elly &edel )ohnson. -../.
$S78 2-9:-/;.--/2-<
:NR Drunk Driing. Jichael S. Scott, 8ina ). Dmerson, Louis 7.
=ntonacci, and )oel 7. Plant. -../. $S78 2-9:-/;--/<-N
:MR Juenile &unaways. 0elly &edel. -..N. $S78 29:-/;--/N-;
:/R <he "1ploitation of <rafficked 4omen. #raeme 6. 8ewman.
-..N. $S78 2-9:-/;--/9--
Other Problem-Oriented Guides for Police !)
:9R Student Party &iots. *amara &. Jadensen and )ohn
D. Dc'. -..N. $S78 2-9:-/;--N.-N
M.R People with )ental +llness. #ary Cordner.
-..N. $S78 2-9:-/;--N:-.
:9R Child Pornography on the +nternet. 6ichard "ortley
and Stephen Smallbone. -..N. $S78 2-9:-/;--N/-<
M-R 4itness +ntimidation. 0elly &edel.
-..N. $S78 2-9:-/;--N<-:
M:R 5urglary at Single-9amily 3ouse
Construction Sites. 6achel 7oba and 6oberto Santos.
-..N. $S78 2-9:-/;--..--
MMR Disorder at Day ;aborer Sites. 6ob #uerette.
-..<. $S78 2-9:-/;--<--1
M/R Domestic @iolence. 6ana Sampson.
-..<. $S78 2-9:-/;--<M-N
MNR <hefts of and from Cars on &esidential Streets and
Drieways. *odd 0eister. -..<. $S78 2-9:-/;--<N--
M<R Drie-5y Shootings. 0elly &edel.
-..<. $S78 2-9:-/;--<<-.
M;R 5ank &obbery. &eborah Lamm "eisel.
-..<. $S78 2-9:-/;--<;-9
M9R &obbery of Conenience Stores. =licia =lti>io
and &iana @or'. -..<. $S78 2-9:-/;--<9-<
*?. <raffic Congestion Around Schools.
8ancy #. La Kigne. -..<. $S78 2-9:-/;--;--<
&esponse 6uides series7
2R<he 5enefits and Conse=uences of Police Crackdowns.
Jichael S. Scott. -..:. $S78 2-9:-/;---M-1
-RClosing Streets and Alleys to &educe Crime7 Should :ou 6o
Down <his &oadA 6onald K. Clar'e. -..M. $S78 2-9:-/;--
M2-1
:RShifting and Sharing &esponsibility for Public Safety
Problems. Jichael S. Scott and Lerman #oldstein. -../.
$S78 2-9:-/;--//-1
!+ Traffic Congestion Around Schools
MR@ideo Sureillance of Public Places. )erry 6atcliffe. -..N $S78 2-9:-/;--/;-M
/RCrime Preention Publicity Campaigns.
Dmmanuel 7arthe. -..N $S78 2-9:-/;--NN-/
Problem-Soling <ools series7
2RAssessing &esponses to Problems7 An +ntroductory 6uide for Police Problem-Solers. )ohn D.
Dc'. -..-. $S78 2-9:-/;--29-:
-R&esearching a Problem. 6onald K. Clar'e and Phyllis =. Schult>. -../. $S78 2-9:-/;--M;-<
:RUsing 8ffender +nteriews to +nform Police Problem Soling. Scott L. &ec'er. -../. $S78 2-
9:-/;--M9-/
MRAnaly0ing &epeat @ictimi0ation. &eborah Lamm "eisel. -../. $S78 2-9:-/;--/M-2
/RPartnering with 5usinesses to Address Public Safety Problems. Sharon Chamard. -..N. $S78 2-
9:-/;--N---
-. Understanding &isky 9acilities. 6onald K. Clar'e and
D. Dc'. -..<. $S78 2-9:-/;--</-M
<R +mplementing &esponses to Problems. 6ic' 7rown and Jichael S. Scott. -..<. $S78 2-
9:-/;--;.-.
;RUsing Crime Preention <hrough "niornmental Design in Problem Soling. &iane Gahm.
-..<. $S78 2-9:-/;--;2-9
)ohn
Other Problem-Oriented Guides for Police !!
Upcoming Problem-8riented 6uides for Police
Problem-Specific #uides
=bandoned Kehicles
7icycle *heft
Crowd Control at Stadiums and Other Dntertainment Kenues
Child =buse
Crime and &isorder in Par's
*ransient Dncampments
Problem-Solving *ools
&esigning a Problem =nalysis System
&isplacement
6esponse #uides
Dnhancing Lighting
Sting Operations
Bor more information about the Problem-Oriented Guides for
Police series and other COPS Office publications, please call
the COPS Office 6esponse Center at ;...M-2.N<<. or visit
COPS Online at www.cops.usdo+.gov.
Bor Jore $nBorJat$on
(.S. &epartment of )ustice
Office of Community Oriented Policing Services
22.. Kermont =venue, 8.".
"ashington, &C -./:.
*o obtain details on COPS programs, call the
COPS Office 6esponse Center at ;...M-2.N<<.
Kisit COPS Online at the address listed below.
e.;.<-M2.. =ugust -..<
$S78 2-9:-/;--;--<