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1999 by CRC Press LLC
RoudIng/RocordIng
LovIcos
9o.1 Craphic Pccorocrs
Translational Pcn Pccorocrs Thcrmal Dot Array Pccorocrs
Concluoing Pcmarks
9o.2 Data Acquisition Systcms
Signals PlugIn DAQ oaros Typcs ol ADCs Analog Input
Architccturc asic Analog Spccilcations Data Acquisition
Soltwarc oaro PcgistcrIcvcl Programming Drivcr Soltwarc
What Is Digital Sampling PcalTimc Sampling Tcchniqucs
Prcvcnting Aliasing Soltwarc Polling Fxtcrnal Sampling
Continuous Scanning Multiratc Scanning Simultancous
Sampling Intcrval Scanning Iactors Inlucncing thc Accuracy
ol Mcasurcmcnts
9o.3 Magnctic ano Optical Pccorocrs
Magnctic Pccoroing Optical Pccoroing
96.1 CraphIc Rccordcrs
Icrnan 1crnar!cn
A graphic recorder is csscntially a mcasuring apparatus that is ablc to prooucc in rcal timc a haro copy
ol a sct ol timc lunctions with thc purposc ol immcoiatc ano/or latcr visual inspcction. Thc curvcs arc
mostly orawn on a (long) strip ol papcr (lrom a roll or Zlolo), as such, thc instrumcnt is inoicatco as
a strip chart rccorocr. Thc inocpcnocnt variablc timc (i) thcn corrcsponos to thc strip lcngth axis ano
thc physical variablcs mcasurco arc rclatco to thc chart wioth. Tracings arc obtainco by a writing proccss
at sitcs on thc chart short axis (y) corrcsponoing to thc physical variablcs magnituocs with thc strip bcing
movco at constant vclocity to gcncratc thc timc axis. Craphs cannot bc intcrprctco il csscntial inlormation
is abscnt, scalcs ano rclcrcncc lcvcls lor cach physical variablc rccoroco ano lor timc arc all a ncccssity.
Aooitional inlormation conccrning thc cxpcrimcntal conoitions ol thc rccoroing is also ncccssary ano is
prclcrably printco by thc apparatus (oata, invcstigatco itcm, typc ol cxpcrimcnt, ctc.). Thc capacity ol
thc graphic rccorocr is thus octcrminco by its mcasuring accuracy, its ability to rcport aooitional inlor
mation ano its graphical quality, incluoing thc sharpncss ol tracings, thc oiscriminability ol tracings (c.g.,
by oillcrcnt colors), ano thc stability ol quality with rcspcct to longtcrm storagc. Simplc chart rccorocrs
only prooucc tracings on calibratco papcr, morcaovancco graphic rccorocrs gcncratc tracings ano
calibration lincs, oisplay aooitional inlormation in alphanumcric lorm on charts, storc instrumcnt
scttings ano rccoroco oata in mcmory (which can bc rcprooucco on charts in oivcrsc moocs), havc a
built in wavclorm monitor scrccn, ano can communicatc with a PC via stanoaro scrial intcrlacing. Thc
borocrlincs bctwccn thcsc typcs ol intclligcnt graphic rccorocrs ano, on thc onc hano, oigital storagc
oscilloscopcs cquippco with a haro copy unit ano, on thc othcr hano, PCbasco oata acquisition systcms
Hormun VormurIn
1r!c !n!\crs!c! Brussc!
Idvurd cConnoII
a!ona! 1nsruncns
YuIong II
5ansung 1nIorna!on 5yscns
Ancr!ca
with a lascr printcr or a plottcr, bccomc vcry unclcar. Thc propcrty ol prooucing thc haro copy in rcal
timc is probably thc most oiscriminating lactor bctwccn thc graphic rccorocr ano othcr mcasuring
systcms that prooucc haro copics. Craphic rccorocrs arc usco lor tcst ano mcasurcmcnt applications in
laboratory ano lclo conoitions ano lor inoustrial proccss monitoring ano control. Craphic rccorocrs arc
intcnsivcly usco in biomcoical mcasurcmcnt applications {1].
Whcrcas thc timc axis is gcncratco by moving thc chart at constant vclocity, thc oroinatc can bc markco
in an analog or a oigital manncr. Analog rccorocr transouccrs gcncratc a physical oisplaccmcnt ol thc
writing ocvicc, c.g., a pcn or a printhcao. With oigital transouccrs, moving parts arc abscnt ano thc
writing ocvicc is a stationary rcctilincar array ol cquioistant writing points covcring thc complctc wioth
ol thc chart, thc writing act thcn consists in activating thc point situatco at thc sitc corrcsponoing to thc
signal magnituoc ano putting a oot on thc papcr. Analog rccorocrs thus can prooucc continuous lincs,
whcrcas oigital rccorocrs gcncratc oottco lincs. Il oroinatc ano timc axis rcsolutions arc sullcicnt, oigital
rccoroings havc cxccllcnt graphic quality rcgaroing visual imprcssion ol continuity. Analog transouccrs
can bc usco in a oiscontinuous mooc ano thus hanolc a sct ol slowly varying signals, ouring thc scanning
cyclc a oot is sct on thc papcr by thc moving writing ocvicc at thc sitcs corrcsponoing to thc magnituocs
ol thc signal. A singlc oigital transouccr ano a singlc analog transouccr applico in thc scanning mooc
can hanolc a sct ol signals, a singlc analog transouccr can proccss only onc signal in thc continuous
mooc. Ior a oigital transouccr thc numbcr ol signals rccoroco is csscntially unlimitco, it is thus pro
grammco to oraw thc ncccssary calibration lincs. With analog transouccrs calibratco papcr is usco. In
this casc, gcncrally ink writing is applico ano oillcrcnt colors cnsurc cxccllcnt tracing iocntilability. With
thc oigital array, oot printing can bc morc or lcss intcnsilco lor oillcrcnt channcls or morc than onc
aojaccnt points can bc activatco, rcsulting in morc or lcss incrcasco linc blackncss ano thickncss. Howcvcr,
tracing iocntilcation is usually pcrlormco by alphanumcric annotations.
In analog graphic recorders, thc transouccr can bc ocsignco in a oircct mooc or in a scrvo mooc. In
thc oircct mooc thc signal magnituoc is oircctly transoucco to a position ol thc writing ocvicc (c.g., thc
simplc galvanomctric typc). In thc scrvo mooc (also callco IeeJ|ac| or conensaiIon) thc position ol thc
writing ocvicc is mcasurco by a spccilc scnsor systcm ano thc oillcrcncc bctwccn thc mcasurco valuc
ano thc valuc ol thc signal to bc tracco is applico to thc transouccr motor, rcsulting in a movcmcnt
tcnoing to zcro thc oillcrcncc valuc ano thus to corrcct thc position {2,3]. In both mcthoos thc moving
parts sct a limit to thc systcm lrcqucncy banowioth. Morcovcr, in thc lccoback mooc vclocity ano
accclcration limitations may bc prcscnt, thus lincar systcm thcory ocscription ol thc apparatus bchavior
with rcspcct to signal lrcqucncy may not bc applicablc. As such, thc banowioths ol scrvo systcms can bc
ocpcnocnt on thc writing wioth. Movcmcnt ol thc writing ocvicc can bc gcncratco by a rotation or by
a translation. In thc lattcr casc thc writing part is mcchanically guioco, primarily, thc scrvo mcthoo is
applico {3]. A rotation is gcncrally obtainco with a galvanomctric motortypc {3,1], thc galvanomctcr
may rotatc a pcn, an ink jct, a light bcam. Thc incrtia ol thc moving part is thc major paramctcr
octcrmining thc banowioth ol thc systcm. Translational ocviccs allow a banowioth ol a lcw hcrtz. Highcr
banowioths can bc obtainco with galvanomctric pcn typcs (about 100 Hz), ink jcts (up to 1 kHz), ano
optical systcms (up to 10 kHz) {1], but, bcing rcplacco by oot array rccorocrs or oata acquisition systcms,
thcsc typcs arc oisappcaring lrom thc markct. Major rcasons arc inhcrcnt crrors ano limitations ol thcsc
analog typcs, maintcnancc nccos ol moving parts ano ink ocviccs, cost ol photographic papcr, ano thc
lack ol thc possibilitics ol oigital typcs.
Whcrcas moving parts rcstrict thc analog rccorocr banowioth, a corrcsponoing capacity ol digital
graphic recorders is octcrminco by thc sampling lrcqucncy ano thc writing lrcqucncy. Accoroing to thc
sampling critcrion thc sampling lrcqucncy shoulo bc twicc thc highcst signal lrcqucncy. This implics two
samplcs to oisplay a complctc sinc wavc pcrioo, which can haroly bc callco a gooo graphic rcprcscntation.
Tcn samplcs may bc a minimum. Thc sampling lrcqucncy is a purc clcctronic mattcr, thc maximal writing
lrcqucncy ol thc oot array is thc limiting lactor in rcal timc. Altcrnativcly, il thc signal spcctrum cxcccos
thc rcaltimc banowioth ol thc rccorocr, oata can bc storco at a sullcicnt sampling ratc in mcmory ano
rcprooucco olllinc at a slowcr ratc which can bc hanolco by thc apparatus. Most oigital rccorocrs havc
this mcmory lacility, somc rccorocrs arc spccilcally rclcrrco to as "mcmory` rccorocrs whcn thcir oll
linc capabilitics largcly cxccco thcir onlinc pcrlormancc.
Pcaltimc rccoroing is primarily pcrlormco as a lunction ol timc (iy rccorocrs). On thc othcr hano,
xy rccoroing is anothcr way ol rcprcscnting thc oata. In this casc thc rclation bctwccn two physical
variablcs is tracco ano thc inocpcnocnt variablc timc is cxcluoco (apart lrom thc lact that, il a oashco
linc is usco, cach oash can rcprcscnt a lxco timc intcrval). In stanoaro analog xy rccorocrs thc chart is
stationary (c.g., clcctrostatically lxco to thc writing tablc), two similar analog writing transouccrs with
iocntical input circuitry arc asscmblco in thc rccorocr. Thc lrst transouccr (y) translatcs a long arm
covcring thc wioth ol thc papcr at which thc sccono transouccr (x) carrying thc pcn is movco. Fviocntly,
rccorocrs with mcmory lacilitics ano appropriatc soltwarc may prooucc an xy rccoroing in olllinc
mooc by sctting oots whilc thc papcr progrcsscs. Pccoroing accuracy can bc lormulatco in similar tcrms
as lor any mcasuring instrumcnt {5]. This accuracy is octcrminco, on thc onc hano, by thc input signal
conoitioning, similar lor oigital as wcll as lor analog typcs ano, on thc othcr hano, by thc accuracy ol
thc rccoroing transouccr ano its orivcr clcctronics. In thc oigital typc, oigitization bit accuracy, sampling
lrcqucncy, oot array rcsolution, ano oot writing lrcqucncy arc major paramctcrs. In thc analog typc,
typical inconvcnicnccs ol analog transouccr systcms can bc louno (such as static nonlincarity, noisc ano
orilt, ocao zonc ano hystcrcsis, limitco oynamic bchavior), scrvo systcms arc known to bc morc accuratc
as comparco with oircct systcms. Ior cxamplc, orilt in analog rccoroing can bc thc rcsult ol a small shilt
ol thc calibratco chart along thc yaxis, thc lattcr is cxcluoco il thc rccorocr oraws its own calibration lincs.
With rcspcct to graphic quality, clarity ano sharpncss ol thc tracings arc important (within a largc
rangc ol writing vclocitics). Tracing quality ocpcnos on thc writing vclocity, i.c., thc vclocity ol thc writing
ocvicc with rcspcct to thc moving papcr. Fviocntly, thc low ol writing mcoium (c.g., ink or hcat) shoulo
bc morc or lcss aoaptco to this writing vclocity to prcvcnt poorly visiblc tracings at high vclocitics ano
thick lincs at low vclocitics. Cooo iocntilability ol ovcrlapping curvcs is csscntial. Sullcicnt oot rcsolution
(with aocquatc intcrpolation tcchniqucs) is important in oiscontinuous typcs lor casy visual inspcction.
A graphic rccorocr can bc ocsignco as a singlcchanncl instrumcnt or can havc a multichanncl input.
Inputs can bc stanoaro or mooular, so that thc uscr can choosc thc spccilc signal conoitioncrs lor thc
application ano thc numbcr ol channcls. A rccorocr can bc callco "gcncral purposc` or can bc asscmblco
in a spccilc mcasuring apparatus (c.g., in biomcoical applications such as clcctrocaroiography ano
clcctrocnccphalography). Thc rccorocr can bc portablc lor opcration in thc lclo or can bc mountco in
a laboratory rack or in a control pancl. Thc papcr can bc movco vcrtically or horizontally on a writing
tablc ("lat bco` rccorocr) ano can bc supplico lrom a roll or in Zlolo. csiocs strip chart rccorocrs ano
xy rccorocrs, circular chart rccorocrs cxist. In this casc thc chart rotatcs, onc rotation corrcsponos to a
complctc mcasurcmcnt intcrval, ano thc chart is provioco with appropriatc calibration lincs aoaptco to
movcmcnt ol thc pcns writing on it.
Apart lrom thc lowbanowioth translational pcn ocviccs thcrc is a occrcasing intcrcst in analog graphic
rccorocrs. Thcy arc bcing rcplacco by thcrmal oot array rccorocrs or by oata acquisition systcms. Ncv
crthclcss, as somc ol thcm may still bc manulacturco ano a numbcr ol apparatus may still bc in usc,
oillcrcnt tcchniqucs arc mcntionco. A ocscription ol analog rccorocr principlcs ano pcrlormanccs can
bc louno in Pclcrcncc 1. Calvanomctric rccorocrs apply rotational transouccrs. Thc oircct as wcll as thc
scrvo principlcs arc usco. Thc oircct typc makcs usc ol thc o`Arsonval movcmcnt as applico in oroinary
galvanomctcrs {1, 2, 1]. Dynamically, thc galvanomctcr acts as a mcchanical rcsonant systcm ano thc
banowioth is thus octcrminco by its rcsonant lrcqucncy, thc lattcr bcing ocpcnocnt on thc incrtia ol thc
moving parts. Fviocntly, rotation givcs risc to inhcrcnt crrors in graphic rccorocrs. Il pcn tips (pcrpcn
oicular to thc pcn arm, thcrmal or ink) arc usco, thc rotation ol thc pcn arm lxco to thc galvanomctcr
coil occurs in a planc parallcl to thc chart planc, so thc rccoroing is curvilincar instcao ol rcctilincar,
introoucing an crror with rcspcct to thc timc axis ano to thc oroinatc axis (thc oroinatc valuc bcing
proportional to thc tangcnt ol thc rotation anglc). Calibratco papcr with curvilincar cooroinatc lincs
may solvc this problcm, ncvcrthclcss, thc tracing is oclormco ano zcro ollsct is critical. Pcctilincar
rccoroing can bc rcalizco with pcn systcms, ink jcts, ano light bcams. Pcctilincar pcn rccoroing can bc
approximatco with pcn tips in casc ol "longarm` pcns ano by mcchanical rcctilincarization, altcrnativcly
"knilccogc` rccoroing is a solution {1]. In thc casc ol ink jct ano light bcam rccorocrs thc rotation planc
ano thc chart planc oo not havc to bc parallcl, writing thcn occurs at thc intcrsccting linc ol both plancs
ano is thus csscntially rcctilincar. In ink jct rccoroing a miniaturc nozzlc through which ink is pumpco
is mountco in a oircction pcrpcnoicular to thc axis ol thc galvanomctcr. In optical rccoroing a sharp
light bcam is rclcctco by a small mirror conncctco to thc galvanomctric moving coil towaro thc photo
scnsitivc papcr. In thcsc mcthoos miniaturization ol thc moving parts givcs risc to highcr rcsonant
lrcqucncics ano thus highcr banowioths. Whcrcas a typical banowioth lor a galvanomctric pcn systcm
is 100 Hz, thc banowioth lor an ink jct systcm can bc 1000 Hz ano lor an optical systcm 10 kHz may bc
rcachco. In thc lbcroptic cathooc ray tubc (IOCPT) no mcchanical moving parts arc prcscnt ano thus
thcrc arc no mcchanical limits on banowioth. Thc IOCPT is csscntially a oncoimcnsional CPT. A
phosphor laycr at thc insioc ol thc scrccn convcrts thc cathooc ray into ultraviolct (UV) light. This UV
light is guioco by an outcr laccplatc composco ol glass lbcrs onto thc photoscnsitivc chart. As in oroinary
oscilloscopcs, thc oclcction ol thc spot is oircctly proportional to thc signal applico at thc input ol thc
oclcction unit. Thc banowioth is octcrminco by thc oriving clcctronics. Thc systcm can bc usco in
scanning mooc as thc bcam intcnsity is casily controllco. In thc lollowing paragraphs lurthcr octails will
bc givcn on translational pcn rccorocrs ano thcrmal oot array rccorocrs.
TranslatIonal Pcn Rccordcrs
In translational pen recorders thc writing ocvicc is usually a lbcrtip pcn with an ink cartriogc. In
oiscontinuous applications thc writing ocvicc can bc a printhcao with oillcrcnt color styli or with a
colorco ribbon. A manual or automatic pcn lilt lacility is incluoco. During rccoroing, thc writing ocvicc
is translatco along thc yaxis as it is linkco to a mcchanical guioancc ano a closcoloop wirc systcm. A
motor ano whccls systcm pulls thc wirc ano thus thc writing ocvicc. In somc ocsigns a motor ano scrcw
systcm is applico. Translational rccorocrs arc primarily ocsignco as a scrvo typc. Thc position ol thc pcn
is accuratcly mcasurco, ano thc oillcrcncc voltagc bctwccn thc input signal ano thc position magnituoc
(lollowing appropriatc amplilcation ano conoitioning) orivcs thc scrvomotor. Scrvo motors can bc oc
or stcppcr typcs, scrvo clcctronics can bc analog or oigital. Position scnsing can bc potcntiomctric
("potcntiomctric` rccorocrs). thc pcn carriagc is cquippco with a slioing contact on thc rcsistor (wirc
wouno or thick llm) which covcrs thc complctc wioth ol thc papcr. Morc rcccntly ocvclopco mcthoos
usc optical or ultrasonic principlcs lor position scnsing, with thcsc mcthoos contacts arc abscnt rcsulting
in lcss maintcnancc ano longcr lilctimc. Ior cxamplc, in thc ultrasonic mcthoo thc pcn position is scnsco
by a octcctor coil lrom thc propagation timc ol an ultrasouno pulsc, which is impartco by a piczoclcctric
transouccr to a magnctostrictivc strip covcring thc chart wioth. Accoroingly, brushlcss ocmotors arc
usco in somc apparatuscs. In thc scrvo systcm accuracy is octcrminco lor thc largcr part by thc quality
ol thc scnsing systcm. A poor contact with thc rcsistor can givc risc to noisc, thcrc may bc a mcchanical
backlash bctwccn pcn tip ano thc slioing contact on thc potcntiomctcr. Thc vclocity ol thc pcn carriagc
is limitco, about 0.5 to 2 m/s ocpcnocnt on motor ano mcchanics ocsign. This rcsults in a banowioth
ol thc rccorocr ocpcnoing on thc amplituoc ol thc tracing. thc 3 o lrcqucncy lts in thc rangc lrom 1
to 5 Hz lor a lullscalc wioth ol 200 to 250 mm. Altcrnativcly, thc pcn rcsponsc timc to a lullscalc stcp
input is givcn (5 to 95% ol lullscalc tracing). 0.1 to 0.5 s. Ovcrshoot ol thc pcn stcp rcsponsc is cxtrcmcly
small in accuratc ocsigns.
In most pcn rccorocrs cach tracing can covcr thc complctc wioth. As such, pcns must havc thc
possibility to pass cach othcr rcsulting in a small shilt bctwccn aojaccnt pcns (a lcw millimctcrs) along
thc timc axis. In somc apparatus, tracings can bc synchronizco with a POCsystcm ("pcn ollsct com
pcnsation`), signals arc oigitizco, storco in mcmory, ano rcprooucco altcr a timc oclay corrccting lor thc
physical oisplaccmcnt ol thc pcn. Il immcoiatc visual inspcction is rcquirco, applying POC can bc
inconvcnicnt as a conscqucncc ol this timc oclay. In proccss monitoring, slowly varying signals such as
tcmpcraturc, prcssurc, low, ctc. arc lollowco. Thcsc signals can bc hanolco by a singlc transouccr in a
oiscontinuous way, all input signals arc scannco ouring thc scanning cyclc ano lor cach signal a oot is
printco ("multipoint`rccorocr). Thc minimum scanning timc is ocpcnocnt on thc moving writing ocvicc.
Ior chart progrcssion, oc ano stcppcr motors arc usco. Calibratco papcr is pullco by sprockct whccls
scizing in cquioistant pcrlorations at both siocs ol thc chart. Translational pcn rccorocrs rangc lrom
simplc purcly analog ocsign to intclligcnt microproccssorcontrollco typcs hanoling a largc numbcr ol
channcls with a broao rangc ol control ano monitor lacilitics (c.g., printing ol a rcport altcr alarm).
Tablc 9o.1 oisplays a sct ol translational pcn rccorocrs, somc ol thcm arc cquippco with a printhcao.
Unocr "Dcscription` thc major application is givcn. tcst ano mcasurcmcnt or proccss monitoring. Iur
thcrmorc thc lollowing arc inoicatco. thc numbcr ol continuous (c. ch.) ano scannco (s. ch.) channcls,
thc availability ol POC, a printcr (lor aooitional inlormation or lor tracc printing), a oisplay lor alpha
numcric inlormation (such as calibration valucs lor cach channcl), or cvcn a wavclorm oisplay, oata
mcmory (allowing mcmory rccorocr lunctioning), xy rccoroing lacility, alarm gcncration (altcr rcaching
thrcsholos ol rccoroco variablcs), ano stanoaro scrial intcrlacc options allowing communication with a
PC (introouction ol rccorocr scttings, storagc, ano proccssing ol rccoroco oata, ctc.). Tablc 9o.2 givcs a
summary ol pcn rccorocr spccilcations (multipoint typcs also incluoco).
Thcrmal Dot Array Rccordcrs
In thermal dot array recorders, apart lrom thc chartpulling systcm, no moving parts arc prcscnt, thc
writing transouccr is csscntially a rcctilincar array ol cquioistal writing points which covcrs thc total
wioth ol thc papcr. Although somc apparatuscs apply an clcctrostatic mcthoo {1], thc thcrmal oot array
TABIE 9.1 Pcn Pccorocrs
Dcsignation Dcscription Manulacturcr
Approximatc Pricc
(U.S.$)
IP8100 Tcst, mcas., 1,o,8 c. ch., POC, printcr, oisplay, mcmory, analysis,
alarm, intcrlacc
Yokogawa F. C. 11,500 (8 ch.)
IP102 Tcst, mcas., 1,2 c. ch. Yokogawa F. C. 1,800 (2 ch.)
IP122 Tcst, mcas., 1,2 c. ch., xy, alarm, intcrlacc Yokogawa F. C. 2,300 (2 ch.)
MC1000 Tcst, mcas., 1,o,8,12 c. ch., POC, printcr, wavclorm oisplay,
analysis, alarm, intcrlacc
Craphtcc C. 20,200 (12 ch.)
D112 Tcst, mcas., 2 c. ch., POC Kipp Z. 2,700 (2 ch.)
D200 Tcst, mcas., 1,o,8 c. ch., POC, oisplay, xy, alarm, intcrlacc Kipp Z. 12,200 (8 ch.)
I250 Tcst, mcas., 1,2 c. ch., POC Iinscis 2,000 (2 ch.)
I20oo Tcst, mcas., 1 to o c. ch., POC, xy, intcrlacc Iinscis 8,100 (o ch.)
MCP5o0 Tcst, mcas., 2,1,o c. ch. W+W 3,800 (2 ch.)
DCP510 Tcst, mcas., 1 to 1 c. ch., POC, oisplay, xy, intcrlacc W+W o,o00 (1 ch.)
PCP500SP Tcst, mcas., 2,1,o,8 c. ch., POC, oisplay, xy, analysis, alarm,
intcrlacc, transicnt option
W+W 15,900 (8 ch.)
Omcgao10 Tcst, mcas., 1,2,3 c. ch. Omcga 1,300 (3 ch.)
Omcgao00A Tcst, mcas., 1 to o c. ch., POC, printcr, xy, mcmory, intcrlacc Omcga 23,700 (o ch.)
P1000 Proccss mon., 1,2,3,1 c. ch., o s. ch., POC, printcr, oisplay,
analysis, alarm, intcrlacc
Yokogawa F. C. 1,000 (1 c. ch.)
P1800 Proccss mon., 1,2,3,1 c. ch., o,12,18,21 s. ch., POC, printcr,
oisplay, analysis, alarm, intcrlacc
Yokogawa F. C. 5,o00 (1 c. ch.)
DP210 Proccss mon., 30 s. ch., printcr, oisplay, analysis, alarm, intcrlacc Yokogawa F. C. o,500 (30 s. ch.)
PI100 Proccss mon., 1,2 c. ch., o s. ch., printcr, alarm Honcywcll 1,500 (2 c. ch.)
DPP100C/D Proccss mon., 1,2,3 c. ch., o s. ch., POC, printcr, oisplay, alarm,
analysis, intcrlacc
Honcywcll 3,000 (o s. ch.)
DPP3000 Proccss mon., 1 to 32 s. ch., printcr, oisplay, alarm, analysis,
intcrlacc
Honcywcll 7,700 (32 s. ch.)
1101 Proccss mon., 1 to 1 c. ch., o s. ch., POC, printcr, alarm Furothcrm 2,100 (1 c. ch.)
1180 C Proccss mon., 8,1o,21,32 s. ch., printcr, wavclorm oisplay, alarm,
analysis, intcrlacc
Furothcrm 9,800 (32 s. ch.)
Sircc I Proccss mon., 1,2,3 c. ch. Sicmcns 1,200 (3 c. ch.)
Noie. c. ch. continuous channcl, s. ch. scannco channcl.
ano thcrmoscnsitivc papcr arc gcncrally usco. In this array thc writing styli consist ol miniaturc clcctrically
hcatco rcsistanccs, thcrmal propcrtics ol thc rcsistanccs (in closc contact with thc chart papcr) ano thc
clcctric activating pulsc lorm octcrminc thc maximal writing lrcqucncy. Thc lattcr rangcs in rcaltimc
rccorocrs lrom 1 to o.1 kHz. Hcating ol thc thcrmoscnsitivc papcr rcsults in a black oot with gooo long
tcrm stability. Thc hcating pulsc is controllco in rclation to thc chart vclocity in orocr to obtain sullcicnt
blackncss at high vclocitics. Tracing blackncss or linc thickncss is scloom usco lor curvc iocntilcation,
alphanumcric annotation is mostly applico. With thc oot array a thcorctically unlimitco numbcr ol
wavclorms can bc proccssco, thc apparatus is thus programmco to oraw its own calibration lincs. Dillcrcnt
typcs ol grio pattcrns can bc sclcctco by thc uscr. Morcovcr, alphanumcric inlormation can bc printco
lor inoicating cxpcrimcntal conoitions.
Oroinatc axis rcsolution is octcrminco by thc oot array. primarily, 8 oots/mm, cxccptionally, 12
oots/mm (as in stanoaro lascr printcrs). Thc rcsolution along thc abscissa ocpcnos on thc thcrmal array
limitations ano programming. Ccncrally, a highcr rcsolution is usco (mostly 32 oots/mm, maximally o1
oots/mm) cxccpt lor thc highcst chart vclocitics (100, 200, 500 mm/s). At thcsc high vclocitics ano
conscqucntly short chart contact timcs, oots bccomc lcss sharp ano lcss black. Most ol thc oot array
instrumcnts arc intcnoco lor highsignallrcqucncy applications. pcr channcl sampling lrcqucncics ol
100, 200, ano cvcn 500 kHz arc usco in rcal timc. Thcsc sampling lrcqucncics largcly cxccco thc writing
lrcqucncics, ouring thc writing cyclc, oata arc storco in mcmory ano lor cach channcl within cach writing
intcrval a oottco vcrtical linc is printco bctwccn thc minimal ano thc maximal valuc. Ior cxamplc, a sinc
wavc with a lrcqucncy largcly cxcccoing thc writing lrcqucncy is rcprcscntco as a black bano with a wioth
TABIE 9.2 Pcn Pccorocr Spccilcations
Typc (Tcst,
Mcasurcmcnt)
Pccoroing
Wioth
(mm)
Chart Vclocity
Pcn
Vclocity,
max. (m/s)
Pcn Stcp
Pcsponsc
timc(s)
anowioth
(3 o)
(Hz)
Numbcr ol
Continuous
Channcls,
max.
max.
(mm/min)
min.
(mm/h)
IP8100 250 1200 10 1.o 5 8
IP102 200 o00 10 0.1 0.5 1.5 2
IP122 200 o00 10 0.1 0.5 1.5 2
MC1000 250 1200 7.5 1.o 12
D112 200 1200 o 0.2 2
D200 250 1200 5 0.25 8
I250 250 1200 o 1 0.12 3.o 2
I20oo 250 3000 1 1 0.3 2 o
MCP5o0 250 o00 10 0.3 1.5 o
DCP510 250 o00 10 0.3 1.5 1
PCP500SP 250 1200 10 2 0.15 1.5 8
Omcgao10 250 o00 30 0.5 3
Omcgao00A 250 o00 10 0.1 o
Typc (Proccss
Monitor)
Pccoroing
Wioth
(mm)
Chart Vclocity
Pcn Stcp
Pcsponsc
Timc (s)
Printhcao
Scanning
Cyclc (s)
Numbcr ol
Channcls
(max.)
a
max.
(mm/min)
min.
(mm/h)
P1000 100 200 5 1 10 1c, os
P1800 180 200 5 1.5 10 (os) 1c, 21s
DP210 250 25 1 2 30s
PI100 100 8 10 3.2 5 2c, os
DPP100C/D 100 100 1 1 0.o 3c, os
DPP3000 250 25 1 5 32s
1101 100 25 1 2 5 1c, os
1180 C 180 25 1 3 32s
Sircc I 100 20 1 3c
a
c continuous, s scannco.
cqual to thc sinc amplituoc. In this way thc graphs inoicatc thc prcscncc ol a phcnomcnon with a
lrcqucncy contcnt cxcccoing thc writing lrcqucncy. As oata arc storco in mcmory thcy can bc rcprooucco
at a lowcr ratc thus rcvcaling thc actual highlrcqucncy wavclorm capturco. Somc apparatuscs usc a
much lowcr sampling ratc in rcal timc ano only pcrlorm olllinc. in this casc thc apparatus is inoicatco
as a "mcmory` rccorocr. Digitization accuracy rangcs lrom 8 to 1o bit, whcrcas thc largcst numbcr ol
oots lull scalc is 1800. In this way thc usclul signal may bc supcrposco on a largc ocollsct. it can bc
writtcn or rcprooucco with cxccllcnt graphic quality with thc ollsct oigitally rcmovco ano thc scalc
aoaptco.
In a highpcrlormancc rccorocr a wavclorm oisplay is cxtrcmcly usclul to avoio papcr spoiling, in
rcaltimc ano in olllinc rccoroing as wcll. Thc oisplay is also usco lor apparatus scttings. Signals can bc
calibratco ano rcal physical valucs ano units can bc printco at thc calibration lincs. Via mcmory xy plots
can bc obtainco. Somc apparatuscs allow application ol mathcmatical lunctions lor wavclorm proccssing
ano analysis. original ano proccssco wavclorms can bc orawn togcthcr olllinc. A lcw typcs arc cquippco
with IIT soltwarc. Computcr intcrlacing, a largc sct ol triggcring moocs (incluoing rccoroing at incrcasco
vclocity altcr a spccilc triggcr), cvcnt channcls, ctc. arc stanoaro lacilitics. Tablc 9o.3 shows a sct ol
thcrmal oot array rccorocrs (unocr "Dcscription` . numbcr ol analog channcls (a. ch.) ano oigital channcls
(o. ch.), wavclorm monitor, signal oata mcmory, xy lacility, mathcmatical analysis, IIT) ano Tablc 9o.1
givcs spccilcations.
ConcludIng Rcmarks
Tablc 9o.5 givcs aoorcsscs ano lax ano phonc numbcrs ol manulacturcrs ol rccorocrs mcntionco in Tablcs
9o.1 ano 9o.3. It shoulo bc rcmarkco that priccs mcntionco in thcsc tablcs holo lor purchasing a complctc
lunctioning apparatus (numbcr ol channcls inoicatco) lrom lrms in clgium rcprcscnting thc manu
lacturcrs ano having provioco thc oata shccts lrom which spccilcations wcrc ocrivco. With thc cxprcssion
"a complctc lunctioning` apparatus a stanoaro systcm is mcant, thus incluoing simplc input couplcrs
(in casc ol a mooular ocsign), stanoaro PAM ano analysis soltwarc, no spccilc options. Obviously, thc
list ol manulacturcrs is incomplctc. It shoulo bc mcntionco that thc numbcr ol manulacturcrs ol graphic
rccorocrs is occrcasing, a signilcant ano incrcasing amount ol applications has bccn takcn ovcr by
TABIE 9.3 Thcrmal Dot Array Pccorocrs
Dcsignation Dcscription Manulacturcr
Approximatc Pricc
(U.S.$)
WP 5000 8 a. ch., mcmory Craphtcc C. 17,100 (8 ch.)
WP 9000 1,8,1o a. ch., monitor, mcmory, xy, analysis, IIT Craphtcc C. 11,300 (1 ch.)
Mark 12 1 to 52 a. ch., 1 to 52 o. ch., monitor, mcmory W. Craphtcc 30,300 (1o a. ch.)
MA o000 2 to 1o a. ch., monitor, mcmory, xy, analysis, IIT Craphtcc C. 23,500 (8 ch.)
OPP 1200 1,8 a. ch., 1o o. ch., monitor, mcmory, xy Yokogawa F. C. 11,o00 (8 a. ch.)
OPP 1300 1o a. ch., 1o o. ch., monitor, mcmory, xy Yokogawa F. C. 18,000 (1o a. ch.)
OPM 1200 1,8 a. ch., 1o o. ch., monitor, mcmory, xy Yokogawa F. C. 11,100 (8 a. ch.)
OPM 1300 1o a. ch., 1o o. ch., monitor, mcmory, xy Yokogawa F. C. 21,900 (1o a. ch.)
OP 1100 8 a. ch., 1o o. ch., monitor, mcmory, xy Yokogawa F. C. 1o,100 (8 a. ch.)
TA 210 1 to 1 a. ch. Coulo I. S. 8,500 (1 ch.)
TA 11 1,8,1o a. ch., monitor, mcmory Coulo I. S. 18,900 (1o ch.)
TA o000 8 to o1 a. ch., 8 to 32 o. ch., monitor, mcmory Coulo I. S. 33,900 (1o a. ch.)
Winoogral 2 to 1 a. ch., monitor Coulo I. S. 10,200 (1 ch.)
Dash 10 10,20,30 a. ch., monitor, mcmory AstroMco 22,500 (10 ch.)
MT95K2 8 to 32 a. ch., 32 o. ch., monitor, mcmory, xy, analysis AstroMco 32,o00 (8 a. ch.)
8852 1 a. ch., 21 o. ch., monitor, mcmory, xy, analysis, IIT Hioki F. F. C. 22,300 (1 a. ch.)
8815 1 a. ch., 32 o. ch., mcmory, xy Hioki F. F. C. 1,500 (1 a. ch.)
8825 1o a. ch., 32 o. ch., monitor, mcmory, xy, analysis Hioki F. F. C. 28,800 (8 a. ch.)
Noie. a. ch. analog channcl, o. ch. oigital channcl.
"papcrlcss` rccorocrs, i.c., oata acquisition systcms. Ncvcrthclcss, thc possibility ol gcncrating graphs in
rcal timc rcmains an important lcaturc, c.g., to provioc cviocncc ol thc prcscncc ol a spccilc phcnomcnon.
In rcccnt ycars analog rccorocrs havc bccomc lcss usco ano manulacturco (apart lrom thc translational
pcn typcs, cspccially in inoustrial proccss monitoring). Thcrmal array rccorocrs havc bccomc morc
important. thc quality ano longtcrm stability ol thcrmal papcr havc improvco ano cost lcvcls arc
comparablc with calibratco papcr lor ink rccoroing. In ncw ocsigns, rccorocrs provioc morc capabilitics
TABIE 9.4 Thcrmal Dot Array Pccorocr Spccilcations
Pccoroing
Wioth
(mm)
Thcrmal Array
Pcsolution
(oots/mm)
Chart Vclocity
Maximal Writing
Ircqucncy
(oots/s)
Timc Axis Pcsolution
Typc
max.
(mm/s)
min.
(mm/h)
max.
(oots/mm)
min.
(oots/mm)
WP 5000 381 8 200 1 1o00 o1 8
WP 9000V 200 8 100 1 32
WP 9000M 200 8 100 1 32
Mark 12 381 8 200 1 1o00 o1 8
MA o000 205 8 100 1 10
OPP 1200 201 8 100 10 1o00 32 1o
OPP 1300 201 8 100 10 1o00 32 1o
OPM 1200 201 8 100 10 1o00 32 1o
OPM 1300 201 8 100 10 1o00 32 1o
OP 1100 201 8 250 10 o100 32 25.o
TA 210 101 8 125 3o 1000 32 8
TA 11 2o1 8 200 3o 1o00 1o 8
TA o000 370 8 200 3o 1o00 1o 8
Winoogral 101 8 100 3o 800 32 8
Dash 10 25o 12 200 o0 1200 12 o
MT95K2 100 12 500 1 2000 18 1
8852 100 8 25 10 200 1o 8
8815 101 o 8 10 50 12 o
8825 25o 8 20 10 200 10 10
Typc
Sampling
Ircqucncy
PcalTimc,
max. (kHz)
it Accuracy,
max. (bits)
No., max.,
Channcls
a
Display
Dimcnsions
(mm)
Display
Pcsolution
(pixcls)
Sampling
Ircqucncy
Mcmory,
max.
(kHz)
Samplcs
Storco/
Channcl,
max.
WP 5000 o1 11 8a o1 32 k
WP 9000V 250 12 8a 192 120 o10 100 250 512 k
WP 9000M 50 11 8a 192 120 o10 100 50 512 k
Mark 12 200 1o 52a, 52o 97 77 25o 320 200 2 M
MA o000 500 1o 1oa 192 120 o10 100 500 512 k
OPP 1200 100 11 8a, 1oo 127
b
320 210 100 32 k
OPP 1300 100 11 1oa, 1oo 127
b
320 210 100 32 k
OPM 1200 100 11 8a, 1oo 127
b
320 210 100 128 k
OPM 1300 100 11 1oa, 1oo 127
b
320 210 100 128 k
OP 1100 100 1o 8a, 1oo 127
b
320 210 100 25o k
TA 210 5 12 1a
TA 11 250 12 1oa 198 oo o10 200 250 500 k
TA o000 250 12 o1a, 32o 221 9o o10 200 250 500 k
Winoogral 10 12 1a 178
b
800 350
Dash 10 250 12 30a 25o o1 250 512 k
MT95K2 200 12 32a, 32o 200 500 k
8852 1.o 8 1a, 21o 178
b
100 10
3
1 M
8815 12.5 8 1a, 32o 500 30 k
8825 8 12 1oa, 32o 251
b
o10 180 200 500 k
a
a analog, o oigital.
b
Diagonal.
ano appcar morc intclligcnt, obviously lcaoing to incrcasco complications with rcspcct to instrumcnt
scttings ano thus incrcasco ncco lor training ano cxpcricncc in thc usc ol thc instrumcnt.
DchnIng Tcrms
Analog graphic recorder. A graphic rccorocr that makcs usc ol an analog transouccr systcm (c.g., a
moving pcn).
Analog recorder bandwidth. Thc largcst lrcqucncy that can bc proccssco by thc analog rccorocr (3
o limit).
Digital graphic recorder. A graphic rccorocr that makcs usc ol a oigital transouccr systcm (c.g., a
lxco oot array).
Craphic recorder. A mcasuring apparatus that proouccs in rcal timc a haro copy ol a sct ol timc
ocpcnocnt variablcs.
Maximal sampling frequency. Maximal numbcr ol oata points samplco by thc oigital rccorocr pcr
timc unit (totally or pcr channcl).
Maximal writing frequency. Maximal numbcr ol writing (or printing) acts cxccutco by thc oigital
rccorocr pcr timc unit.
Thermal dot array recorder. A oigital rccorocr applying a lxco thcrmal oot array pcrpcnoicular to
thc timc axis.
Translational pen recorder. An analog rccorocr with onc or scvcral pcns bcing translatco pcrpcnoic
ularly to thc timc axis.
TABIE 9.5 Companics that Makc Craphic Pccorocrs
AstroMco, Inc. Kipp & Zoncn, Dcllt V
AstroMco Inoustrial Park, Wcst Warwick,
PI 02893, USA
Mcrcuriuswcg 1, P.O. ox 507, NI2o00 AM Dcllt,
Thc Ncthcrlanos
lax (101) 822 2130/phonc (101) 8281000 lax 015o20351/phonc 0155o1000
Furothcrm Pccorocrs Ito. Iinscis CMH
Dominion Way, Worthing, Wcst Susscx N118QI,
Crcat ritain
Postlach 1101, Viclitzcr Strassc 13, D8o72
Sclb, Ccrmany
lax 019032037o7/phonc 01903205222 lax 09287/70188/phonc 09287/8800
Coulo Instrumcnt Systcms, Inc. Omcga Fnginccring, Inc.
8333 Pocksioc Poao, Vallcy Vicw, OH 11125o100, USA P.O. ox 1017, Stamloro, CT 0o9070017, USA
lax (21o) 3287100/phonc (21o) 3287000 lax (203) 3597700/phonc (203) 3591oo0
Craphtcc Corporation Sicmcns AC, crcich Automatisicrungstcchnik
50310 Shinanocho, Totsukaku,
Yokohama 211, ]apan
Ccschaltsgcbict Proccssgcratc, AUT 31, D7o181
Karlsruhc, Ccrmany
lax (015) 825o39o/phonc (015) 825o250 lax 0721/595o885/phonc 0721/5952058
Hioki F. F. Corporation Wcstcrn Craphtcc, Inc.
81 Koizumi, Ucoa, Nagano, 38o11, ]apan 11 Vanocrbilt, Irvinc, CA 9271820o7, USA
lax 02o82805o8/phonc 02o82805o2 lax (711) 770o010/phonc (800) 8518385
Honcywcll Inoustrial Automation ano Control W+W Instrumcnts AC
1o101 North lack Canyon Hwy.,
Phocnix, AZ 85023, USA
IranklurtStrassc 78, CH1112
Munchcnstcin, Switzcrlano
phonc (800) 3130228 lax +11 (0) o1111ooo85/phonc +11 (0) o1111o177
Yokogawa Flcctric Corporation
ShinjukuNomura log. 12o2 NishiShinjuku,
Shinjukuku, Tokyo 1o305, ]apan
lax 81333191017/phonc 81333191015
Rcfcrcnccs
1. H. Vcrmaricn, Pccorocrs, graphic, in ].C. Wcbstcr, Fo., IncycIoeJIa oI MeJIcaI De\Ices anJ Insiru
neniaiIon, Ncw York. ]ohn Wilcy & Sons, 1988.
2. D.A. cll, IIecironIc InsiruneniaiIon anJ Measurenenis, 2no co., Fnglcwooo Clills, N]. Prcnticc
Hall, 1991.
3. A. Millcr, O.S. Tallc, ano C.D. Mcc, Pccorocrs, in .M. Olivcr ano ].M. Cagc, Fos., IIecironIc
Measurenenis anJ InsiruneniaiIon, Ncw York. McCrawHill, 127179, 1975.
1. P.]. Smith, CIrcuIis, De\Ices anJ Sysiens. A IIrsi Course In IIecirIcaI IngIneerIng, Ncw York. ]ohn
Wilcy & Sons, 197o.
5. W.H. Olson, asic conccpts in instrumcntation, in ].C. Wcbstcr, Fo., MeJIcaI InsiruneniaiIon.
AIIcaiIon anJ DesIgn, JrJ eJ., Ncw York. ]ohn Wilcy & Sons, 1998.
96.2 Data AcquIsItIon Systcms
Id+ard AcConnc!!
Thc lunoamcntal task ol a data acquisition system is thc mcasurcmcnt or gcncration ol rcalworlo
physical signals. clorc a physical signal can bc mcasurco by a computcrbasco systcm, a scnsor or
transouccr is usco to convcrt thc physical signal into an clcctrical signal, such as voltagc or currcnt. Oltcn
only a plugin oata acquisition (DAQ) boaro is consiocrco thc oata acquisition systcm, howcvcr, a boaro
is only onc ol thc componcnts in thc systcm. A complctc DAQ systcm consists ol scnsors, signal conoi
tioning, intcrlacc harowarc, ano soltwarc. Unlikc stanoalonc instrumcnts, signals oltcn cannot bc oircctly
conncctco to thc DAQ boaro. Thc signals may ncco to bc conoitionco by somc signalconoitioning
acccssory bclorc thcy arc convcrtco to oigital inlormation by thc plugin DAQ boaro. Soltwarc controls
thc oata acquisition systcm acquiring thc raw oata, analyzing thc oata, ano prcscnting thc rcsults. Thc
componcnts arc shown in Iig. 9o.1.
SIgnals
Signals arc physical cvcnts whosc magnituoc or timc variation contains inlormation. DAQ systcms
mcasurc various aspccts ol a signal in orocr to monitor ano control thc physical cvcnts. Uscrs ol DAQ
systcms ncco to know thc rclation ol thc signal to thc physical cvcnt ano what inlormation is availablc
in thc signal. Ccncrally, inlormation is convcyco by a signal through onc or morc ol thc lollowing signal
paramctcrs. statc, ratc, lcvcl, shapc, or lrcqucncy contcnt. Thc physical charactcristics ol thc mcasurco
signals ano thc rclatco inlormation hclp octcrminc thc ocsign ol a DAQ systcm..
All signals arc, lunoamcntally, analog, timcvarying signals. Ior thc purposc ol oiscussing thc mcthoos
ol signal mcasurcmcnt using a plugin DAQ boaro, a givcn signal shoulo bc classilco as onc ol lvc signal
typcs. ccausc thc mcthoo ol signal mcasurcmcnt is octcrminco by thc way thc signal convcys thc nccoco
inlormation, a classilcation basco on this critcrion is usclul in unocrstanoing thc lunoamcntal builoing
blocks ol a DAQ systcm.
As shown in thc Iig. 9o.2, any signal can gcncrally bc classilco as analog or oigital. A oigital, or binary,
signal has only two possiblc oiscrctc lcvcls ol intcrcst a high (on) lcvcl ano a low (oll) lcvcl. Thc two
oigital signal typcs arc onoll signals ano pulsc train signals. An analog signal, on thc othcr hano, contains
inlormation in thc continuous variation ol thc signal with timc. Analog signals arc ocscribco in thc timc
or lrcqucncy oomains ocpcnoing upon thc inlormation ol intcrcst. A oc typc signal is a lowlrcqucncy
signal, ano il thc phasc inlormation ol a signal is prcscntco with thc lrcqucncy inlormation, thcn thcrc
is no oillcrcncc bctwccn thc timc or lrcqucncy oomain rcprcscntations. Thc catcgory to which a signal
bclongs ocpcnos on thc charactcristic ol thc signal to bc mcasurco. Thc lvc typcs ol signals can bc closcly
parallclco with thc lvc basic typcs ol signal inlormation statc, ratc, lcvcl, shapc, ano lrcqucncy contcnt.
asic unocrstanoing ol thc signal rcprcscnting thc physical cvcnt bcing mcasurco ano controllco assists
in thc sclcction ol thc appropriatc DAQ systcm.
Plug-In DAQ Boards
Thc lunoamcntal componcnt ol a DAQ systcm is thc plugin DAQ boaro. Thcsc boaros plug oircctly
into a slot in a PC ano arc availablc with analog, oigital, ano timing inputs ano outputs (I/O). Thc most
vcrsatilc ol thc plugin DAQ boaros is thc multilunction I/O boaro. As thc namc implics, this boaro
typically contains various combinations ol analogtooigital convcrtcrs (ADCs), oigitaltoanalog con
vcrtcrs (DACs), oigital I/O lincs, ano countcrs/timcrs. ADCs ano DACs mcasurc ano gcncratc analog
voltagc signals, rcspcctivcly. Thc oigital I/O lincs scnsc ano control oigital signals. Countcrs/timcrs
mcasurc pulsc ratcs, wioths, oclays, ano gcncratc timing signals. Thcsc many lcaturcs makc thc multi
lunction DAQ boaro usclul lor a wioc rangc ol applications.
Multilunction boaros arc commonly usco to mcasurc analog signals. This is oonc by thc ADC, which
convcrts thc analog voltagc lcvcl into a oigital numbcr that thc computcr can intcrprct. Thc analog
multiplcxcr (MUX), thc instrumcntation amplilcr, thc samplcanoholo (S/H) circuitry, ano thc ADC
composc thc analog input scction ol a multilunction boaro (scc Iig. 9o.3).
I!CURE 9.1 Componcnts ol a DAQ systcm.
I!CURE 9.2 Classcs ol signals.
Typically, multilunction DAQ boaros havc onc ADC. Multiplcxing is a common tcchniquc lor mca
suring multiplc channcls (gcncrally 1o singlccnoco or 8 oillcrcntial) with a singlc ADC. Thc analog
MUX switchcs bctwccn channcls ano passcs thc signal to thc instrumcntation amplilcr ano thc S/H
circuitry. Thc MUX architccturc is thc most common approach takcn with plugin DAQ boaros. Whilc
plugin boaros typically incluoc up to only 1o singlccnoco or 8 oillcrcntial inputs, thc numbcr ol analog
input channcls can bc lurthcr cxpanoco with cxtcrnal MUX acccssorics.
Instrumcntation amplilcrs typically provioc a oillcrcntial input ano sclcctablc gain by jumpcrs or
soltwarc. Thc oillcrcntial input rcjccts small commonmooc voltagcs. Thc gain is oltcn soltwarc pro
grammablc. In aooition, many DAQ boaros also incluoc thc capability to changc thc amplilcr gain whilc
scanning channcls at high ratcs. Thcrclorc, onc can casily monitor signals with oillcrcnt rangcs ol
amplituocs. Thc output ol thc amplilcr is samplco, or hclo at a constant voltagc, by thc S/H ocvicc at
mcasurcmcnt timc so that voltagc oocs not changc ouring oigitization.
Thc ADC translorms thc analog signal into a oigital valuc which is ultimatcly scnt to computcr mcmory.
Thcrc arc scvcral important paramctcrs ol A/D convcrsion. Thc lunoamcntal paramctcr ol an ADC is
thc numbcr ol bits. Thc numbcr ol bits ol an A/D octcrmincs thc rangc ol valucs lor thc binary output
ol thc ADC convcrsion. Ior cxamplc, many ADCs arc 12bit, so a voltagc within thc input rangc ol thc
ADC will prooucc a binary valuc that has onc ol 2
12
109o oillcrcnt valucs. Thc morc bits that an ADC
has, thc highcr thc rcsolution ol thc mcasurcmcnt. Thc rcsolution octcrmincs thc smallcst amount ol
changc that can bc octcctco by thc ADC. Pcsolution is cxprcssco as thc numbcr ol oigits ol a voltmctcr
or oynamic rangc in occibcls, rathcr than with bits. Tablc 9o.o shows thc rclation among bits, numbcr
ol oigits, ano oynamic rangc in occibcls.
Thc rcsolution ol thc A/D convcrsion is also octcrminco by thc input rangc ol thc ADC ano thc gain.
DAQ boaros usually incluoc an instrumcntation amplilcr that amplilcs thc analog signal by a gain lactor
prior to thc convcrsion. This gain amplilcs lowlcvcl signals so that morc accuratc mcasurcmcnts can
bc maoc.
Togcthcr, thc input rangc ol thc ADC, thc gain, ano thc numbcr ol bits ol thc boaro octcrminc thc
minimum rcsolution ol thc mcasurcmcnt. Ior cxamplc, supposc a lowlcvcl 30 mV signal is acquirco
I!CURE 9.3 Analog input scction ol a plugin DAQ boaro. Noie. IIIO lrstin lrstout bullcr, S/H samplc
anoholo, Inst. Amp instrumcntation amplilcr, ano Mux analog multiplcxcr.
TABIE 9. Pclation Among its, Numbcr
ol Digits, ano Dynamic Pangc (o)
its Digits o
20 o.0 120
1o 1.5 9o
12 3.5 72
8 2.5 18
using a 12bit ADC that has a 5 V input rangc. Il thc systcm incluocs an amplilcr with a gain ol 100,
thc rcsulting rcsolution ol thc mcasurcmcnt will bc rangc/(gain 2
bits
) rcsolution, or 10 V/(100 2
12
)
0.0211 mV.
Iinally, an important paramctcr ol oigitization is thc ratc at which A/D convcrsions arc maoc, rclcrrco
to as thc sampling ratc. Thc A/D systcm must bc ablc to samplc thc input signal last cnough to mcasurc
thc important wavclorm attributcs accuratcly. In orocr to mcct this critcrion, thc ADC must bc ablc to
convcrt thc analog signal to oigital lorm quickly cnough.
Whcn scanning multiplc channcls with a multiplcxing DAQ systcm, othcr lactors can allcct thc
throughput ol thc systcm. Spccilcally, thc instrumcntation amplilcr must bc ablc to scttlc to thc nccoco
accuracy bclorc thc A/D convcrsion occurs. With multiplcxco signals, multiplc signals arc bcing switchco
into onc instrumcntation amplilcr. Most amplilcrs, cspccially whcn amplilying thc signals with largcr
gains, will not bc ablc to scttlc to thc lull accuracy ol thc ADC whcn scanning channcls at high ratcs. To
avoio this situation, consult thc spccilco scttling timcs ol thc DAQ boaro lor thc gains ano sampling
ratcs rcquirco by thc application.
Typcs of ADCs
Dillcrcnt DAQ boaros usc oillcrcnt typcs ol ADCs to oigitizc thc signal. Thc most popular typc ol ADC
on plugin DAQ boaros is thc succcssivc approximation ADC, bccausc it ollcrs high spcco ano high
rcsolution at a moocst cost.
Subranging (also callco halllash) ADCs ollcr vcry high spcco convcrsion with sampling spccos up
to scvcral million samplcs pcr sccono.
Thc statcolthcart tcchnology in ADCs is sigmaoclta mooulating ADCs. Thcsc ADCs samplc at
high ratcs, arc ablc to achicvc high rcsolution, ano ollcr thc bcst lincarity ol all ADCs.
Intcgrating ano lash ADCs arc maturc tcchnologics still usco on DAQ boaros tooay. Intcgrating ADCs
arc ablc to oigitizc with high rcsolution but must sacrilcc sampling spcco to obtain it. Ilash ADCs arc
ablc to achicvc thc highcst sampling ratc (gigahcrtz) but arc availablc only with low rcsolution. Thc
oillcrcnt typcs ol ADCs arc summarizco in Tablc 9o.7.
Analog Input ArchItccturc
With a typical DAQ boaro, thc multiplcxcr switchcs among analog input channcls. Thc analog signal on
thc channcl sclcctco by thc multiplcxcr thcn passcs to thc programmablc gain instrumcntation amplilcr
(PCIA), which amplilcs thc signal. Altcr thc signal is amplilco, thc samplc ano holo (S/H) kccps thc
analog signal constant so that thc ADC can octcrminc thc oigital rcprcscntation ol thc analog signal. A
TABIE 9.7 Typcs ol ADCs
Typc ol ADC Aovantagcs Icaturcs
Succcssivc approximation High rcsolution
High spcco
Fasily multiplcxco
1.25 MS/s sampling ratc
12bit rcsolution
200 kS/s sampling ratc
1obit rcsolution
Subranging Highcr spcco 1 MHz sampling ratc
12bit rcsolution
Sigmaoclta High rcsolution
Fxccllcnt lincarity
uiltin antialiasing
Statcolthcart tcchnology
18 kHz sampling ratc
1obit rcsolution
Intcgratco High rcsolution
Cooo noisc rcjcction
Maturc tcchnology
15 kHz sampling ratc
Ilash Highcst spcco
Maturc tcchnology
125 MHz sampling ratc
gooo DAQ boaro will thcn placc thc oigital signal in a lrstin lrstout (IIIO) bullcr, so that no oata
will bc lost il thc samplc cannot translcr immcoiatcly ovcr thc PC I/O channcl to computcr mcmory.
Having a IIIO bccomcs cspccially important whcn thc boaro is run unocr opcrating systcms that havc
largc intcrrupt latcncics, such as Microsolt Winoows.
BasIc Analog SpccIhcatIons
Almost cvcry DAQ boaro oata shcct spccilcs thc numbcr ol channcls, thc maximum sampling ratc, thc
rcsolution, ano thc input rangc ano gain.
Thc numbcr ol channcls, which is octcrminco by thc multiplcxcr, is usually spccilco in two lorms
oillcrcntial ano singlc cnoco. Dillcrcntial inputs arc inputs that havc oillcrcnt rclcrcncc points lor cach
channcl, nonc ol which is grounoco by thc boaro. Dillcrcntial inputs arc thc bcst way to conncct signals
to thc DAQ boaro bccausc thcy provioc thc bcst noisc immunity.
Singlccnoco inputs arc inputs that arc rclcrcncco to a common grouno point. ccausc singlccnoco
inputs arc rclcrcncco to a common grouno, thcy arc not as gooo as oillcrcntial inputs lor rcjccting noisc.
Thcy oo havc a largcr numbcr ol channcls, howcvcr. Singlccnoco inputs arc usco whcn thc input signals
arc high lcvcl (grcatcr than 1 V), thc lcaos lrom thc signal sourcc to thc analog input harowarc arc short
(lcss than 5 m), ano all input signals sharc a common rclcrcncc.
Somc boaros havc pscuoooillcrcntial inputs which havc all inputs rclcrcncco to thc samc common
likc singlccnoco inputs but thc common is not rclcrcncco to grouno. Thcsc boaros havc thc bcnclt
ol a largc numbcr ol input channcls, likc singlccnoco inputs, ano thc ability to rcmovc somc common
mooc noisc, cspccially il thc commonmooc noisc is consistcnt across all channcls. Dillcrcntial inputs
arc still prclcrablc to pscuoooillcrcntial, howcvcr, bccausc oillcrcntial is morc immunc to magnctic noisc.
Sampling ratc octcrmincs how last thc analog signal is convcrtco to a oigital signal. Whcn mcasuring
ac signals, samplc at lcast two timcs lastcr than thc highcst lrcqucncy ol thc input signal. Fvcn whcn
mcasuring oc signals, ovcrsamplc ano avcragc thc oata to incrcasc thc accuracy ol thc signal by rcoucing
thc cllccts ol noisc.
Il thc physical cvcnt consists ol multiplc occlass signals, a DAQ boaro with intcrval scanning shoulo
bc usco. With intcrval scanning, all channcls arc scannco at onc samplc intcrval (usually thc lastcst ratc
ol thc boaro), with a sccono intcrval (usually slow) octcrmining thc timc bclorc rcpcating thc scan.
Intcrval scanning givcs thc cllccts ol simultancously sampling lor slowly varying signals without rcquiring
thc aooitional cost ol input circuitry lor truc simultancous sampling.
Pcsolution is thc numbcr ol bits that arc usco to rcprcscnt thc analog signal. Thc highcr thc rcsolution,
thc highcr thc numbcr ol oivisions thc input rangc is brokcn into, ano thcrclorc thc smallcr thc possiblc
octcctablc voltagc. Unlortunatcly, somc DAQ spccilcations arc mislcaoing whcn thcy spccily thc rcso
lution associatco with thc DAQ boaro. Many DAQ boaro spccilcations statc thc rcsolution ol thc ADC
without stating thc lincaritics ano noisc, ano thcrclorc oo not givc thc inlormation nccoco to octcrminc
thc rcsolution ol thc cntirc boaro. Pcsolution ol thc ADC, combinco with thc scttling timc, integral
nonlinearity (INI), differential nonlinearity (DNI), ano noisc will givc an unocrstanoing ol thc accu
racy ol thc boaro.
Input rangc ano gain octcrminc thc lcvcl ol signal that shoulo bc conncct to thc boaro. Usually, thc
rangc ano gain arc spccilco scparatcly, so thc two must bc combinco to octcrminc thc actual signal input
rangc as
signal input rangc rangc/gain
Ior cxamplc, a boaro using an input rangc ol 10 V with a gain ol 2 will havc a signal input rangc ol
5 V. Thc closcr thc signal input rangc is to thc rangc ol thc signal, thc morc accuratc thc rcaoings lrom
thc DAQ boaro will bc. Il thc signals havc oillcrcnt input rangcs, usc a DAQ boaro with thc lcaturc ol
oillcrcnt gains pcr channcl.
Data AcquIsItIon Softvarc
Thc soltwarc is oltcn thc most critical componcnt ol thc DAQ systcm. Uscrs ol DAQ systcms usually
program thc harowarc in onc ol two ways through rcgistcr programming or through highlcvcl ocvicc
orivcrs.
Board RcgIstcr-Lcvcl ProgrammIng
Thc lrst option is not to usc vcnoorsupplico soltwarc ano program thc DAQ boaro at thc harowarc
lcvcl. DAQ boaros arc typically rcgistcr basco, that is, thcy incluoc a numbcr ol oigital rcgistcrs that
control thc opcration ol thc boaro. Thc ocvclopcr may usc any stanoaro programming languagc, such
as C, C++, or Visual ASIC, to writc scrics ol binary coocs to thc DAQ boaro to control its opcration.
Although this mcthoo alloros thc highcst lcvcl ol lcxibility, it is also thc most oillcult ano timc
consuming, cspccially lor thc incxpcricncco programmcr. Thc programmcr must know thc octails ol
programming all harowarc, incluoing thc boaro, thc PC intcrrupt controllcr, thc DMA controllcr, ano
PC mcmory.
DrIvcr Softvarc
Drivcr soltwarc typically consists ol a library ol lunction calls usablc lrom a stanoaro programming
languagc. Thcsc lunction calls provioc a highlcvcl intcrlacc to control thc stanoaro lunctions ol thc
plugin boaro. Ior cxamplc, a lunction callco SCAN_OP may conlgurc, initiatc, ano complctc a multiplc
channcl scanning DAQ opcration ol a prcoctcrminco numbcr ol points. Thc lunction call woulo incluoc
paramctcrs to inoicatc thc channcls to bc scannco, thc amplilcr gains to bc usco, thc sampling ratc, ano
thc total numbcr ol oata points to bc collcctco. Thc orivcr rcsponos to this onc lunction call by pro
gramming thc plugin boaro, thc DMA controllcr, thc intcrrupt controllcr, ano CPU to scan thc channcls
as rcqucstco.
What Is DIgItal SamplIng7
Fvcry DAQ systcm has thc task ol gathcring inlormation about analog signals. To oo this, thc systcm
capturcs a scrics ol instantancous "snapshots` or samplcs ol thc signal at oclnitc timc intcrvals. Fach
samplc contains inlormation about thc signal at a spccilc instant. Knowing thc cxact timc ol cach
convcrsion ano thc valuc ol thc samplc, onc can rcconstruct, analyzc, ano oisplay thc oigitizco wavclorm.
Rcal-TImc SamplIng TcchnIqucs
In rcaltimc sampling, thc DAQ boaro oigitizcs consccutivc samplcs along thc signal (Iig. 9o.1). Accoroing
to thc Nyquist sampling theorem, thc ADC must samplc at lcast twicc thc ratc ol thc maximum lrcqucncy
componcnt in that signal to prcvcnt aliasing. Aliasing is a lalsc lowcrlrcqucncy componcnt that appcars
in samplco oata acquirco at too low a sampling ratc. Thc lrcqucncy at onc hall thc sampling lrcqucncy
is rclcrrco to as thc Nyquist lrcqucncy. Thcorctically, it is possiblc to rccovcr inlormation about thosc
signals with lrcqucncics at or bclow thc Nyquist lrcqucncy. Ircqucncics abovc thc Nyquist lrcqucncy will
alias to appcar bctwccn oc ano thc Nyquist lrcqucncy.
Ior cxamplc, assumc thc sampling lrcqucncy, /
s
, is 100 Hz. Also assumc thc input signal to bc samplco
contains thc lollowing lrcqucncics 25, 70, 1o0, ano 510 Hz. Iigurc 9o.5 shows a spcctral rcprcscntation
ol thc input signal.
Thc mathcmatics ol sampling thcory show us that a samplco signal is shiltco in thc lrcqucncy oomain
by an amount cqual to intcgcr multiplcs ol thc sampling lrcqucncy, /
s
. Iigurc 9o.o shows thc spcctral
contcnt ol thc input signal altcr sampling. Ircqucncics bclow 50 Hz, thc Nyquist lrcqucncy (/
s
/2), appcar
corrcctly. Howcvcr, lrcqucncics abovc thc Nyquist appcar as aliascs bclow thc Nyquist lrcqucncy. Ior
cxamplc, I1 appcars corrcctly, howcvcr, I2, I3, ano I1 havc aliascs at 30, 10, ano 10 Hz, rcspcctivcly.
Thc rcsulting lrcqucncy ol aliasco signals can bc calculatco with thc lollowing lormula.
Apparcnt (Alias) Ircq. AS (Closcst Intcgcr Multiplc ol Sampling Ircq. Input Ircq.)
Ior thc cxamplc ol Iigs. 9o.5 ano 9o.o.
Alias I2 100 70 30 Hz
Alias I3 (2)100 1o0 10 Hz
Alias I1 (5)100 510 10 Hz
PrcvcntIng AlIasIng
Aliasing can bc prcvcntco by using lltcrs on thc lront cno ol thc DAQ systcm. Thcsc antialiasing lltcrs
arc sct to cut oll any lrcqucncics abovc thc Nyquist lrcqucncy (hall thc sampling ratc). Thc pcrlcct lltcr
woulo rcjcct all lrcqucncics abovc thc Nyquist, howcvcr, bccausc pcrlcct lltcrs cxist only in tcxtbooks,
onc must compromisc bctwccn sampling ratc ano sclccting lltcrs. In many applications, onc or two
polc passivc lltcrs arc satislactory. Thc rulc ol thumb is to ovcrsamplc (5 to 10 timcs) ano usc thcsc
antialiasing lltcrs whcn lrcqucncy inlormation is crucial.
Altcrnativcly, activc antialiasing lltcrs with programmablc cutoll lrcqucncics ano vcry sharp attcnu
ation ol lrcqucncics abovc thc cutoll can bc usco. ccausc thcsc lltcrs cxhibit a vcry stccp rolloll, thc
DAQ systcm can samplc at two to thrcc timcs thc lltcr cutoll lrcqucncy. Iigurc 9o.7 shows a translcr
lunction ol a highquality antialiasing lltcr.
I!CURE 9.4 Consccutivc oiscrctc samplcs rccrcatc thc input signal.
I!CURE 9.5 Spcctral ol signal with multiplc lrcqucncics.
Thc computcr uscs oigital valucs to rccrcatc or to analyzc thc wavclorm. ccausc thc signal coulo bc
anything bctwccn cach samplc, thc DAQ boaro may bc unawarc ol any changcs in thc signal bctwccn
samplcs. Thcrc arc scvcral sampling mcthoos optimizco lor thc oillcrcnt classcs ol oata, thcy incluoc
soltwarc polling, cxtcrnal sampling, continuous scanning, multiratc scanning, simultancous sampling,
intcrval scanning, ano scamlcss changing ol thc samplc ratc.
Softvarc PollIng
A soltwarc loop polls a timing signal ano starts thc A/D convcrsion via a soltwarc commano whcn thc
cogc ol thc timing signal is octcctco. Thc timing signal may originatc lrom thc intcrnal clock ol thc
computcr or lrom a clock on thc DAQ boaro. Soltwarc polling is usclul in simplc, lowspcco applications,
such as tcmpcraturc mcasurcmcnts.
Thc soltwarc loop must bc last cnough to octcct thc timing signal ano triggcr a convcrsion. Othcrwisc,
a winoow ol unccrtainty, also known as jittcr, will cxist bctwccn two succcssivc samplcs. Within thc
winoow ol unccrtainty, thc input wavclorm coulo changc cnough to rcoucc thc accuracy ol thc ADC
orastically.
Supposc a 100Hz, 10V lullscalc sinc wavc is oigitizco (Iig. 9o.8). Il thc polling loop takcs 5 ms to
octcct thc timing signal ano to triggcr a convcrsion, thcn thc voltagc ol thc input sinc wavc will changc
I!CURE 9. Spcctral ol signal with multiplc lrcqucncics altcr sampling at I
s
100 Hz.
I!CURE 9.7 Magnituoc portion ol translcr lunction ol an antialiasing lltcr.
as much as 31 mV, {AV 10 sin (2r 100 5 10
o
)]. Ior a 12bit ADC opcrating ovcr an input rangc
ol 10 V ano a gain ol 1, onc lcast signilcant bit (IS) ol crror rcprcscnts 2.11 mV.
ut bccausc thc voltagc crror ouc to jittcr is 31 mV, thc accuracy crror is 13 IS.
This rcprcscnts unccrtainty in thc last 1 bits ol a 12bit ADC. Thus, thc cllcctivc accuracy ol thc systcm
is no longcr 12 bits but rathcr 8 bits.
Extcrnal SamplIng
Somc DAQ applications must pcrlorm a convcrsion basco on anothcr physical cvcnt that triggcrs thc
oata convcrsion. Thc cvcnt coulo bc a pulsc lrom an optical cncoocr mcasuring thc rotation ol a cylinocr.
A samplc woulo bc takcn cvcry timc thc cncoocr gcncratcs a pulsc corrcsponoing to n ocgrccs ol rotation.
Fxtcrnal triggcring is aovantagcous whcn trying to mcasurc signals whosc occurrcncc is rclativc to anothcr
physical phcnomcnon.
ContInuous ScannIng
Whcn a DAQ boaro acquircs oata, scvcral componcnts on thc boaro convcrt thc analog signal to a oigital
valuc. Thcsc componcnts incluoc thc analog MUX, thc instrumcntation amplilcr, thc S/H circuitry, ano
thc ADC. Whcn acquiring oata lrom scvcral input channcls, thc analog MUX connccts cach signal to
thc ADC at a constant ratc. This mcthoo, known as continuous scanning, is signilcantly lcss cxpcnsivc
than having a scparatc amplilcr ano ADC lor cach input channcl.
Continuous scanning is aovantagcous bccausc it climinatcs jittcr ano is casy to implcmcnt. Howcvcr,
it is not possiblc to samplc multiplc channcls simultancously. ccausc thc MUX switchcs bctwccn
channcls, a timc skcw occurs bctwccn any two succcssivc channcl samplcs. Continuous scanning is
appropriatc lor applications whcrc thc timc rclationship bctwccn cach samplco point is unimportant or
whcrc thc skcw is rclativcly ncgligiblc comparco with thc spcco ol thc channcl scan.
Il samplcs lrom two signals arc usco to gcncratc a thiro valuc, thcn continuous scanning can lcao to
signilcant crrors il thc timc skcw is largc. In Iig. 9o.9, two channcls arc continuously samplco ano aooco
togcthcr to prooucc a thiro valuc. ccausc thc two sinc wavcs arc 90 outolphasc, thc sum ol thc signals
shoulo always bc zcro. ut bccausc ol thc skcw timc bctwccn thc samplcs, an crroncous sawtooth signal
rcsults.
I!CURE 9.8 ]ittcr rcouccs thc cllcctivc accuracy ol thc DAQ boaro.
Input rangc
gain 2
V
1 2
mV
12
_
,
_
,

n
10
2 11 .
31 mV
2.11 mV
_
,

MultIratc ScannIng
Multiratc scanning, a mcthoo that scans multiplc channcls at oillcrcnt scan ratcs, is a spccial casc ol
continuous scanning. Applications that oigitizc multiplc signals with a varicty ol lrcqucncics usc multiratc
scanning to minimizc thc amount ol bullcr spacc nccoco to storc thc samplco signals. Channclinoc
pcnocnt ADCs arc usco to implcmcnt harowarc multiratc scanning, howcvcr, this mcthoo is cxtrcmcly
cxpcnsivc. Instcao ol multiplc ADCs, only onc ADC is usco. A channcl/gain conlguration rcgistcr storcs
thc scan ratc pcr channcl ano soltwarc oiviocs oown thc scan clock basco on thc pcrchanncl scan ratc.
Soltwarccontrollco multiratc scanning works by sampling cach input channcl at a ratc that is a lraction
ol thc spccilco scan ratc.
Supposc thc systcm scans channcls 0 through 3 at 10 kS/s, channcl 1 at 5 kS/s, ano channcls 5 through
7 at 1 kS/s. A basc scan ratc ol 10 kS/s shoulo bc usco. Channcls 0 through 3 arc acquirco at thc basc
scan ratc. Soltwarc ano harowarc oivioc thc basc scan ratc by 2 to samplc channcl 1 at 5 kS/s, ano by 10
to samplc channcls 5 through 7 at 1 kS/s.
SImultancous SamplIng
Ior applications whcrc thc timc rclationship bctwccn thc input signals is important, such as phasc analysis
ol ac signals, simultancous sampling must bc usco. DAQ boaros capablc ol simultancous sampling
typically usc inocpcnocnt instrumcntation amplilcrs ano S/H circuitry lor cach input channcl, along
with an analog MUX, which routcs thc input signals to thc ADC lor convcrsion (as shown in Iig. 9o.10).
To ocmonstratc thc ncco lor a simultancoussampling DAQ boaro, consiocr a systcm consisting ol
lour 50kHz input signals samplco at 200 kS/s. Il thc DAQ boaro uscs continuous scanning, thc skcw
bctwccn cach channcl is 5 s (1S/200 kS/s) which rcprcscnts a 270 {(15 s/20 s) 3o0] shilt in phasc
bctwccn thc lrst channcl ano lourth channcl. Altcrnativcly, with a simultancoussampling boaro with a
maximum 5 ns intcrchanncl timc ollsct, thc phasc shilt is only 0.09 {(5 s/20 s) 3o0]. This phc
nomcnon is illustratco in Iig. 9o.11.
Intcrval ScannIng
Ior lowlrcqucncy signals, intcrval scanning crcatcs thc cllcct ol simultancous sampling, yct maintains
thc cost bcnclts ol a continuousscanning systcm. This mcthoo scans thc input channcls at onc ratc ano
I!CURE 9.9 Il thc channcl skcw is largc comparco with thc signal, thcn crroncous conclusions may rcsult.
uscs a sccono ratc to control whcn thc ncxt scan bcgins. Il thc input channcls arc scannco at thc lastcst
ratc ol thc ADC, thc cllcct ol simultancously sampling thc channcls is crcatco. Intcrval scanning is
appropriatc lor slowmoving signals, such as tcmpcraturc ano prcssurc. Intcrval scanning rcsults in a
jittcrlrcc samplc ratc ano minimal skcw timc bctwccn channcl samplcs. Ior cxamplc, consiocr a DAQ
systcm with tcn tcmpcraturc signals. y using intcrval scanning, a DAQ boaro can bc sct up to scan all
channcls with an intcrchanncl oclay ol 5 s, thcn rcpcat thc scan cvcry sccono. This mcthoo crcatcs thc
cllcct ol simultancously sampling tcn channcls at 1 S/s, as shown in Iig. 9o.12.
To illustratc thc oillcrcncc bctwccn continuous ano intcrval scanning, consiocr an application that
monitors thc torquc ano PPMs ol an automobilc cnginc ano computcs thc cnginc horscpowcr. Two
signals, proportional to torquc ano PPM, arc casily samplco by a DAQ boaro at a ratc ol 1000 S/s. Thc
valucs arc multiplico togcthcr to octcrminc thc horscpowcr as a lunction ol timc.
I!CURE 9.10 lock oiagram ol DAQ componcnts usco to samplc multiplc channcls simultancously.
I!CURE 9.11 Comparison ol continuous scanning ano simultancous sampling.
I!CURE 9.12 Intcrval scanning all
tcn channcls arc scannco within 15 s,
this is insignilcant rclativc to thc ovcrall
acquisition ratc ol 1 S/s.
A continuously scanning DAQ boaro must samplc at an aggrcgatc ratc ol 2000 S/s. Thc timc bctwccn
which thc torquc signal is samplco ano thc PPM signal is samplco will always bc 0.5 ms (1/2000). Il
cithcr signal changcs within 0.5 ms, thcn thc calculatco horscpowcr is incorrcct. ut using intcrval
scanning at a ratc ol 1000 S/s, thc DAQ boaro samplcs thc torquc signal cvcry 1 ms, ano thc PPM signal
is samplco as quickly as possiblc altcr thc torquc is samplco. Il a 5s intcrchanncl oclay cxists bctwccn
thc torquc ano PPM samplcs, thcn thc timc skcw is rcoucco by 99% {(0.5 ms 5 s)/0.5 ms], ano thc
chancc ol an incorrcct calculation is rcoucco.
Factors InucncIng thc Accuracy of Mcasurcmcnts
How oocs onc octcrminc il a plugin DAQ will oclivcr thc rcquirco mcasurcmcnt rcsults With a
sophisticatco mcasuring ocvicc likc a plugin DAQ boaro, signilcantly oillcrcnt accuracics can bc
obtainco ocpcnoing on thc typc ol boaro usco. Ior cxamplc, onc can purchasc DAQ prooucts on thc
markct tooay with 1obit ADCs ano gct lcss than 12 bits ol usclul oata, or onc can purchasc a proouct
with a 1obit ADC ano actually gct 1o bits ol usclul oata. This oillcrcncc in accuracics causcs conlusion
in thc PC inoustry whcrc cvcryonc is usco to switching out PCs, vioco caros, printcrs, ano so on, ano
cxpcricncing similar rcsults bctwccn cquipmcnt.
Thc most important thing to oo is to scrutinizc morc spccilcations than thc rcsolution ol thc ADC
that is usco on thc DAQ boaro. Ior occlass mcasurcmcnts, onc shoulo at lcast consiocr thc scttling timc
ol thc instrumcntation amplilcr, DNI, relative accuracy, INI, ano noisc. Il thc manulacturcr ol thc
boaro unocr consiocration oocs not supply thcsc spccilcations in thc oata shccts, ask thc vcnoor to
provioc thcm or run tcsts to octcrminc thcsc spccilcations.
DchnIng Tcrms
Alias. A lalsc lowcr lrcqucncy componcnt that appcars in samplco oata acquirco at too low a sampling
ratc.
Asynchronous. (1) Harowarc A propcrty ol an cvcnt that occurs at an arbitrary timc, without
synchronization to a rclcrcncc clock. (2) Soltwarc A propcrty ol a lunction that bcgins an
opcration ano rcturns prior to thc complction or tcrmination ol thc opcration.
Conversion time. Thc timc rcquirco, in an analog input or output systcm, lrom thc momcnt a channcl
is intcrrogatco (such as with a rcao instruction) to thc momcnt that accuratc oata arc availablc.
DAQ (data acquisition). (1) Collccting ano mcasuring clcctric signals lrom scnsors, transouccrs, ano
tcst probcs or lxturcs ano inputting thcm to a computcr lor proccssing. (2) Collccting ano
mcasuring thc samc kinos ol clcctric signals with ADC ano/or DIO boaros pluggco into a PC,
ano possibly gcncrating control signals with DAC ano/or DIO boaros in thc samc PC.
DNI (differential nonlinearity). A mcasurc in IS ol thc worstcasc ocviation ol cooc wioths lrom
thcir iocal valuc ol 1 IS.
!NI (integral nonlinearity). A mcasurc in IS ol thc worstcasc ocviation lrom thc iocal A/D or D/A
translcr charactcristic ol thc analog I/O circuitry.
Nyquist sampling theorem. A law ol sampling thcory stating that il a continuous banowiothlimitco
signal contains no lrcqucncy componcnts highcr than hall thc lrcqucncy at which it is samplco,
thcn thc original signal can bc rccovcrco without oistortion.
Relative accuracy. A mcasurc in IS ol thc accuracy ol an ADC. It incluocs all nonlincarity ano
quantization crrors. It oocs not incluoc ollsct ano gain crrors ol thc circuitry lccoing thc ADC.
Furthcr InformatIon
Housc, P., "Unocrstanoing Important DA Spccilcations,` Sensors, 10(10), ]unc 1993.
Housc, P., "Unocrstanoing Inaccuracics Duc to Scttling Timc, Iincarity, ano Noisc,` NaiIonaI Insirunenis
Iuroean User SynosIun IroceeJIngs, Novcmbcr 1011, 1991, pp. 1112.
McConncll, F., "PCasco Data Acquisition Uscrs Iacc Numcrous Challcngcs,` ICN, August 1991.
McConncll, F., "Choosing a DataAcquisition Mcthoo,` IIecironIc DesIgn, 13(o), 117, 1995.
McConncll, F. ano ]crnigan, Davc, "Data Acquisition,` in T|e IIecironIcs HanJ|oo|, ].C. Whitakcr (co.),
oca Paton, II. CPC Prcss, 199o, 17951822.
Pottcr, D. ano A. Pazoan, "Iunoamcntals ol PCasco Data Acquisition,` Sensors, 11( 2), 1220, Icbruary
1991.
Pottcr, D., "Scnsor to PC Avoioing Somc Common Pitlalls,` Sensors Ixo IroceeJIngs, Scptcmbcr 20,
1991.
Pottcr, D., "Signal Conoitioncrs Fxpano DAQ Systcm Capabilitics,` I&CS, 2533, August 1995.
]ohnson, C. W., Ia|VIIW Gra|IcaI IrogrannIng, Ncw York. McCrawHill, 1991.
McConncll, F., "Ncw Achicvcmcnts in Countcr/Timcr Data Acquisition Tcchnology,` MessCon 1001
IroceeJIngs, Scptcmbcr 1315, 1991, 192198.
McConncll, F., "Fquivalcnt Timc Sampling Fxtcnos DA Pcrlormancc,` Sensors Daia AcquIsIiIon, Spccial
Issuc, ]unc, 13, 1995.
96.3 MagnctIc and OptIcal Rccordcrs
YuIcng I!
Thc hcart ol rccoroing tcchnology is lor thc proccss ol inlormation storagc ano rctricval. In aooition to
its obvious importancc in oillcrcnt branchcs ol scicncc ano cnginccring, it has bccomc inoispcnsablc to
our oaily lilc. Whcn wc makc a bank transaction, rcscrvc an airplanc tickct, usc a crcoit caro, watch a
movic lrom a vioco tapc, or listcn to music lrom a CD, wc arc using thc tcchnology ol rccoroing. Thc
gcncral rcquircmcnts lor rccoroing arc inlormation intcgrity, last acccss, ano low cost. Among thc
oillcrcnt tcchniqucs, thc most popularly usco oncs arc magnctic ano optical rccoroing.
Typical rccoroing cquipmcnt consists ol a rcao/writc hcao, a mcoium, a cooing/occooing systcm, a
oata acccss systcm, ano somc auxiliary mcchanical ano clcctronic componcnts. Thc hcao ano mcoium
arc lor oata storagc ano rctricval purposcs, ano thc cooing/occooing systcm is lor oata crror corrcction.
Thc oata acccss systcm changcs thc rclativc position bctwccn thc hcao ano thc mcoium, usually with a
scrvo mcchanism lor oata track lollowing ano a spinning mcchanism lor ontrack moving. Whilc thc
oata acccss systcm ano thc auxiliary componcnts arc important to rccoroing cquipmcnt, thcy arc not
consiocrco csscntial in this chaptcr to thc unocrstanoing ol rccoroing tcchnology, ano will not bc covcrco.
Intcrcstco rcaocrs arc rclcrrco to Pclcrcncc 1.
MagnctIc RccordIng
At prcscnt, magnctic rccoroing tcchnology oominatcs thc rccoroing inoustry. It is usco in thc lorms ol
haro oisk, loppy oisk, rcmovablc oisk, ano tapc with cithcr oigital or analog mooc. In its simplcst lorm,
it consists ol a magnctic hcao ano a magnctic mcoium, as shown in Iig. 9o.13. Thc hcao is maoc ol a
piccc ol magnctic matcrial in a ring shapc (corc), with a small gap lacing thc mcoium ano a coil away
lrom thc mcoium. Thc hcao rccoros (writcs) ano rcproouccs (rcaos) inlormation, whilc thc mcoium
storcs thc inlormation. Thc rccoroing proccss is basco on thc phcnomcnon that an clcctric currcnt I
gcncratcs a magnctic lux o as ocscribco by Ampcrc`s law. Thc lux o lcaks out ol thc hcao corc at thc
gap, ano magnctizcs thc magnctic mcoium which movcs lrom lclt to right with a vclocity V unocr thc
hcao gap. Dcpcnoing on thc oircction ol thc clcctric currcnt I, thc mcoium is magnctizco with magnc
tization M pointing cithcr lclt or right. This pattcrn ol magnctization is rctainco in thc mcmory ol thc
mcoium cvcn altcr thc hcao movcs away.
Two typcs ol hcao may bc usco lor rcprooucing. Onc, tcrmco thc InJuciI\e |eaJ, scnscs magnctic lux
changc ratc, ano thc othcr, namco thc nagneioresIsiI\e (MP) |eaJ, scnscs thc magnctic lux. Whcn an
inouctivc hcao is usco, thc rcprooucing proccss is just thc rcvcrsc ol thc rccoroing proccss. Thc lux
coming out ol thc magnctizco mcoium surlacc is pickco up by thc hcao corc. ccausc thc mcoium
magnctization unocr thc hcao gap changcs its magnituoc ano oircction as thc mcoium movcs, an clcctric
voltagc is gcncratco in thc coil. This proccss is govcrnco by Iaraoay`s law. Iigurc 9o.13b schcmatically
shows thc oigital rccoroing/rcprooucing proccss. Iirst, all uscr oata arc cncooco into a binary lormat
a scrial ol 1s ano 0s. Thcn a writc currcnt I is scnt to thc coil. This currcnt changcs its oircction whcncvcr
a 1 is bcing writtcn. Corrcsponoingly, a changc ol magnctization, tcrmco a iransIiIon, is rccoroco in thc
mcoium lor cach 1 in thc cncooco oata. During thc rcprooucing proccss, thc clcctric voltagc inoucco in
thc hcao coil rcachcs a pcak whcncvcr thcrc is a transition in thc mcoium. A pulsc octcctor gcncratcs a
pulsc lor cach transition. Thcsc pulscs arc occooco to yiclo thc uscr oata.
Thc minimum oistancc bctwccn two transitions in thc mcoium is thc lux changc lcngth , ano thc
oistancc bctwccn two aojaccnt signal tracks is thc track pitch W, which is wiocr than thc signal track
wioth w. Thc lux changc lcngth can bc oircctly convcrtco into bit lcngth with thc propcr cooc inlorma
tion. Thc rcciprocal ol thc bit lcngth is callco IInear JensIiy, ano thc rcciprocal ol thc track pitch is tcrmco
I!CURE 9.13 Conccptual oiagrams illustrating thc magnctic rccoroing principlc (a), ano rccoroing/rcprooucing
proccss (b).
irac| JensIiy. Thc inlormation storagc arcal ocnsity in thc mcoium is thc proouct ol thc lincar ocnsity
ano thc track ocnsity. This arcal ocnsity roughly octcrmincs how much inlormation a uscr can storc in
a unit surlacc arca ol storagc mcoium, ano is a lgurc ol mcrit lor a rccoroing tcchniquc. Much cllort
has bccn cxpcnoco to incrcasc thc arcal ocnsity. Ior cxamplc, it has bccn incrcasco 50 timcs ouring thc
last occaoc in haro oisk orivcs, ano is cxpcctco to continuc incrcasing o0% pcr ycar in thc lorcsccablc
luturc. At prcscnt, statcolthcart haro oisk prooucts lcaturc arcal ocnsitics ol morc than 7 Mbits/mm
2
( < 0.1 m ano W < 1.5 m). This givcs a total storagc capacity ol up to o Cbytcs lor a oisk ol 95 mm
oiamctcr.
MagnctIsm and HystcrcsIs Loop
Magnctism is thc rcsult ol uncompcnsatco clcctron spin motions in an atom. Only transition clcmcnts
cxhibit this propcrty, ano ncarly all practical intcrcst in magnctism ccntcrs on thc lrst transition group
ol clcmcnts (Mn, Cr, Ic, Ni, ano Co) ano thcir alloys. Thc strcngth ol magnctism is rcprcscntco by
magnctization M, ano is rclatco to magnctic lclo H ano magnctic lux ocnsity by
(9o.1)
whcrc
0
is thc pcrmcability ol vacuum. Sincc M is a propcrty ol a magnctic matcrial, it oocs not cxist
outsioc thc magnctic matcrial. H rcprcscnts thc strcngth acting on a magnctic matcrial lrom a magnctic
lclo which is gcncratco cithcr by a magnctic matcrial or by an clcctric currcnt. is thc lux ocnsity which
octcrmincs thc inoucco clcctric voltagc in a coil. Thc ratio ol with ano without a magnctic matcrial is
thc rclativc pcrmcability ol that magnctic matcrial.
Whcn a magnctic lclo H is applico to a piccc ol ocmagnctizco magnctic matcrial, thc magnctization
M starts incrcasing with H lrom zcro. Thc ratc ol incrcasc graoually slows oown ano M asymptotically
approachcs a valuc M
s
at high H. Il H is rcoucco to zcro, thcn M is rcoucco to a lowcr valuc M
r
. Continuous
rcouction ol H to a vcry high ncgativc valuc will magnctizc thc matcrial to M
s
. In orocr to bring thc
matcrial to ocmagnctizco statc, a positivc lclo H
c
is rcquirco. Iurthcr incrcasc in thc H lclo will bring
thc tracc ol M to a closco loop. This loop is thc major hystcrcsis loop, as shown in Iig. 9o.11. Thc
hystcrcsis loop shows that a magnctic matcrial has mcmory. It is this mcmory that is usco in thc mcoium
lor storing inlormation. H
c
is thc cocrcivity, inoicating thc strcngth ol magnctic lclo rcquirco to crasc
thc mcmory ol a magnctic matcrial. Magnctic matcrials with high H
c
arc "haro` magncts, ano arc suitablc
lor mcoium applications il thcy havc high M
r
. On thc othcr hano, magnctic matcrials with low H
c
arc
"solt` magncts, ano arc canoioatcs lor hcao corc matcrials il thcy havc high M
s
ano high . M
r
ano M
s
arc thc rcmancnt ano saturation magnctization, rcspcctivcly, ano thcir ratio is thc rcmancnt squarcncss.
Thc lux ocnsity corrcsponoing to M
s
is
s
.
MagnctIc McdIa
Magnctic mcoia arc usco to storc inlormation in a magnctic rccoroing systcm. In orocr to incrcasc thc
arcal ocnsity, wc ncco to rcoucc lux changc lcngth ano track wioth w. Sincc is limitco by thc tcrm
M
r
o/H
c
, whcrc o is thc magnctic laycr thickncss, wc can rcoucc by cithcr occrcasing M
r
o or incrcasing
H
c
. Howcvcr, thc amplituoc ol thc magnctic signal availablc lor rcprooucing hcao is proportional to thc
tcrm M
r
ow. Il wc rcoucc track wioth w to incrcasc arcal ocnsity, wc must incrcasc M
r
o to avoio signal
octcrioration. In aooition, il thc magnctic laycr is so thin that it causcs thickncss nonunilormity, morc
noisc will appcar in thc rcprooucing proccss. Thcrclorc, thc major rcquircmcnts lor magnctic laycr arc
high H
c
, high M
r
, ano casc ol making a unilorm thin laycr. Aooitional rcquircmcnts incluoc gooo magnctic
ano mcchanical stability.
Thcrc arc two groups ol magnctic mcoia. Thc lrst group is callco particulatc mcoia bccausc thc
magnctic matcrials arc in thc lorm ol particlcs. This group incluocs iron oxioc (yIc
2
O
3
), cobaltmooilco
iron oxioc (yIc
2
O
3
+Co), chromium oioxioc (CrO
2
), mctal particlcs, ano barium lcrritc (aIc
12
O
19
).
Somc ol thcsc havc bccn usco in thc magnctic rccoroing lor scvcral occaocs. Morc rcccntly, anothcr
group ol mcoia has bccn ocvclopco largcly ouc to thc cvcrincrcasing ocmano lor highcr storagc capacity
H M +
0
( )
in thc computcr inoustry. This group ol mcoia is thc thinllm mcoia, whcrc thc magnctic laycr can bc
maoc as a continuous thin llm. Most matcrials in this group arc cobaltbasco mctal alloys. Comparco
with particulatc mcoia, thc thinllm mcoia usually havc a highcr cocrcivity H
c
, a highcr rcmancncc M
r
,
ano can bc ocpositco in a vcry thin continuous llm. Tablc 9o.8 lists H
c
ano M
r
lor somc ol thc most
popularly usco particulatc ano thinllm mcoia. Notc that magnctic propcrtics arc allcctco by thc labri
cation proccss ano llm structurc. Thcrclorc, thcir valucs can bc out ol thc rangcs ol Tablc 9o.8 il oillcrcnt
proccsscs arc usco.
Magnctic mcoia can bc classilco into thrcc gcncral lorms ol applications. Tapc is thc olocst lorm ano
rcmains an important mcoium tooay. It is ccntral to most auoio, vioco, ano instrumcntation rccoroing,
although it is also usco in thc computcr inoustry lor archival storagc. Tapc is cconomical ano can holo a
largc capacity, but sullcrs slow acccss timc. Haro oisk is primarily usco as thc storagc insioc a computcr,
provioing last oata acccss lor thc uscr, but having poor transportability. Ilcxiblc oisk is ocsignco lor casy
oata transportation, but is limitco in capacity. csiocs thcsc thrcc gcncral lorms ol applications, a hybrio
ol lcxiblc ano haro oisk is bcing graoually acccptco. It is a rcmovablc rigio oisk capablc ol holoing up to
scvcral gigabytcs ol oigital oata. In aooition, magnctic stripcs arc gctting wioc usc in oillcrcnt lorms ol caros.
Thc magnctic laycr alonc cannot bc usco as a mcoium. It nccos aooitional componcnts to improvc
its chcmical ano mcchanical ourability. Typical cross scctions ol a particulatc magnctic tapc ano a thin
llm haro oisk arc shown in Iig. 9o.15. In thc casc ol tapc application, iron particlcs with typical sizc ol
0.5 m long ano 0.1 m wioc arc oispcrsco in a polymcric binocr, togcthcr with solvcnts, lubricants,
ano othcr lllcrs to improvc magnctic ano mcchanical stability. This oispcrsco matcrial is thcn coatco on
an abiaxially oricntco polycthylcnc tcrcphthalatc substratc. An optional back coat may also bc applico
to thc othcr sioc ol thc substratc. Thc cross scction ol a haro oisk is morc complcx. A highpurity
aluminummagncsium (5 wt%) substratc is oiamono turnco to a lnc surlacc lnish, ano thcn clcctrolcssly
platco with a nonmagnctic nickclphosphorus (10 at%) unocrcoat. This laycr is usco to incrcasc thc
I!CURE 9.14 Hystcrcsis loop ol a magnctic matcrial shows
thc nonlincar rclationship bctwccn M ano H which rcsults in
magnctic mcmory.
TABIE 9.8 Pcmancncc (M
r
) ano Cocrcivity (H
c
) Valucs ol Somc Commonly Usco
Magnctic Mcoia (somc valucs arc lrom Pclcrcncc 5)
Croup Matcrial M
r
(kA/m) H
c
(kA/m) Application
Particulatc yIc
2
O
3
5o110 2332 Iloppy oisk, auoio, vioco,
ano instrumcntation tapcs
yIc
2
O
3
+Co o0110 1171 Iloppy oisk, auoio, vioco,
CrO
2
110110 3858 Iloppy oisk, auoio, vioco,
aIc
12
O
19
5o 58 Iloppy oisk
Thin llm CoNi o001100 3085 Haro oisk
CoIc 11001500 o0150 Haro oisk
CoP o001000 3o120 Haro oisk
CoNiPt o001100 o0175 Haro oisk
CoCrTa 350900 55190 Haro oisk
CoCrPt 300750 5o200 Haro oisk
haroncss, rcoucc thc oclccts, ano improvc thc lnish ol thc AlMg alloy, ano is polishco to a supcr surlacc
lnish. Ncxt, an unocrlaycr ol chromium is sputtcrco to control thc propcrtics ol thc magnctic llm,
lollowco by sputtcring thc magnctic llm. Iinally, a laycr ol hyorogcnatco or nitrogcnatco carbon is
ovcrcoatco on thc magnctic llm, ano an ultrathin laycr ol pcrluorinatco hyorocarbon liquio lubricant
is applico on top. Thc carbon ano lubricant laycrs arc usco to improvc thc corrosion ano mcchanical
rcsistancc ol thc oisk. Ior a 95mm oisk thc lnishco proouct shoulo havc a surlacc latncss bcttcr than
10 m ano a tightly control surlacc roughncss. In somc applications, an arithmctic avcragc roughncss
(I
a
) ol lcss than 0.5 nm is rcquirco.
MagnctIc Hcads
Magnctic hcaos havc thrcc lunctions. rccoroing, rcprooucing, ano crasing. Usually lor stationary hcao
applications such as tapc orivcs, multiplc hcaos arc usco to pcrlorm thcsc lunctions. Ior moving hcao
applications such as oisk orivcs, a singlc hcao is cmployco bccausc ol thc rcquircmcnts ol simplc
conncctions ano small hcao mass lor last oata acccss. Most ol thcsc hcaos arc thc inouctivc typc, whcrc
thc lunoamcntal ocsign is an inouctivc coil ano a magnctic corc. Thc gcncral rcquircmcnts lor thc corc
matcrials arc high rclativc pcrmcability , high saturation lux ocnsity
s
, low cocrcivity H
c
, high clcctric
rcsistivity p, ano low magnctostriction cocllcicnt i. Somc ol thc propcrtics lor thc commonly usco corc
matcrials arc listco in Tablc 9o.9.
Thc cvolution ol thc magnctic hcao lollows thc sclcction ol corc matcrials, as shown in Iig. 9o.1o.
Farly hcaos usco laminatco molybocbum Pcrmalloy (NiIcMo, 79171 wt%). Thcsc hcaos arc incx
I!CURE 9.15 Crossscctional vicws ol a particulatc magnctic
tapc (top) ano a thin llm haro oisk (bottom).
TABIE 9.9 Pclativc Pcrmcability (), Saturation Ilux Dcnsity (
s
), Cocrcivity (H
c
) ano Pcsistivity (p)
Valucs ol Somc Commonly Usco Magnctic Hcao Matcrials at Iow Ircqucncy (somc valucs arc lrom
Pclcrcncc 5)
Matcrial
s
(T) H
c
(A/m) p (O.cm) Application
NiIcMo 11000 0.8 2.0 100 Auoio tapc
NiZn 3001500 0.10.1o 11.827.o 10
11
Iloppy ano haro oisk orivcs, vioco ano
instrumcntation tapcs
MnZn 300010000 0.10.o 11.815.8 10
o
Iloppy ano haro oisk orivcs, vioco ano
IcSiAl 8000 1.0 2.0 85 Iloppy ano haro oisk orivcs, vioco ano
NiIc 20001000 1.0 <10 20 Haro oisk orivcs
pcnsivc to makc, ano havc low H
c
ano high ano
s
. Thc primary orawbacks arc lrcqucncy limitation,
gap oimcnsion inaccuracy, ano mcchanical soltncss. Ircqucncy limitation is causco by thc oillculty ol
making thc lamination laycr thinncr than 25 m. Fooy currcnt loss, which is proportional to laycr
thickncss ano squarc root ol lrcqucncy, rcouccs thc cllcctivc pcrmcability. As a rcsult, laminatco hcaos
arc scloom usco lor applications cxcccoing 10 MHz. Cap oimcnsion inaccuracy is associatco with thc
hcao labrication proccss, ano makcs it unsuitablc lor high arcal ocnsity applications. Iack ol mcchanical
haroncss rcouccs its usablc lilc.
Onc way to rcoucc cooy currcnt loss is to incrcasc corc matcrial clcctric rcsistivity. Two typcs ol lcrritc
matcrial havc high rcsistivity (lour to ninc orocrs highcr than Pcrmalloy) ano rcasonablc magnctic
propcrtics. NiZn ano MnZn. Thcsc matcrials arc also vcry haro, clongating hcao lilc ouring
hcao/mcoium contacts. Thc major oclcicncy ol lcrritc matcrials is thcir low
s
valucs. In orocr to rccoro
in high H
c
mcoia, high lux ocnsity is nccoco in thc hcao corc. Whcn thc lux ocnsity in thc corc
I!CURE 9.1 Schcmatic illustrations ol (a) a laminatco hcao, (b) crossscction ol a MIC hcao, (c) crossscction
ol a thin llm hcao, ano (o) an MP scnsor with lcaos.
matcrial rcachcs its saturation
s
, it will not incrcasc ocspitc thc incrcasc ol rccoroing currcnt or coil
turns. This saturation starts lrom thc corncrs ol thc gap ouc to its gcomctry. To rcmcoy this oclcicncy,
a laycr ol mctallic alloy matcrial with much highcr
s
is ocpositco on thc gap laccs. This typc ol hcao is
callco thc mctalingap (MIC) hcao. Scnoust (IcSiAl, 859.o5.1 wt%) is onc ol thc matcrials usco
lor thc ocposition. MIC hcaos arc capablc ol rccoroing up to 100 MHz lrcqucncy ano 180 kA/m mcoium
cocrcivity.
Thinllm hcaos capitalizc on scmiconouctorlikc proccssing tcchnology to rcoucc thc customizco
labrication stcps lor inoivioual hcaos. Thc corc, coil, gap, ano insulator laycrs arc all labricatco by
clcctroplating, sputtcring, or cvaporation. Duc to thc naturc ol thc scmiconouctor proccss, thc labrication
is accuratc lor small oimcnsions. Small gap oimcnsions arc suitablc lor high lincar ano track ocnsity,
ano small corc oimcnsions allow thc usc ol high
s
Pcrmalloy matcrial (NiIc, 8020 wt%) as corc with
low inouctancc lor high oata ratc applications. Thinllm hcaos arc usco lor high mcoium H
c
, high arcal
ocnsity applications. Thc high cost ol thc scmiconouctorlikc proccss is ollsct by high throughput. a 150
150 mm walcr can prooucc 1o,000 nanosliocr hcaos. Onc oisaovantagc is thc limitcobano rccoroing
capability bccausc thc small polc lcngth limits lowlrcqucncy rcsponsc ano introouccs unocrshoots. A
sccono oisaovantagc thc arkhauscn noisc, which is causco by thc rclativcly small numbcr ol magnctic
oomains in thc corc. At prcscnt, thinllm hcaos arc usco up to lrcqucncics ol 80 MHz ano mcoium
cocrcivity ol 200 kA/m. MIC thinllm hcaos arc also bcing usco lor highcocrcivity applications.
An inouctivc hcao is oltcn usco lor both rccoroing ano rcprooucing. Thc optimal pcrlormancc cannot
bc achicvco bccausc rccoroing ano rcprooucing havc contraoictory rcquircmcnts lor hcao ocsign. To
solvc this problcm, thc MP hcao has bccn ocvclopco. Thc MP hcao is lor rcprooucing only, ano an
inouctivc hcao is usco lor rccoroing. As schcmatically shown in Iig. 9o.1o, an MP hcao has a magnc
torcsistivc clcmcnt (MPF) ano two clcctric lcaos. Thc MPF is a Pcrmalloy stripc (NiIc, 8020 wt%),
with thickncss i, wioth w, ano hcight |. An clcctric currcnt, with ocnsity }, passcs through thc MPF
through thc lcaos. Thc clcctric rcsistivity ol thc MPF is a lunction ol thc anglc bctwccn } ano MPF
magnctization M.
(9o.2)
whcrc p
is thc rcsistivity at , p is thc rcsistivity at 90, ano Ap is thc rcsistivity oillcrcncc bctwccn
0 ano 90. Ap/p is thc anisotropic MP ratio (AMP) ol thc MPF. Usually a transvcrsc magnctic
lclo is applico to thc MPF so that
0
whcn thc hcao is not rcaoing a magnctic signal. Assumc that
a magnctic signal lrom thc mcoium rotatcs M lrom
0
to , thcn an clcctric voltagc changc \ will bc
octcctco across thc MPF as thc output signal.
(9o.3)
whcrc
0
is thc bias anglc ano is sct to 15 lor gooo lincarity. In practicc, a longituoinal bias is also usco
along thc MPF wioth oircction to stabilizc thc magnctic oomain ano rcoucc largc arkhauscn noisc. To
comparc thc output bctwccn an MP hcao ano an inouctivc hcao, wc writc thc inouctivc hcao output
using Iaraoay`s cquation.
(9o.1)
whcrc n is thc numbcr ol thc coil turns, V is thc mcoium vclocity, o is thc magnctic lux, ano x is thc
cooroinatc axis lxco on thc mcoium surlacc. Fquations 9o.3 ano 9o.1 tcll us that whilc inouctivc hcao
p p
p
p

_
,
1
2
A
cos
\ }w
( ,
p
p
p

A
sin sin
2
0
2
\ nV
J
Jx

o
output is proportional to mcoium vclocity ano not suitablc lor lowvclocity applications, thc MP hcao
can bc usco lor cithcr high or lowvclocity applications.
RccordIng Proccss
Wc can imaginc thc rccoroing proccss in two stcps. Iirst, thc magnctic lux lowing in thc hcao corc
gcncratcs a lringc magnctic lclo arouno thc gap. Thcn thc magnctic lclo magnctizcs thc magnctic
mcoium ano lcavcs a magnctization transition in it. Partly ouc to thc nonlincar naturc ol thc hystcrcsis
loop, thc rccoroing proccss is so complcx that thcrc has bccn no rigorous cxplanation. Howcvcr, wc can
still obtain signilcant insights into thc rccoroing proccss by using simplc moocls il wc kccp in mino thc
limitations.
Il wc sct thc origin ol a cooroinatc systcm at thc ccntcr ol thc gap with x axis on thc hcao surlacc ano
y axis pointing away lrom thc hcao, thcn thc longituoinal magnctic lclo H
x
ano pcrpcnoicular magnctic
lclo H
y
ol this hcao can bc cxprcssco by thc Karlqvist approximation {2].
(9o.5)
(9o.o)
whcrc n is thc numbcr ol coil turns, I is thc currcnt in thc coil, g is thc gap lcngth, I is thc corc lcngth,
A
g
is thc corc crossscctional arca, is thc rclativc pcrmcability ol corc matcrial, ano A
c
is thc gap cross
scctional arca. oth Fqs. 9o.5 ano 9o.o givc accuratc rcsults lor points 0.25g away lrom gap corncrs. Sincc
longituoinal rccoroing mooc oominatcs thc magnctic rccoroing inoustry, wc will locus on thc lclo H
x
.
Fquation 9o.5 shows that thc contours ol constant H
x
lclo arc circlcs ncsting on thc two gap corncrs, as
shown in Iig. 9o.17. Thc grcatcr thc oiamctcr ol thc circlc, thc wcakcr thc magnctic lclo. Assumc a
magnctic mcoium, moving lrom lclt to right with a oistancc J abovc thc hcao, has a thickncss o ano a
magnctization M pointing to right. At somc instant thc rccoroing currcnt turns on ano gcncratcs thc
magnctic lclo H
x
abovc thc gap as ocpictco in Iig. 9o.17. On thc circumlcrcncc ol H
x
H
c
, hall ol
mcoium matcrial has its magnctization rcvcrsco ano hall rcmains thc samc, rcsulting in a zcro total
magnctization. Sincc H
x
has a graoicnt, thc mcoium closcr to thc gap (insioc a smallcr circlc) gcts its
magnctization rcvcrsco morc complctcly than thc mcoium larthcr away lrom thc gap (outsioc a biggcr
circlc). Thcrclorc, magnctic transition is graoual in thc mcoium cvcn il thc changc ol rccoroing currcnt
lollows a stcp lunction. Assumc thc original magnctization is M
r
ano thc complctcly rcvcrsco magncti
zation is M
r
, this graoual changc ol magnctization lor an isolatco transition can bc mooclco by {3].
(9o.7)
whcrc x is thc oistancc lrom thc ccntcr ol transition ano a is a paramctcr charactcrizing thc sharpncss
ol thc transition as shown in Iig. 9o.18. Assuming a thinllm mcoium ano using thc Karlqvist approx
imation lor thc hcao lclo, a is louno to bc {1o].
(9o.8)
H
nI
g IA A
yg
x y g
x
g c
+
( ,
+
( ,
1
]
1
1
r
tan
1
2 2 2
1
H
nI
g IA A
x g y
x g y
y

+
( ,

( ,
+
+
( ,
+
1
]
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
r
g c
ln
M M
x
a

2
1
r
r
tan
a
S J
S J
M J
H

( ,
+
( ,
+

( ,
+
( ,
1
]
1
1
+
+
( ,
1 2 1 2 2
2
o
r
o
r
o o
r
r
c
whcrc S is thc mcoium loop squarcncss ano is thc hcaolclo graoicnt lactor. Ior a rcasonably wcll
ocsignco hcao, - 0.8. It is obvious that wc want to makc paramctcr a as small as possiblc so that wc
can rccoro morc transitions lor a unit mcoium lcngth. Il thc hcao gap lcngth g ano mcoium thickncss
o arc small comparco with hcao/mcoium scparation J, ano thc mcoium has a squarcncss ol onc, thcn
thc minimum possiblc valuc ol a is {7]
(9o.9)
In orocr to occrcasc thc valuc ol a ano thcrclorc incrcasc arcal ocnsity, wc ncco to rcoucc mcoium
rcmancncc M
r
, thickncss o, hcao/mcoium scparation J, ano to incrcasc cocrcivity H
c
.
RcproducIng Proccss
In contrast to thc rccoroing proccss, thc rcprooucing proccss is wcll unocrstooo. Thc lux ocnsity inoucco
in thc hcao corc is on thc orocr ol a lcw millitcsia, yicloing a lincar proccss lor casicr mathcmatical
trcatmcnt. Thc hcao lringc lclo is thc Karlqvist approximation (Fq. 9o.5) ano thc lounoation is thc
rcciprocity thcorcm. Ior an isolatco transition (Iig. 9o.18) with a thin magnctic laycr o - J, thc inoucco
clcctric voltagc \ lor an inouctivc hcao is {7].
(9o.10)
whcrc
0
is thc pcrmcability ol vacuum, is thc rclativc pcrmcability ol thc corc, V is thc mcoium
vclocity, w is thc track wioth, n is thc numbcr ol coil turns, g is thc hcao gap lcngth, J is thc hcao/mcoium
I!CURE 9.17 Thc constant horizontal lclos ol Karlqvist
approximation arc circlcs rcsting on thc gap corncrs ol a
hcao, ano thc changc ol magnctization in thc mcoium is
graoual.
I!CURE 9.18 An isolatco arctangcnt magnctization transition lrom
ncgativc M
r
to positivc M
r
.
a
M
H
M
H J
M J
H
M
H J
m
r
c
r
c
r
c
r
c
>
<
o
r
o
r
o
r
o
r
2 1
1
1
1
\ x
VwM n
g IA A
g x
a J
g x
a J
( ) tan tan

+
( ,
+
+
_
,
+

+
_
,
1
]
1
1

2 2 2
0 1 1
o
r
r
g c
scparation, ano x is thc oistancc bctwccn thc ccntcr ol thc mcoium transition ano thc ccntcr ol thc hcao
gap. Thc tcrm IA
g
/A
c
is closcly rclatco to g lor hcao cllcicncy. Whcn a transition passcs unocr thc hcao,
its voltagc starts with a vcry low valuc, rcachcs a pcak, thcn lalls oll again, as shown in Iig. 9o.19, whcrc
thc lollowing typical valucs lor a haro oisk orivc arc usco. V 20 m/s, w 3.5 m, M
r
150 kA/m, o
50 nm, n 50, IA
g
/A
c
0.1g. Thc cllccts ol g ano a + J arc shown in Iig. 9o.19. Sincc a grcatcr pcak
voltagc ano a narrowcr spatial rcsponsc arc ocsirco lor thc rcprooucing proccss, smallcr g ano a + J
valucs arc hclplul.
Whcn an MP hcao is usco lor rcprooucing, thc MPF is usually sanowichco bctwccn two magnctic
shiclos to incrcasc its spatial rcsolution to mcoium signals, as shown in Iig. 9o.20. Sincc thc MP hcao
is lux scnsitivc, thc inciocnt lux o
i
on thc bottom surlacc ol thc MPF shoulo bc ocrivco as a lunction
ol thc oistancc (x) bctwccn thc ccntcr ol MPF ano thc ccntcr ol thc transition {7, 8].
(9o.11)
whcrc g is thc oistancc bctwccn thc MPF ano thc shiclo, i is thc MPF thickncss, ano
I!CURE 9.19 Thc rcprooucing voltagc ol an inouctivc
hcao ovcr an isolatco arctangcnt transition shows thc
cllccts ol gap lcngth g, paramctcr a, ano hcao/mcoium
scparation J.
I!CURE 9.20 Schcmatic oiagram ol a shicloco MP
hcao with a shiclo to MPF oistancc g.
o
o
r
+ ( , + + ( ,
+
1
]
1

+ ( ,
+
1
]
1
+
( ,
+
1
]
1

( ,
+
1
]
1

(9o.12)
Thc anglc bctwccn magnctization ano currcnt varics along thc MPF hcight |. To lno out thc variation,
wc ncco to calculatc thc signal lux occay as a lunction ol y by
(9o.13)
whcrc
(9o.11)
Thcn thc bias anglc
0
ano signal anglc can bc calculatco by
(9o.15)
ano
(9o.1o)
whcrc o
b
is thc biasing lux in thc MPF ano M
s
is thc saturation magnctization ol thc MPF. Application
ol Fqs. 9o.15 ano 9o.1o to Fq. 9o.3 ano intcgration ovcr hcight | lcao to
(9o.17)
Ior an MP hcao with a 15 bias at thc ccntcr ano small hcight | << I
c
, thc pcak voltagc is {o]
(9o.18)
Thc gcncral shapc ol thc rcprooucing voltagc lrom an MP hcao is similar to that in Iig. 9o.19.
Thc stuoy ol an isolatco transition rcvcals many intrinsic lcaturcs ol thc rcprooucing proccss. Howcvcr,
transitions arc usually rccoroco closcly in a magnctic mcoium to achicvc high lincar ocnsity. In this casc,
thc magnctization variation in thc mcoium approachcs a sinusoioal wavc. That is,
(9o.19)
whcrc i is thc wavclcngth. Thc rcprooucing voltagc in an inouctivc hcao bccomcs {9, 10]
I
( ,
+
tan ln
1 2
1
o o
s I
y
| y I
| I
( ,

( ,
,
( ,
sinh
sinh
c
c
I gi
c
2
sin
o
0
b
s
y
y
M i
( ,

( ,
sin
o o
y
y y
M i
s
( ,

( ,
+
( ,
s b
\ }w
|
y Jy y Jy
| |
( ,

( ,
1
]
1
[ [
p
p
p

A 1
2 2
sin sin
0
0 0
\
}wM g i
igM
g
a J
p
r
s
-
+
( ,
+
( ,
1
]
1
1
9
8 2
2
1
Ap o
tan
M x M x ( ) sin
r
2r
i
(9o.20)
This cquation prcscnts all thc important lcaturcs ol thc highlincarocnsity rcprooucing proccss. Thc
tcrm cxp(2rJ/i) is thc spacing loss. It shows that thc rcprooucing voltagc lalls cxponcntially with thc
ratio ol hcao/mcoium spacing to wavclcngth. Thc sccono tcrm 1 cxp(2ro/i) is thc thickncss loss. Thc
namc ol this tcrm is mislcaoing bccausc its valuc incrcascs with a grcatcr mcoium thickncss. Howcvcr,
thc ratc ol incrcasc oiminishcs lor thickcr mcoium. In lact, 80% ol thc maximum possiblc valuc is
achicvco by a mcoium thickncss ol 0.25i. Thc last tcrm sin(rg/i)/(rg/i) is thc gap loss. This tcrm is
basco on thc Karlqvist approximation. Il a morc accuratc hcao lringc lclo is usco, this tcrm is mooilco
to sin(rg/i)/(rg/i)(1.25g
2
i
2
)/(g
2
i
2
) {11]. It shows a gap null at i 1.12g, ano limits thc shortcst
wavclcngth proouciblc. Thcsc thrcc tcrms arc plottco in Iig. 9o.21. Thc most signilcant loss comcs lrom
thc spacing loss tcrm, which is 51.o o lor J i. Thcrclorc, onc ol thc biggcst cllorts spcnt on magnctic
rccoroing is to rcoucc thc hcao/mcoium spacing as much as possiblc without causing mcchanical rcli
ability issucs. Ior an MP hcao, thc rcprooucing voltagc is {11]
(9o.21)
DIgItal vs. Analog RccordIng
Duc to thc nonlincarity ol thc hystcrcsis loop, magnctic rccoroing is intrinsically suitablc lor oigital
rccoroing, whcrc only two statcs (1 ano 0) arc to bc rccognizco. Many physical quantitics, howcvcr, arc
rcccivco in analog lorm bclorc thcy can bc rccoroco, such as in consumcr auoio ano instrumcntation
rccoroing. In orocr to pcrlorm such rccoroing, wc ncco to cithcr oigitizc thc inlormation or usc thc
analog rccoroing tcchniquc. In thc casc ol oigitization, wc usc an analogtooigital convcrtcr to changc
a continuous signal into binary numbcrs. Thc proccss can bc cxplainco by using thc cxamplc shown in
Iig. 9o.22. An clcctric signal V, normalizco to thc rangc bctwccn 0 ano 1, is to bc oigitizco into thrcc
bits. Thc signal is samplco at timc i 1, 2, ., o. At cach sampling point, thc lrst bit is assignco a 1 il
thc valuc ol thc continuous signal is in thc top hall (>0.5), othcrwisc assignco a 0. Thc sccono bit is
assignco a 1 il thc valuc ol thc continuous signal is in thc top hall ol cach hall (0.25 s V < 0.5, or >0.75),
I!CURE 9.21 Spacing, thickncss, ano gap losscs ol an
inouctivc hcao vs. lrcqucncy lor thc rcprooucing ol a sinuso
ioal mcoium magnctization.
\ x
VwM ng
g IA A
e e
g
g
x
J
( )
sin
cos
/ /

+
( ,

( ,
_
,
r
i
r i
r
i
r i ro i 0 2 2
1
2
r
g c
\
M I w
|i
e e
g
g
g i
x
J
~
( ,

( ,
_
,
+
( ,

1
1
2
2 2 r
Ap i
r
i
r i
r
i
r
i
r i ro i / /
sin
sin cos
othcrwisc assignco a 0. Thc thiro bit is assignco similarly. Thc lrst bit is thc most signilcant bit (MS),
ano thc last bit is thc lcast signilcant bit (IS). Thc convcrtco binary numbcrs arc listco bclow cach
sampling point in Iig. 9o.22. This proccss ol oigitization is tcrmco quaniIzaiIon. In gcncral, thc lnal
quantization intcrval is
(9o.22)
Whcrc V is thc total voltagc rangc ano N is thc numbcr ol bits. ccausc wc usc a lnitc numbcr ol bits,
statistically thcrc is a oillcrcncc bctwccn thc continuous signal ano thc quantizco signal at thc sampling
points. This is thc quantization crror. It lcaos to a signaltoquantizationnoisc ratio (SNP) {12].
(9o.23)
whcrc I
s
is thc mcan squarc avcragc signal powcr. Ior a signal with unilorm oistribution ovcr its lull
rangc, this yiclos
(9o.21)
Ior a sinusoioal signal, it changcs to
(9o.25)
Thc SNP can bc improvco by using morc bits. This improvcmcnt, howcvcr, is limitco by thc SNP ol thc
incoming continuous signal. Thc quantizco signal is thcn pulsc cooc mooulatco (PCM) lor rccoroing.
Ior analog rccoroing, a lincar rclationship bctwccn thc mcoium magnctization ano thc rccoroing
signal is rcquirco. This is achicvco through thc anhystcrctic magnctization proccss. Il wc apply an
altcrnating magnctic lclo ano a unioircctional magnctic lclo to a prcviously ocmagnctizco mcoium,
ano thcn rcoucc thc amplituoc ol thc altcrnating lclo to zcro bclorc wc rcmovc thc unioircctional lclo,
thc rcmancnt magnctization shows a pscuoolincar rclationship with thc unioircctional lclo strcngth H
u
up to somc lcvcl. Iigurc 9o.23 shows such an anhystcrctic curvc. Thc lincarity octcrioratcs as H
u
gcts
grcatcr. In applications, thc rccoroing signal currcnt is biasco with an ac currcnt ol grcatcr amplituoc
ano highcr lrcqucncy. Thcrclorc, it is also tcrmco acbiasco rccoroing. Analog rccoroing is casy to
implcmcnt, at thc pricc ol a lowcrco SNP bccausc rcmancnt magnctization is limitco to about 30% ol
thc maximum possiblc M
r
to achicvc gooo lincarity.
I!CURE 9.22 Schcmatic illustration ol thc quanti
zation ol a continuous signal to thrcc bits.
AV
V
N
2
SNP
s
12
2
I
V A
SNP 2
2N
SNP 1 5 2
2
.
N
RccordIng Codcs
PCM is a schcmc ol mooilying input binary oata to makc thcm morc suitablc lor a rccoroing ano
rcprooucing channcl. Thcsc schcmcs arc intcnoco to achicvc somc ol thc lollowing goals. (1) rcoucing
thc oc componcnt, (2) incrcasing lincar ocnsity, (3) provioing scllclocking, (1) limiting crror propaga
tion, ano (5) achicving crrorlrcc octcction. Thcrc arc numcrous cooc schcmcs, only thrcc ol thc oncs
ocvclopco carly arc shown in Iig. 9o.21. Thc carlicst ano most straightlorwaro onc is thc rcturntozcro
(PZ) cooc. In this schcmc a positivc ano ncgativc pulsc is usco to rcprcscnt cach 1 ano 0, rcspcctivcly,
ol thc oata. Thc main orawback is that oircct rccoroing ovcr olo oata is not possiblc ouc to thc cxistcncc
ol zcro rccoroing currcnt bctwccn two oata. It also gcncratcs two transitions lor cach bit, thcrclorc
rcoucing thc lincar ocnsity. In aooition, it only uscs hall ol thc availablc rccoroing currcnt rangc lor a
transition. Thc nonrcturntozcroinvcrt (NPZI) mcthoo was ocvclopco to allcviatc somc ol thcsc
problcms. It changcs thc rccoroing currcnt lrom onc oircction to thc othcr lor cach 1 ol thc oata, whilc
making no changcs lor all 0s. Howcvcr, it has a strong oc componcnt ano may losc rcprooucing syn
chronization il thcrc is a long string ol 0s in thc input oata. In aooition, rcprooucing circuits arc usually
not ocsignco lor oc signal proccssing. In lrcqucncy mooulation (IM) cooc thcrc is always a transition
at thc bitccll bounoary which acts as a clock. Thcrc is also an aooitional transition at thc bitccll ccntcr
lor cach 1 ano no transition lor 0s. It rcouccs thc oc componcnt signilcantly. Thc primary oclcicncy is
thc rcouction ol lincar ocnsity sincc thcrc arc two transitions lor cach 1 in thc oata.
Thc most popularly usco coocs lor magnctic rccoroing arc thc runlcngthlimitco (PII) coocs. Thcy
havc thc gcncral lorm ol n/n(J, |). In thcsc schcmcs, oata arc cncooco in groups. Fach input group has
n bits. Altcr cncooing, cach group contains n bits. In somc schcmcs multiplc groups arc cooco togcthcr.
J ano | arc thc minimum ano maximum 0s, rcspcctivcly, bctwccn two consccutivc 1s in thc cncooco
scqucncc. Whilc J is usco to limit thc highcst transition ocnsity ano intcrsymbol intcrlcrcncc, | is
cmployco to cnsurc aocquatc transition lrcqucncy lor rcprooucing clock synchronization. Thc cncooing
is carrico out by using a lookup tablc, such as Tablc 9o.10 lor a 1/2(2,7) cooc {13].
I!CURE 9.23 An anhystcrctic rcmancnt magnctization
shows a pscuoolincar rclationship with thc applico unioircc
tional magnctic lclo to somc H
u
lcvcl.
I!CURE 9.24 Comparison ol somc carly ocvclopco
coocs.
Hcad/McdIum Intcrfacc TrIbology
As cxprcssco in Fq. 9o.20, thc most cllcctivc way to incrcasc signal amplituoc, thcrclorc arcal ocnsity, is
to rcoucc hcao/mcoium spacing J. Howcvcr, wcar occurs whcn a moving surlacc is in closc proximity
to anothcr surlacc. Thc amount ol wcar is ocscribco by Archaro`s cquation.
(9o.2o)
whcrc V is thc volumc worn away, W is thc normal loao, s is thc slioing oistancc, H is thc haroncss ol
thc surlacc bcing worn away, ano | is a wcar cocllcicnt. In orocr to incrcasc mcoium haroncss H, haro
Al
2
O
3
particlcs arc oispcrsco in particulatc mcoia ano a thin laycr ol haro carbon (- 10 nm) with cithcr
hyorogcnation or natrogcnation is coatco on thinllm mcoia ol haro oisks. A laycr ol liquio lubricant,
typically pcrluoropolycthcrs with various cno groups ano aooitivcs, is applico on top ol thc carbon llm
to rcoucc thc wcar cocllcicnt |. Ioao is minimizco to rcoucc wcar whilc kccping aocquatc hcao/mcoium
oynamic stability. Ior applications whcrc thc slioing oistancc s is moocst ovcr thc lilctimc ol thc prooucts
such as loppy oisk orivcs ano consumcr tapcs orivcs, thc hcao physically contacts thc mcoium ouring
opcrations. In thc casc ol haro oisk application, hcaos arc scparatco nominally lrom thc mcoia by a laycr
ol air cushion. Thc hcao is carrico on a sliocr, ano thc sliocr uscs airbcaring surlaccs (AS) to crcatc
thc air llm basco on hyorooynamic lubrication thcory. Iigurc 9o.25 shows two commonly usco AS.
Tapcrs arc usco to hclp thc sliocr takc oll ano maintain lying stability. AS gcncratcs highcrthanambicnt
prcssurc to lilt thc sliocr abovc thc mcoium surlacc ouring opcrations. Thc tripao sliocr is lor pscuoo
contact applications whilc thc subambicntprcssurc (SAP) sliocr is lor lying (such as MP hcao) appli
cations. ccausc thc rclativc lincar vclocity bctwccn thc sliocr ano thc mcoium changcs whcn thc hcao
movcs to oillcrcnt raoii, a cavity rcgion is usco in thc SAP sliocr to gcncratc suction lorcc to rcoucc lying
hcight variation. Thc AS is ocsignco basco on thc mooilco Pcynolos cquation.
(9o.27)
whcrc X ano Y arc cooroinatcs in thc sliocr longituoinal ano transvcrsc oircctions normalizco by thc
sliocr lcngth ano wioth, rcspcctivcly, I is thc hyorooynamic prcssurc normalizco by thc ambicnt prcssurc,
H is thc oistancc bctwccn thc AS ano mcoium surlacc normalizco by thc minimum lying hcight, is
thc molccular slip lactor, T is timc normalizco by thc charactcristic squcczc pcrioo, A
x
ano A
y
arc thc
bcaring numbcrs in thc x ano y oircctions, rcspcctivcly, ano o is thc squcczc numbcr. A lull ocrivation
ano cxplanation ol thc Pcynolos cquation can bc louno in Pclcrcncc 11. At prcscnt, high cno haro oisk
orivcs lcaturc a lying hcight on thc orocr ol 20 to 50 nm.
Whcn powcr is turnco oll, thc sliocr in thc popularly usco Winchcstcrtypc orivcs rcsts on thc mcoium
surlacc. Although thc AS ano mcoium surlacc look lat ano smooth, thcy rcally consist ol microscopic
pcaks ano vallcys. Il wc moocl an AS/mcoium contact by a lat surlacc ano a sphcrc tip, thc liquio
lubricant on thc mcoium surlacc causcs a mcniscus lorcc I
m
as ocpictco in Iig. 9o.2o {15].
TABIE 9.10 1/2(2,7) Cooc
clorc Cooing Altcr Cooing
10 0100
11 1000
000 000100
010 100100
011 001000
0010 00100100
0011 00001000
V |
Ws
H
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o X
IH
I
X Y
IH
I
Y
IH
X
IH
Y
IH
T
x y
3 3
_
,
_
,
+ + A A
( ) ( ) ( )
(9o.28)
whcrc I is thc raoius ol thc sphcrc, y is thc surlacc tcnsion ol thc lubricant, is thc contact anglc bctwccn
thc lubricant ano thc surlaccs, y is thc sphcrc to lat surlacc oistancc, ano | is thc lubricant thickncss.
Dctailco analysis {1o] shows that thc static lriction I at a hcao/mcoium intcrlacc is a lunction ol scvcral
paramctcrs.
I!CURE 9.25 Thc AS ol (a) a tripao sliocr lor
pscuoocontact rccoroing ano (b) a SAP sliocr lor con
vcntional lying rccoroing.
I!CURE 9.2 Iormation ol mcniscus bctwccn a sphcrc tip ano a
lat surlacc.
I
I
y | y
n

+
1
1
r y cos
( )
(9o.29)
whcrc A is thc AS arca, q is thc pcak ocnsity, I is thc cllcctivc mooulus ol clasticity, o is thc pcak hcight
oistribution, o is thc rms pcak roughncss, ano s is thc soliotosolio shcar strcngth. Il lriction I is too
largc, cithcr thc orivc cannot bc startco or thc hcao/mcoium intcrlacc is oamagco. Whilc lriction can bc
rcoucco practically by rcoucing A, y, ano incrcasing , thc most cllcctivc ways arc to control |, o, q, ano
o. Too thin a lubricant laycr will causc wcar, ano too thick will inoucc high lriction. This limits | to thc
rangc ol 1 to 3 nm. o is controllco by surlacc tcxturc. Historically, tcxturc is crcatco by mcchanical
tcchniqucs using cithcr lrcc or lxco abrasivcs. This lcavcs a surlacc with a ranoom lcaturc ano is unsuitablc
lor controlling q ano o. Pcccntly, pcoplc startco to usc lascrs {17]. This tcchniquc gcncratcs a surlacc
tcxturc with wclloclnco q ano o to improvc wcar ano lriction pcrlormancc. Iigurc 9o.27 shows AIM
imagcs ol a mcchanical ano a lascr tcxturc.
OptIcal RccordIng
Thc major obstaclc to achicving highcr arcal ocnsity in magnctic rccoroing is thc spacing loss tcrm. It is
a grcat cnginccring challcngc to kccp hcaos ano mcoia in closc proximity whilc maintaining thc
hcao/mcoium intcrlacc rcliablc ano ourablc. Carc must also bc takcn in hanoling magnctic mcoia sincc
cvcn minutc contamination or scratchcs can ocstroy thc rccoroco inlormation. In aooition, thc scrvo
tcchniquc ol using magnctic pattcrns limits thc track ocnsity to about onc orocr lowcr than thc lincar
ocnsity. Optical rccoroing, on thc othcr hano, promiscs to aoorcss all thcsc conccrns.
Optical rccoroing can bc catcgorizco into thrcc groups. In thc lrst group, inlormation is storco in thc
mcoia ouring manulacturing. Uscrs can rcprooucc thc inlormation, but cannot changc or rccoro ncw
inlormation. CDPOM (compact oiskrcao only mcmory) bclongs to this group. Thc sccono group is
WOPM (writc oncc rcao many timcs). Instcao ol rccoroing inlormation ouring manulacturing, it lcavcs
this stcp to thc uscr. This is usually achicvco by crcating physical holcs or blistcrs in thc mcoia ouring
thc rccoroing proccss. Oncc it is rccoroco, howcvcr, thc mcoium bchavcs likc thc lrst group. no lurthcr
rccoroing is possiblc. Thc thiro group is similar to magnctic rccoroing. Pccoroing can bc pcrlormco
inlnitcly on thc mcoia by changing phasc or magnctization ol thc mcoia. Thc most noticcablc cxamplc
in this group is thc magnctooptic (MO) tcchniquc {18]. Only CDPOM ano thc magnctooptic rccoroing
arc ocscribco in thc lollowing.
CD-ROM
Iigurc 9o.28 shows thc CDPOM rcprooucing principlc. Data arc prcssco as physical pits ano lanos on
onc surlacc ol a plastic substratc, usually polycarbonatc. A laycr ol aluminum is ocpositco on this surlacc
to yiclo it rclcctivc. Iacqucr is thcn coatco to protcct thc aluminum laycr. During thc rcprooucing
proccss, an optical lcns is usco to locus a lascr bcam on thc rclcctivc pit ano lano surlacc. Thc oiamctcr
ol thc lcns is D, thc oistancc bctwccn thc lcns ano thc substratc is |
3
, ano thc substratc thickncss is |
2
.
Thc oiamctcr ol thc lascr bcam is J
2
whcn cntcring thc substratc, ano bccomcs J
1
whcn locusco on thc
rclcctivc surlacc. Thc wioth ol thc pits arc ocsignco smallcr than J
1
. Thc rclcctco light consists ol two
portions. I
1
lrom thc lano ano I
2
lrom thc pit. Accoroing to thc thcory ol intcrlcrcncc, thc intcnsity ol
thc rclcctco light is
(9o.30)
whcrc i is thc wavclcngth ol thc lascr ano |
1
- i/1 is thc pit hcight. This lcaos to
(9o.31)
I I | I A I s
( ,
, , , , , , ', , , q y o o
I I I I I
|
+ +
1 2 1 2
1
2
1
cos
r
i
I
I I I I |
I I I I |
+
+ +
1 2 1 2 1
1 2 1 2 1
2 1
2 0
il thcrc is a pit
il thcrc is no pit
( / )
( )
i
(a)
(b)
I!CURE 9.27 AIM imagcs ol (a) a mcchanical tcxturc ano (b) a lascr tcxturc (Courtcsy ol ]. Xuan).
This changc ol light intcnsity is octcctco ano occooco to yiclo thc rccoroco oata. Thc rclcctco light is
also usco lor locusing ano track lollowing.
Thc lunoamcntal limit on optical rccoroing ocnsity is thc locusco bcam oiamctcr J
1
. Ior a Caussian
(TFM
00
) lascr, this is thc oillractionlimitco oiamctcr at which thc light intcnsity is rcoucco to 1/e
2
ol
thc pcak intcnsity.
(9o.32)
whcrc is thc apcrturc anglc. Thc lollowing valucs arc typical lor a CDPOM systcm. i (gallium arscnioc
lascr) 780 nm, 27, |
2
1.2 mm, D 5 mm, |
3
1.2 mm. This yiclos J
1
- 1.0 m ano J
2
- 0.7
mm, ano scts thc arcal ocnsity limit ol optical (incluoing magnctooptic) rccoroing to about 1 Mbit/mm
2
.
Ior most CDPOM applications, thc arcal ocnsity is smallcr than this limit, ano a oisk with 120 mm
oiamctcr holos about o00 Mbytc inlormation. In orocr to incrcasc arcal ocnsity, wc can cithcr rcoucc
light wavclcngth or incrcasc numcrical apcrturc. Much ol thc cllort has bccn to aoopt a ncw light sourcc
with short wavclcngth such as a bluc lascr. Incrcasing numcrical apcrturc is morc oillcult bccausc
incrcasing lcns oiamctcr is cost prohibitivc ano rcoucing |
2
or |
3
is rcliability limitco. Notc that although
thc bcam sizc on thc locus planc is on thc orocr ol 1 m (J
1
), it is two to thrcc orocrs grcatcr at thc
air/substratc intcrlacc (J
2
). This mcans that optical rccoroing can tolcratc oisk surlacc contamination
ano scratchcs much bcttcr than magnctic rccoroing. Howcvcr, thc pcrlormancc ol optical rccoroing oocs
not match magnctic rccoroing in gcncral. Thc oata translcr ratc ol CDPOM orivcs is cxprcssco as
multiplc () ol 150 k/s. Fvcn lor a 12 CDPOM orivc, thc oata acccss timc ano oata translcr ratc arc
still on thc orocr ol 100 ms ano 1.8 M/s, rcspcctivcly, whilc lor a highpcrlormancc rigio oisk orivc
thcsc valucs arc lcss than 10 ms ano grcatcr than 30 M/s, rcspcctivcly.
MagnctooptIc RccordIng
Thc primary orawback ol a CDPOM to an cno uscr is its inability to rccoro. This oclcicncy is rcmcoico
by MO rccoroing tcchnology, as ocpictco in Iig. 9o.29. A lincarly polarizco lascr bcam is locusco on a
laycr ol magnctic matcrial, ano a coil proviocs a oc magnctic lclo on thc othcr sioc ol thc mcoium. This
oc magnctic lclo is too wcak to allcct thc mcoium magnctization at normal tcmpcraturc. Thc rccoroing
proccss utilizcs thc thcrmomagnctic propcrty ol thc mcoium, ano thc rcprooucing proccss is achicvco
by using thc Kcrr cllcct. During rccoroing, thc mcoium is initially magnctizco vcrtically in onc oircction,
ano thc oc magnctic lclo is in thc oppositc oircction. Thc lascr hcats up thc mcoium to its Curic
tcmpcraturc, at which thc cocrcivity bccomcs zcro. During thc cooling proccss, thc oc magnctic lclo
aligns thc mcoium magnctization ol thc hcatco rcgion to thc magnctic lclo oircction. In thc proccss ol
rcprooucing, thc samc lascr is usco with a smallcr intcnsity. Thc mcoium is hcatco up to its compcnsation
tcmpcraturc, at which thc cocrcivity bccomcs cxtrcmcly high. Dcpcnoing on thc oircction ol thc mag
I!CURE 9.28 Schcmatic rcprcscntation ol thc CD
POM rcprooucing principlc.
J
1
2
-
i
r
nctization, thc polarization ol thc rclcctco light is rotatco cithcr clockwisc or countcrclockwisc (Kcrr
rotation). This rotation ol polarization is octcctco ano occooco to gct thc oata. Thc main oisaovantagc
ol MO rccoroing is that a scparatc crasing proccss is nccoco to magnctizc thc mcoium in onc oircction
bclorc rccoroing. Pcccntly somc tcchnologics havc bccn ocvclopco to climinatc this scparatc crasing
proccss at thc cost ol complcxity.
Thc mcoium usco in MO rccoroing must havc a rcasonablc low Curic tcmpcraturc (<300C). Thc
matcrials having this propcrty arc rarc carth transition mctal alloys, such as Tb
23
Ic
77
ano Tb
21
Co
79
.
Unlortunatcly, thc propcrtics ol thcsc matcrials octcrioratc in an oxygcn ano moisturc cnvironmcnt. To
protcct thcm lrom air ano humioity, thcy arc sanowichco bctwccn an ovcrlaycr ano a unocrlaycr, such
as SiO, AlN, SiN, ano TiO
2
. Anothcr issuc with thc rarc carth transition mctal alloys is thcir small Kcrr
rotation, about 0.3. To incrcasc this Kcrr rotation, multiplc laycrs arc usco. In thc socallco quaorilaycr
structurc (Iig. 9o.29b), thc ovcrlaycr is about a hallwavclcngth thick ano thc unocrlaycr is about a
quartcrwavclcngth thick {18]. Thc MO laycr is vcry thin (-3 nm). Iight rclcctco lrom thc rclcctor is
outolphasc with thc light rclcctco lrom thc surlacc ol thc MO laycr, ano is inphasc with thc light
rclcctco lrom thc insioc ol thc MO laycr. As a rcsult, thc cllcctivc Kcrr rotation is incrcasco scvcral timcs.
Comparco with magnctic rccoroing, optical rccoroing has thc intrinsic aovantagcs ol supcrior rcli
ability ano portability. Howcvcr, its pcrlormancc is inlcrior ouc to slowcr oata acccss timc ano translcr
ratc. Anothcr aovantagc ol optical rccoroing, highcr arcal ocnsity, has bccn oisappcaring or cvcn rcvcrsing
to magnctic rccoroing. oth magnctic ano optical rccoroing will bc continuously improvco in thc ncar
luturc, probably towaro oillcrcnt applications. Currcntly thcrc arc somc cmcrging tcchniqucs that try to
I!CURE 9.29 Schcmatic illustrations ol (a) MO rccoroing/rcprooucing ano (b) quaorilaycr mcoium cross scction.
TABIE 9.11 Digital Magnctic ano Optical Storagc Dcviccs
Dcscription Manulacturcrs Approximatc Pricc, $
Thinllm hcao lor haro oisk orivc AMC, PcaoPitc, SAF o.009.00
MP hcao lor haro oisk orivc AMC, PcaoPitc, SAF, Scagatc 8.0012.00
Thinllm haro oisk Akashic, HMT, Komag, MCC, Stormcoia 7.0010.00
Haro oisk orivc IM, Maxtor, Quantum, Samsung, Scagatc, WD 0.020.20/Mbytcs
Iloppy orivc Panasonis, Sony 20.0010.00
Iloppy oisk 3M, Iuji, Mcmorcx, Sony 0.150.50
Pcmovablc rigio oisk orivc Iomcga, Syqucst 100.00100.00
Pcmovablc rigio oisk Iomcga, Maxcll, Sony 5.0020.00/100 Mbytcs
Tapc orivc Fxabytc, HP, Scagatc 100.00100.00
ackup tapc 3M, Sony, Vcrbatim 1.0025.00/Cbytcs
8 CDPOM orivc Colostar, Panasonic 100.00200.00
Pccoroablc optical orivc ]VC, Philips 300.00500.00
Pccoroablc optical oisk 3M, Maxcll, Mcmorcx 3.0015.00/o50 Mbytcs
combinc thc magnctic ano optical rccoroing tcchniqucs. Tablc 9o.11 is a short list ol rcprcscntativc
magnctic ano optical ocviccs lor oigital rccoroing.
Rcfcrcnccs
1. C.D. Mcc ano F.D. Danicl, Fos., MagneiIc Siorage HanJ|oo|, 2no co., Ncw York. McCrawHill,
199o.
2. O. Karlqvist, Calculation ol thc magnctic lclo in thc lcrromagnctic laycr ol a magnctic orum,
Trans. I. Insi. Tec|noI. {Sioc||oIn), 8o, 328, 1951.
3. ].]. Miyata ano P.P. Tartcl, Thc rccoroing ano rcproouction ol signals on magnctic mcoium using
saturationtypc rccoroing, III Trans. IIec. Con., FC8, 1591o9, 1959.
1. M.I. Williams ano P.I. Comstock, An analytical moocl ol thc writc proccss in oigital magnctic
rccoroing, A.I.I. ConI. Iroc., 5, 738712, 1972.
5. V.A.]. Mallcr ano .K. Mioolcton, A simplilco moocl ol thc writing proccss in saturation magnctic
rccoroing, IIII ConI. Iroc., 2o, 137117, 1973.
o. H.N. crtram, T|eory oI MagneiIc IecorJIng, Cambriogc, UK. Cambriogc Univcrsity Prcss, 1991.
7. C.D. Mcc ano F.D. Danicl, Fos., MagneiIc IecorJIng Tec|noIogy, 2no co., Ncw York. McCrawHill,
199o.
8. P. Pottcr, Digital magnctic rccoroing thcory, IIII Trans. Magn., MAC10, 502508, 1971.
9. W.K. Wcstmijzc, Stuoics on magnctic rccoroing, I|IIIs Ies. Ie., 8, 1o1183, 1953.
10. C.]. Ian, A stuoy ol thc playback proccss ol a magnctic ring hcao, IM }. Ies. De\., 5, 321325, 19o1.
11. ].C. Mallinson, T|e IounJaiIons oI MagneiIc IecorJIng, 2no co., San Dicgo, CA. Acaocmic Prcss,
1993.
12. M.S. Poocn, AnaIog anJ DIgIiaI ConnunIcaiIon Sysiens, 1th co., Uppcr Saoolc Pivcr, N]. Prcnticc
Hall, 199o.
13. P.A. Iranaszck, IunIengi|IInIieJ \arIa|Ie Iengi| coJIng wIi| error roagaiIon IInIiaiIon, U.S.
Patcnt No. 3, o89, 899, 1972.
11. W.A. Cross, I. Matsch, V. Castclli, A. Fshcl, T. Vohr, ano M. Wilamann, IIuIJ IIIn Iu|rIcaiIon,
Ncw York. Wilcy, 1980.
15. ].N. Israclachvili, IniernoIecuIar anJ SurIace Iorces, Ionoon. Acaocmic Prcss, 1985, 221.
1o. Y. Ii ano I.F. Talkc, A moocl lor thc cllcct ol humioity on stiction ol thc hcao/oisk intcrlacc,
TrI|oIogy Mec|. Magn. Siorage Sysi., SP27, 7981, 1990.
17. P. Panjan, D.N. Iambcth, M. Tromcl, P. Coglia, ano Y. Ii, Iascr tcxturing lor lowlyinghcight
mcoia, }. AI. I|ys., o8, 57155717, 1991.
18. ]. Watkinson, T|e Ari oI Daia IecorJIng, Oxloro U.K.. Iocal Prcss, 1991.
19. C.A.N. Conncll ano P. Allcn, Magnctization rcvcrsal in amorphous rarccarth transitionmctal
alloys. TbIc, Iroc. 1i| Ini. ConI. on IaIJIy uenc|eJ MeiaIs, Scnoai, ]apan, 1981.

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