A. (1) Linear acceleration (a).

(2) Mean sound

absorption coefficient (a). (3) Element argon
(A). (4) Angstrom unit (A or A) . (5) First van
der Waals constant (a) . (6) Chemical activity
(a). (7) Accommodation coefficient (a). (8)
Amplification of amplifier (A). (9) Amplitude
(A). (10) Refracting angle of prism (A). (11)
Area (A). (12) Specific rotation of light |a|. (13) Free energy,
Helmholtz, which is also known as isothermal work function, total
(A), per unit mass (a), per mole (a, A or Am). (14) Factor in
Richardson- Dushman equation (A). (15) Width of slit (transparent
portion) (a). (16) Atomic weight (A). (17) First Couchy constant
(A). (18) Strength of simple acoustic source (A). (19) Magnetic
vector potential (A). (20) Bohr radius (ai). (21) Radius of acoustical
tube, disc or membrane (a) .
A+, A. Terminal markings for sources of filament voltages in
electronic equipment. (See A supply.)
A BATTERY. Power source for filaments in battery-operated
electronic equipment.
A SUPPLY. The source of the heating current for the cathode of an
electronic tube. In the early days of radio the various voltages
needed to operate a receiver were obtained from batteries, called A,
B and C batteries, supplying the filament, plate and grid voltages
respectively. These letter designations have carried over to the
present-day sources, although the voltages are usually obtained now
from an a-c source, either directly as in the case of the A supply or
indirectly for B and C voltages.
AB-. A prefix attached to the names of the practical electrical units
to indicate the corresponding unit in the cgs electromagnetic system
(emu) , e.g., abampere, abvolt
ABAMPERE. The cgs electromagnetic unit of current. It is that
current which, when flowing in straight parallel wires 1 cm apart in
free space, will produce a force of 2 dynes per cm length on each
wire. One abampere is ten amperes.
ABBE CONDENSER. A compound lens used for directing light
through the object of a compound microscope. All the light enters
the object at an angle with the axis of the microscope.
ABBE NUMBER. The reciprocal of the dispersive power of a
material.
ABBE REFRACTOMETER. See refractometer. Abbe.
ABBE SINE CONDITION. The relationship ny sin = n'y' sin ',
where n,n' are indices of refraction, y, y' are distances from optical
axis, and , ' are angles light rays make with the optical axis. A
failure of an optical surface to satisfy the sine condition is a measure
of the coma of the surface.
ABBE THEORYOF THE RESOLUTIONOF A MICROSCOPE. A
theory relating the resolution of the instrument to the wavelength of
the light and the aperture of the instrument.
ABELIAN GROUP. A commutative group, thus AB = BA where
A, B are any two elements contained in it. A simple example is the
cyclic group of order n.
A
ABERRATION, ANGLE OF. See aberration of light, Bradley.
ABERRATION(S), FIVE GEOMETRICAL. (1) Spherical
Aberration. (2) Coma. (3) Astigmatism. (4) Curvature of Field.
(5) Distortion. Also called the "third-order" aberrations and first
comprehensively analysed by Von Seidel.
ABERRATION, LEAST CIRCLE OF. The area of minimum
cross section of the rays from an optical system with spherical
aberration.
ABERRATION OF LIGHT (BRADLEY). The apparent
displacement of a star due to the motion of the earth in its orbit.
Maximum value about 20.5 seconds of arc when the star is viewed
normal to the velocity of the earth. Distinct from parallax.
ABERRATION, OPTICAL. The failure of an optical system to
form an image of a point as a point, of a straight line as a straight
line, and of an angle as an equal angle. (See spherical aberration,
astigmatism, coma, curvature of field, distortion (of the image),
and chromatic aberration.)
ABNEY COLORIMETER. See colorimeter, Abney.
ABNEY EFFECT. A shift in hue which is the result of a variation
in purity and, therefore, in saturation. The Abney effect may be
represented by chromaticity loci, of specified luminance, with the
hue and brightness constant, when purity and, therefore, saturation
are varied. It is a relationship, of psychophysical nature, between
psychophysical specifications and color sensation attributes.
ABNEY MOUNTING. A method for mounting a grating,
plateholder and slit on a Rowland circle and moving only the slit to
observe different parts of the spectrum.
ABNORMAL GLOW. In a glow-discharge device, the flow of
current equal or greater than the magnitude which causes the
cathode to be completely covered with glow.
ABNORMAL REFLECTIONS. Ionospheric reflections of
radiowaves at frequencies higher than the critical frequency of the
layer. Sometimes referred to as sporadic reflections.
ABRAHAM THEORY OF THE ELECTRON. Model of the
electron as a rigid spherical ball of charge, the mass being regarded
as of purely electromagnetic origin (1903). Yields an incorrect
expression for the variation of mass with velocity, and abandoned
when the predictions of special relativity theory (see relativity
theory, special) were confirmed.
ABSCISSA. The horizontal coordinate of a point in a two-
dimensional system, commonly rectangular Cartesian, and usually
designated by x. Together with the ordinate it locates the position
of the point in a plane.
ABSOLUTE FUTURE OF AN EVENT. All events which could
be reached by a signal emitted at the event and moving with velocity
less than or equal to that of light in a vacuum.
ABSOLUTE HUMIDITY. See humidity, absolute.
ABSOLUTE PAST OF AN EVENT. All events from which a
signal, moving with velocity less than or equal to that of light in a
vacuum, could be emitted to reach the event in question.
ABSOLUTE SPACE-TIME. A fundamental concept underlying
Newtonian mechanics is that there exists a preferred reference
system to which all measurements should be referred. This is known
as absolute spacetime. The assumption of such a system IB replaced
in relativistic mechanics by the principle of equivalence. (See
equivalence, principle of.)
ABSOLUTE TEMPERATURE SCALE. See temperature scale,
absolute.
ABSOLUTE UNITS. Any set of units defined in terms of
fundamental (arbitrary) units of mass, length, and time by
connecting physical equations. Compare international units. (Cgs
electrostatic, cgs electromagnetic, and MKSA units are absolute
units.)
ABSOLUTE ZERO. The temperature at which a system would
undergo a reversible isothermal process without transfer of heat This
is the temperature at which the volume of an ideal gas would
become zero. The value calculated from the limiting value of the
coefficient of expansion of various real gases is ~273.16
0
C.
ABSORPTION. (1) The process whereby the total number of
particles emerging from a body of matter is reduced relative to the
number entering, as a result of interaction of the particles with the
body. (2) The process whereby the kinetic energy of a particle is
reduced while traversing a body of matter. This loss of kinetic
energy of corpuscular radiation is also referred to as moderation,
slowing, or stopping. (3) The process whereby some or all of the
energy of sound waves or electromagnetic radiations is transferred
to the substance on which they are incident or which they traverse.
(4) The process of "attraction into the mass" of one substance by
another so that the absorbed substance disappears physically.
ABSORPTION BAND. A region of the absorption spectrum in
which the absorptivity passes through a maximum or inflection.
ABSORPTION CELL. A glass vessel used to hold liquids for the
determination of their absorption spectra.
ABSORPTION COEFFICIENT. (1) For the absorption of one
substance or phase in another, as in the absorption of a gas in a
liquid, the absorption coefficient is the volume of gas dissolved by a
specified volume of solvent; thus a widely-used coefficient is the
quantity a in the expression = Vo/Vp, where F is the volume of
gas reduced to standard conditions, V is the volume of liquid and p
is the partial pressure of the gas. (2) In the case of sound, the
absorption coefficient (which is also called the acoustical
absorptivity) is defined as the fraction of the incident sound energy
absorbed by a surface or medium, the surface being considered part
of an infinite area. (3) In the most general use of the term absorption
coefficient, applied to electromagnetic radiation and atomic and sub-
atomic particles, it is a measure of the rate of decrease in intensity of
a beam of photons or particles in its passage through a particular
substance. One complication in the statement of the absorption
coefficient arises from the cause of the decrease in intensity. When
light, x-rays, or other electromagnetic radiation enters a body of
matter, it experiences in general two types of attenuation. Part of it is
subjected to scattering, being reflected in all directions, while
another portion is absorbed by being converted into other forms of
energy. The scattered radiation may still be effective in the same
ways as the original, but the absorbed portion ceases to exist as
radiation or is re-emitted as secondary radiation. Strictly therefore,
we have to distinguish the true absorption coefficient from the
scattering coefficient; but for practical purposes it is sometimes
convenient to add them together as the total attenuation or
extinction coefficient.
Accurate measurements upon radiation which has traversed
various thicknesses of matter has established that any infinitelythin
layer perpendicular to the direction of propagation cuts down the
flux density by a fraction of its value proportional to the thickness of
the layer, whence by integration(when permissible) the flux density
after having penetrated the medium to a distance x is

in which I
0
is the flux density just after entrance into the medium
(i.e. for x = 0) . (See the Bouguer law.) For true absorption, the
constant a is the absorption coefficient. For scattering, which obeys
the same law, a is the scattering coefficient. And for the total
attenuation, including both, it is the extinction coefficient, which is
the sum of the absorption and the scattering coefficients.
The absorption coefficient may be computed for total
radiation which enters the absorbing material, for the visible
luminous radiation or as a function of wavelength, being in that
case, the spectral absorption coefficient The absorption coefficient
divided by the density of the absorbing medium is called the mass
absorption coefficient. (See absorption coefficient, mass and other
qualified terms.)
ABSORPTION COEFFICIENT, ATOMIC. The atomic
absorption coefficient of an element is the fractional decrease in
intensity, per number of atoms per unit area; it is equal to the linear
absorption coefficient (see absorption coefficient, linear) divided by
the number of atoms per unit volume, or to the mass absorption
coefficient (see absorption coefficient, mass) divided by the number
of atoms per unit mass. If the medium consists of only one nuclide,
the atomic absorption coefficient

is equivalent to the total cross

section for the radiation in question.
ABSORPTION COEFFICIENT, MASS. The mass absorption
coefficient

is the fractional decrease in intensity per unit surface

density. For a substance of density ,

is equal to , and hence is

independent of the density.
ABSORPTION CURVE. The graphical relationship between
thickness of absorbing material and intensity of transmitted
radiation.
ABSORPTION DISCONTINUITY. A discontinuity appearing in
the absorption coefficient of a substance for a particular type of
radiation when expressed as a function of the energy (or frequency
or wavelength) of this radiation. An absorption discontinuity is often
associated with anomalies in other variables such as the refractive
index.
ABSORPTION EDGE. The wavelength corresponding to an
abrupt discontinuity in the intensity of an absorption spectrum,
notably an x-ray absorption spectrum, which gives the appearance of
a sharp edge in the photograph of such a spectrum.
ABSORPTION FACTOR. In any absorbing system, especially in
the case of absorption of radiation,, the ratio of the total unabsorbed
radiation to the total incident radiation, or to the total radiation
transmitted in the absence of the absorbing substance. (Cf.
absorptivity.)
ABSORPTION LIMIT. See absorption discontinuity.
ABSORPTION LOSS, ACOUSTIC. That part of the transmission
loss due to the dissipation or conversion of sound energy into other
forms of energy (e.g., heat), either within the medium or attendant
upon a reflection.
ABSORPTION MESH. A filter element used in a waveguide
system to absorb spurious components of electromagnetic energy.
ABSORPTION MODULATION. See modulation, absorption.
ABSORPTION, SELECTIVE. Absorption which varies in amount
with wavelength.
ABSORPTION SPECTRUM. See spectrum, absorption.
ABSORPTION TRAP. See trap.
ABSORPTIVE POWER, OPTICAL. The same as absorptivity.
ABSORPTIVITY, OPTICAL. The transmissivity subtracted from
unity.
ABUNDANCE RATIO. The proportions of the various isotopes
making up a particular specimen of an element.
ABVOLT, The cgs electromagnetic unit of potential difference and
electromotive force. It is the potential difference that must exist
between two points in order that one erg of work be done when one
abcoulomb of charge is moved from one point to the other. One
abvolt is 10
-8
volt.
ACCELERATION. The time rate of change of velocity. Like
velocity, acceleration is a vector quantity, requiring the specification
of both a magnitude and a direction. The defining equation is

where v is the instantaneous velocity and t the time. Acceleration
may be indicative of a change in speed, of a change in the direction
of a velocity of constant magnitude, or of a combination of the two.
The quantity just defined is strictly speaking the instantaneous
acceleration. (Cf. acceleration, average.)
ACCELERATION, ANGULAR. Angular acceleration is the time
rate of change of the angular velocity, expressed by the vector
derivative . Only in case the direction of the axis remains
unchanged can the angular velocity and angular acceleration be
treated as scalars. The effect of torque applied to a body free to
rotate about an axis is to give it angular acceleration, and the
opposition offered by the body to this process gives rise to the
concept of moment of inertia.
ACCELERATION, AVERAGE. If the instantaneous velocity of a
particle is V
1
at a given instant and V
2
at a time later, the average
acceleration during the time is defined as:

ACCELERATION, INSTANTANEOUS. See acceleration.
ACCELERATION OF GRAVITY. (1) The ratio of the weight of
a material particle to its mass at any specific point in an
approximately uniform gravitational field. This is the acceleration
with which a body would fall in the absence of all other disturbing
forces, such as those due to friction, (2) Specifically, the
acceleration with which a body falls in vacuo at a given point on or
near a given point on the earth's surface. This acceleration,
frequently denoted by g, varies by less than one percent over the
entire surface of the earth. Its "average value77 has been defined by
the International Commission of Weights and Measures as 9.80665
M/S
2
or 32.174 ft/S
2
. Its value at the poles is 9.8321 M/S
2
and at the
equator 9.7799 M/S
2
.
ACCELERATOR, CONSTANT - POTENTIAL. A device in
which a d-c potential is applied to an accelerating tube to produce
high-energy ions or electrons.
ACCELEROMETER. (1) An instrument for determining the
acceleration of the system with which it moves. (2) A transducer
which gives an indication, usually in the form of a voltage
proportional to the acceleration to which it is subjected.
ACCEPTOR (IN A SEMICONDUCTOR). See acceptor impurity.
ACCEPTOR ENERGY LEVEL. An acceptor impurity atom in a
crystal is equivalent to an excess negative charge, since its atomic
core is insufficiently charged to neutralize its share of the covalent
bonding electrons. Consequently, it can attract a positive charge,
such as a hole in the electron distribution, forming bound states
which lie just above the top of the valence band. The promotion of
an electron to one of these levels frees a hole for conduction, as in a
p-type semiconductor (see semiconductor, p-type).
ACCURACY. The quality of correctness or freedom from error.
Distinguished from precision as in the examples: (a) ". . . this
procedure measures the precision (reproducibility) of the test, not its
accuracy (closeness to the true value)." (b) A four-place table
correctly computed is more accurate but less precise than a six-place
table containing errors, (c) The accuracy of an instrument is a
number or quantity which defines its limit of error. (See also
precision.) The actual error in measurement can seldom be
determined, but its magnitude may usually be estimated.
ACTIVATION. (1) In nuclear physics, the process of inducing
radioactivity through neutron bombardment or by other types of
radiation (see cross section, activation). (2) In electron-tube
technology, the process by which the cathode is treated in order that
maximum emission may occur. (3) The transfer of a sufficient
quantity of energy to an atomic system to raise it to an excited state
in which it can participate in a process not possible when the system
is in its ground state. (See activation energy.)
ACTIVATION ENERGY. The excess energy over the ground state
which must be acquired by an atomic system in order that a
particular process may occur. Examples are: the energy needed by a
molecule to take part in a chemical reaction, by an electron to reach
the conduction band in a semiconductor, by a lattice defect to move
a neighboring site.
ACTIVATOR. An impurity atom present in a solid and making
possible the effects of luminescence, or markedly increasing their
efficiency. Examples are copper in zinc sulfide, and thallium in
potassium chloride.
ACTIVE. This word is used in nuclear physics for three special
meanings: (1) Fissionable (active material). (2) Radioactive (active
sample). (3) The active part of a reactor is the core (active lattice) .
ADHESION AND COHESION. In physics, the terms adhesion
and cohesion designate intermolecular forces holding matter
together. The tendency of matter to hold itself together or to cling to
other matter is one of its most characteristic properties. Adhesion
and cohesion are merely different aspects of the same phenomenon,
which is apparently of the nature of an intermolecular attraction. We
speak of cohesion as an interaction between adjacent parts of the
same body and as acting throughout the interior of its substance,
while adhesion refers to a similar interaction between the closely
contiguous surfaces of adjacent bodies.
There is reason to believe that as two neutral molecules or
atoms approach each other, their mutual potential energy reaches a
minimum value at a certain equilibrium distance; so that work
would be necessary either to push them closer or to pull them farther
apart, because of forces which are probably electrical. The
distribution of molecules, ions, or atoms in a solid is determined by
this type of equilibrium, and the regular spacing of crystal structure
and the architecture of the molecule itself are dependent upon it.
Any force tending to diminish the equilibrium distance meets with
the rapidly increasing reaction of compressive elasticity, while any
force tending to increase it is opposed by cohesion, which increases
at first and then rapidly diminishes toward zero as the point of
fracture is reached.
The behavior of bodies which are aggregates of crystals or of
fibers is complicated by the friction and the adhesion of the adjacent
particles, so that the ultimate strength of a material is not a safe
measure of its true cohesion. A filament of spun quartz may be
much stronger when freshly drawn than later when crystallization
replaces its initial cohesion by the adhesion between separate
crystals; and yarn is not nearly so strong as the cotton or wool fiber
composing it.
Adhesion increases with closeness of contact. This explains why one
must bear down with a pencil to make a mark on paper, why fine
dust adheres more firmly than coarse sand, and why a liquid or a
gum usually sticks to a solid better than another solid does.
Cohesion in liquids is usually less, and in gases it is always much
less, than in solids. Aside from the pressure in liquids due to
external causes, there is presumably a very great internal or intrinsic
pressure, due to intermolecular attraction, but not capable of direct
measurement by means at our disposal. The clearest evidences of its
existence are the work required for thermal expansion and the
phenomenon of surface tension.
ADIABAT. If a thermally-isolated system moves through a series of
equilibrium states, the locus of the points representing these states
on a graph is called an adiabat. Thus in meteorology, an adiabat is a
line on a chart showing the adiabatic lapse rate (wet or dry).
ADIABATIC. Occurring without change in heat content, i.e.,
without gain or loss of heat by the system involved.
ADSORPTION. A type of adhesion which takes place at the
surface of a solid or a liquid In contact with another medium,
resulting in an accumulation or increased concentration of molecules
or other particles from that medium in the immediate vicinity of the
surface
ADSORPTION, ACTIVATED. Chemisorption (adsorption
involving forces of chemical nature) in which the activation energy
is relatively high. (See also adsorption, types of.)
ADVECTION. The transfer of air and air characteristics by
horizontal motion. Fog drifts from one place to another by
advection. Cold air moves from polar regions southward. Large-
scale north-south advection is more prominent in the northern
hemisphere than the southern, but west-to-east advection is
prominent on both sides of the equator.
AERODYNAMICS. A phase of the mechanics of fluids, its study
being limited to the reactions caused by relative motion between the
fluid and solid, with the fluid being air. Sometimes this strict
definition is broadened so that aerodynamics may also include the
reactions of gases other than air. The scope of the subject of
aerodynamics is, nevertheless, broad. It encompasses the flow of
gases in conduits, the effects of winds on static structures such as
building, chimneys, and bridges, and the effect on moving bodies of
the atmosphere through which they move.
AEROSOL. A colloidal system in which a gas, usually air, is the
continuous medium, and particles of solid or liquid are dispersed in
it.
AEROSTATICS. The science of gases at rest (mechanical
equilibrium). (Cf. aerodynamics, the science of gases in motion.)
AIR MASSES. Very large parcels of air ranging from about 500-
5000 miles in lateral dimensions and from several thousand feet to
several miles deep, which have properties (temperature, humidity,
thermal structure) that vary only slightly, or vary linearly, from point
to point within the parcel. Air masses develop over large, relatively-
homogeneous geographical areas where air is stagnant for a
sufficient period to acquire the characteristics of that region. These
regions are either continental or maritime and are known as airmass
source regions. After an air mass begins to move from its source
region it acquires modifying features characteristic of the surface
over which it travels. Modification continues until the air mass loses
its identity in the general atmospheric circulation. Classification of
air masses begins from latitudinal consideration. There are four
major zones which contribute primary classifications: (1) Arctic, (2)
Polar, (3) Tropical, (4) Equatorial. These are subdivided into
Maritime (m) and Continental (c), depending upon the exact source
region. Finally each air mass must be classified as either cold (k) or
warm (w) . A cold air mass is one which is colder than the surface
over which it is traveling and is therefore being heated from below.
A warm air mass is one which is warmer than the surface over
which it is traveling and is therefore being cooled from below.
ALPHA (). (1) Angular acceleration (). (2) Plane angle (). (3)
Linear expansion, or coefficient of linear expansion (). (4) Current
amplification in transistors (). (5) In nuclear reactor theory, () the
reciprocal asymptotic period, or (b) the ratio, in a fissionable
element, of neutron radiative capture (see capture radiative (2)) to
fission cross-section (). (6) Thermal diffusibility () .(7) Optical
aperture (). (8) Attenuation constant (). (9) Fine structure or
Sommerfeld constant (). (10) Thermal coefficient of resistance ().
(11) Most probable speed (). (12) Degree of electrolytic
dissociation (). (13) Coefficient of recombination (). (14) See
alpha-particle and alpha-ray. (15) Plane angle (). (16) Angular
resolving power of telescope (). (17) Half-angle subtended at point
object by objective of microscope (). (18) Coefficient of
recombination (). (19) Specific rotation (). (20) Current
amplification ().
AMPERE. A unit of electrical current, abbrev. as A or amp. (1) The
absolute ampere is exactly one-tenth of an abampere, the
electromagnetic unit (emu) of current The absolute ampere has been
the legal standard of current since 1950. (2) The International
ampere, the legal standard prior to 1950, is the steady current which
must flow across a surface in order that one International coulomb
of electricity shall pass the surface during each second. 1 Int. amp =
0.999835 Abs. amp.
AMPERE LAW. This is a classic law of electromagnetism, useful
in discussions of electrodynamics. It has been stated in two
apparently distinct forms, which are, however, interconvertible. One
form, sometimes known as the Laplace law, states that the electric
current i (abamperes), flowing along any line through an element of
length dl, gives rise, at a point P distant r (cm) from the element, to a
magnetic field of intensity dH = ipdl/r
3
(oersteds), in which p is the
perpendicular distance from P to the line of the element dl', or dH =
i sin dl/r
2
, in which is the angle between the line of the element
and the line joining dl to P. (See vector potential.) The ultimate basis
of the law is, of course, experimental It may, for example, be
deduced indirectly from the Biot-Savart law for the field about an
infinitely long, straight wire. Ampere's law furnishes a basis for the
solution of all problems relating to the magnetic fields produced by
electric currents. What is sometimes called the circuital form of
Ampere's law may be tangibly expressed by saying that if a unit
magnetic pole is carried completely around a conductor or system of
conductors in which electricity is flowing, in such a way as to
oppose the field set up by the currents, the work done, in ergs, is 4
times the algebraic sum of the currents, in abamperes. This is easily
illustrated by a special case. The Biot-Savart law above referred to
gives, as the magnetic field at a point distant r (cm) from an
infinitely long, straight wire carrying a current i (abamperes), the
value H = 2i/r (oersteds), directed, of course, along the
circumference of the circle having r as its radius. The force acting
upon a unit pole placed at this point is therefore 2i/r (dynes). If now
the pole is moved around the circle, against the field, the work done
is

Maxwell pointed out that Ampere's law holds only for constant
currents, and that when currents vary, the resulting changes of
electric displacement in the surrounding space, giving rise to the
radiation of energy in the form of electromagnetic waves, involves
modifications embodied in the so-called Maxwell- Ampere law as
expressed by the first of Maxwell's equations. The differential form
of Ampere's law cannot be experimentally verified; we can observe
only the field due to a closed current loop, not from isolated
elements. Experimentally, we can verify that the result of integrating
the Ampere law over any closed circuit gives the correct result.
AMPLITUDE. (1) If a complex number is represented in polar
coordinates it becomes r(cos + i sin) and the angle is the
amplitude, argument, or phase of the number. (See de Moivre
theorem.) The term is also used to designate a parameter occurring
in elliptic functions and integrals. (2) The crest or maximum value
of a periodic (or specifically H simple harmonic function of space or
time) or, more generally, any parameter that when changed, merely
represents a change in scale factor. In amplitude-molulation systems,
this quantity becomes a function of time, and its instantaneous value
is of importance, but it is still referred to as the amplitude.
ANGLE. The figure obtained by drawing two straight lines from a
point. In trigonometry, an angle measures the rotation of one straight
line, the terminal line, about a fixed point on an initial line. It is
positive if the direction of rotation is counterclockwise. If the
magnitude of the angle equals 2 radians, it is called a perigon angle
and such an angle, divided into 360 equal parts, has a magnitude of
360 degrees (360). A right angle equals 90 or /2 radians; a straight
angle, 180 or radians; an acute angle is less than 90 ; an obtuse
angle, greater than 90 (but frequently limited to one less than 180).
(See also Euler angles; angle, dihedral; angle, solid; triangle,
spherical.)
ANNIHILATION. (1) A process in which a pair of anti-particles
meet and convert spontaneously into one or more photons; it is the
inverse of pair production. The commonest example is the
annihilation of an electron and a positron, the rest masses of which
are converted into (usually) two 0.511-mev photons according to the
principle of mass-energy equivalence. (2) The conversion of rest
mass into electromagnetic radiation.
ANODE. The electrode via which current enters a device. The
anode is the positive terminal of an electroplating cell, but the
negative terminal of a battery. The term anode is customarily used
for any thermionic tube electrode operated at an appreciably-positive
potential.
ANTENNA. In the process of radio communication the power
generated in the transmitter must be projected or radiated into space
and at the receiver some of this radiated energy must be abstracted
from the passing radio wave and fed into the receiver proper. It is
the antenna wrhich radiates the power at the transmitter and which
picks up the signal at the receiver. The antenna form ranges from a
simple short length of wire for the receiver to an elaborate array of
wires or steel towers for large transmitters. When alternating voltage
of a high frequency is connected to a conductor which is open at the
end a corresponding high-frequency a-c will flow in the conductor
and return to the voltage source through the capacitance between the
conductor and the rest of the circuit. This rapid a-c causes energy to
be radiated into space from the conductor. This energy travels out
from the conductor and does not return. The conductor in this case is
the antenna (of course the various connecting wires of the
transmitter also have high-frequency a-c and hence will radiate to
some extent but very inefficiently) . The efficiency with which an
antenna radiates is determined by its length and configuration, and
its location with respect to the ground, surrounding objects, etc. In
general, better radiation is obtained when the antenna length is an
appreciable part of a wavelength of the radio signal. Thus they are
usually such values as quarter-wave, half-wave, etc.
ANTINEUTRINO. (1) In the most frequent usage, a particle whose
emission is postulated to accompany radioactive decay by positron
emission or electron capture. The antineutrmo may be looked upon
as a hole in the negative-energy Dirac sea of neutrinos. Since there
is no possibility of charge differentiation between the antineutrino
and the neutrino, differentiation between these two particles can be
made only on the basis of such properties as the sign of the ratio of
magnetic moment to angular momentum. Neither the neutrino nor
the antineutrino has been detected. (2) In a less common usage the
terms neutrino and antineutrino are used in reverse sense to that
stated above, i.e., the neutrino is said to accompany positron
emission and the antineutrino, electron emission
ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLE. A body immersed in a fluid is acted
on by a buoyancy force, made evident by a loss of weight, equal to
the weight of displaced fluid.
ASSOCIATIVE LAW. Addition and multiplication processes obey
this law if the following relations hold:
a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c;
(ab)c = a(bc) = abc.
ASTIGMATISM. (1) A defect in a lens, including the lens of the
eye, in which there is a difference in the radius of curvature of the
lens as observed in one plane from that observed in another plane.
(2) An aberration of a lens with spherical surfaces such that the
image of a point not lying on the optical axis is a pair of short lines
normal to each other and at slightly different distances from the lens.
(3) In an electron-beam tube, a focus defect in which the electrons in
different axial planes come to focus at different points.
ASYMMETRIC. Not symmetric. The term is generally applied
only to functions or systems which are neither symmetric nor
antisymmetric.
ATMOSPHERE. (1) A gaseous envelope surrounding a body, or a
mass of gas occupying a region. (2) A standard unit of pressure (see
atmosphere, standard). (3) The cluster of impurity atoms formed
around a dislocation line, and responsible for Cottrell hardening. An
atmosphere can follow the motion of the dislocation only very
slowly, as in very slow creep.
ATOM. The smallest particle of an element which can enter into
chemical combination. All chemical compounds are formed of
atoms, the difference between compounds being attributable to the
nature, number, and arrangement of their constituent atoms. For
current views of structure, see atomic structure.
AVOGADRO CONSTANT. The number of molecules contained
in one mole or grammolecular weight of a substance. A number of
values of the Avogadro number, which is usually denoted by N,
have been found by various methods, generally lying within a range
of 1% about the value 6.02 X 10
23






























B. (1) Breadth or width (b). (2) Element boron
(B). (3) "Boils at" (b). (4) Second van der Waals
constant (b). (5) Effective film thickness (B). (6)
Brightness or luminance (B). (7) Wien
displacement constant (b). (8) Volume modulus
of elasticity (B). (9) Factor in Richardson-
Dushman equation (b). (10) Susceptance (B or
b). (11) Second Couchy constant (B). (12) Magnetic flux density
(B). (13) Band head (B).
B, B+, B- Letter and symbols used to identify the high-voltage plate
supply for vacuum tubes.
B BATTERY. The power source for the anode circuit of an
electronic device which is battery-operated.
BACKGROUND. A general term for the totality of the effects that
are always present in physical apparatus, and above which a
phenomenon must show itself in order to be measured. Such
unrelated effects include the unwanted counts or currents from
cosmic rays in electrical apparatus for measurement of
radioactivity, developable grains on photographic plates that are
unrelated to the phenomena investigated, noise in acoustical
apparatus, and many others.
BADGER RULE. An empirical relation between the force
constants and vibrational frequencies of the electronic states of
diatomic molecules of the form

Where

is the force constant,

is the internuclear distance,

is a
constant that is different for each type of molecule (it is 0.68A if
both atoms are in the first row of the periodic system, 1.25A if they
are in the second, etc.) and C
11
may be taken as the same for all
molecules (= 1.86 if

is in 100,000 dynes/cm and

and

in A).
The Badger rule may readily be applied to polyatomic molecules.
BALANCE. (1) A condition of partial or complete equilibrium, or
adjustment. (See balance, mechanical.) (2) A well-known
instrument used in weighing. While any type of "scales" used for
weighing may properly be called a balance, the term usually refers
to the equal-arm balance familiar in every laboratory.
The dynamics of this instrument is relatively simple unless
the pans are allowed to oscillate independently of the beam, a
condition which should be carefully avoided while taking readings.
The balance may then be treated as a gravity pendulum suspended
from the central knife edge or pivot, the pans and their loads being
regarded as concentrated at the end knife edges Any slight excess
weight on one pan causes a change in the equilibrium position.
The "sensitiveness" of the balance is appropriately expressed as the
change in the equilibrium pointer reading per unit excess weight.
More convenient in practical work is the reciprocal of the
sensitiveness, which may be called the "stability." (3) An electrical
network is in a condition of balance when it is so adjusted that an
emf in one branch produces no current in another branch.

B
BALLISTIC MEASUREMENT. Any measurement in which an
impulse is applied to the measuring device and the subsequent
motion of the device is determined as a measure of the impulse. (See
ballistic pendulum and galvanometer, ballistic.)
BALLISTIC PENDULUM. An instrument used for measuring the
horizontal velocity component of a projectile. In its usual form it
consists of a simple pendulum of mass M, and of natural frequency
f. A projectile of mass m, moving with a velocity V strikes the bob
and is imbedded in it. The maximum excursion X of the bob is then
measured. Assuming that M m and that little damping is present, it
may be shown by application of conservation laws that

BALLISTICS. The science which treats of the motion of masses
projected into space, especially as associated with the motion of
projectiles from guns and cannon. The complete path of a projectile
is comprised of three separate and distinct phases. The first occurs in
the bore of the gun, and the study of projectile motion here is that of
interior ballistics. Secondly, there is the study of the path taken by
the projectile as it flies through space from the gun to the target.
This is exterior ballistics. Then, thirdly, there is the study of the
penetration and the penetrating power of a projectile, which, for
want of a better term, might be called penetration ballistics.
BAR. A unit of pressure in the metric system equal to one million
dynes per square centimeter. It is slightly less than one atmosphere.
Unfortunately, in acoustics the bar was once used to denote a
pressure of one dyne per square centimeter. The commonly used
unit today is the microbar, which is one dyne per square centimeter.
BARKHAUSEN EFFECT. A series of minute "jumps'' in the
magnetization of iron or other ferromagnetic substance as the
magnetizing force is continuously increased or decreased;
discovered by H. Barkhausen in 1919. The effect may be observed
by winding on the specimen, along with the magnetizing coil, a
secondary coil connected to some sensitive detector of current
fluctuations, such as an oscillograph or an audio amplifier. As the
magnetizing current is steadily increased, the current in the
secondary circuit, instead of being constant, exhibits a succession of
small, sharp peaks or maxima, which the amplifier reveals by a faint
clicking or snapping sound.
BARLOW RULE. The volumes of space occupied by the various
atoms in a given molecule are approximately proportional to the
valencies of the atoms; whenever an element exhibits more than one
kind of valency the lowest value is generally selected.
BARN. A unit nuclear cross section of the magnitude of 10
-24
square centimeter per nucleus.

BARNETT EFFECT. In 1915, S. J. Barnett discovered that a
relatively long iron cylinder, when rotated at high speed about its
longitudinal axis, developed a slight magnetization, the value of
which was proportional to the angular speed. He found the
magnetization to be about 1.5 X 10
-6
c.g.s. electromagnetic unit per
revolution per sec for a cylinder about 7 cm in diameter and 50 cm
long. The effect was attributed to the influence of the impressed
rotation upon the revolving electronic systems within the atoms. An
inverse effect was discovered about the same time by Einstein and
de Haas; viz., an iron cylinder, suspended vertically, was observed
to rotate slightly when suddenly magnetized.
BAROMETER. An instrument for measuring the pressure of the
atmosphere
BAROSCOPE. An indicating pressure gauge, consisting of a U-
tube partly filled with liquid, having one end open to the
atmosphere, and the other end connected to a system whose pressure
is to be observed. Also called an open-end manometer.
BASS. Frequencies at the lower end of the audible range.
BATTERY. Any group of duplicate units which are contributing
individually to a common effect.By far the most common usage of
the word is in reference to a collection of chemical cells for the
production or storage of electrical energy. As such, the battery may
be of the primary type, of which the individual unit is the primary
cell, or it may be the ordinary storage battery.
BEAM. (1) A flow of electromagnetic radiation or of particles that
is essentially unidirectional. (2) A straight or initially curved
member which supports bearing loads without the aid of arch action
(see specific types of beams which follow). (3) The term beam is
also used to designate certain rolled-steel sections, such as the I-
beam, which may be used either as beams, as defined in (2) above,
or as columns.
BEAT(S). A series of alternate maxima and minima in vibration
amplitude, produced by the interference of two wave trains of
different frequency. A familiar example arises in the case of musical
sounds.
BEATING. A phenomenon in which two or more periodic
quantities of different frequencies produce a resultant having
pulsations of amplitude.
BEER LAW (1852). If two solutions of the same salt be made in
the same solvent, one of which is, for example, twice the
concentration of the other, the absorption due to a given thickness of
the first solution should be equal to that of twice the thickness of the
second. Sometimes written

where I is the intensity of light transmitted, Io is the intensity of the
incident light, e is the natural logarithmic base, c is the concentration
of the solution in moles per liter, x is the thickness of the
transmitting layer, and a is the molar absorption coefficient. In
general Beer's law is used for light of a particular narrow
wavelength band and then is the specular molar absorption
coefficient. The Beer law is also written

where e is known as the molar extinction coefficient. Not all
solutions obey the Beer law. (See also the Bouguer law,)
BEL. A dimensionless unit for expressing the ratio of two values of
power, the number of bels being the logarithm to the base 10 of the
power ratio. With PI and P2 designating two amounts of power and
N the number of bels corresponding to the ratio Pi/Pa,

( )
BERNOULLI EQUATION. A first order non-linear differential
equation

() ()

It may be made linear by the substitution

, giving

( )() ( )()
BERNOULLI LAW (OR THEOREM). A statement of the law of
the conservation of energy for steady flow of an inviscid fluid. If the
fluid may be regarded as incompressible, the sum,

(where p is local hydrostatic pressure,

is the kinetic
pressure, and gh is the local gravitational potential), is constant
along any one streamline. If the flow is also irrotational, the sum is
constant over the whole flow. The law may be generalized for
compressible flow.
BETA. (1) Coefficient of volume expansion (). (2) Plane angle ().
(3) Relativity ratio (). (4) See also beta-particle and beta-ray. (5)
Ratio of speed to speed of light (). (6) The short-circuit current gain
in a grounded-emitter, transistor amplifier ( ( )), where
is the current amplification) .
BETA DISINTEGRATION. A radioactive transformation of a
nuclide wherein the atomic number is changed by +1 or -1, and the
mass number is unchanged. When the atomic number is increased
by 1, negative -particle emission occurs, and when the atomic
number is decreased by 1, there is positive -particle (positron)
emission or electron capture.
BETA RAY. A stream of p-particles.
BINARY CELL. In computer work, an information- storing
element which can have one or the other of two stable states.
BINOMIAL. A polynomial containing two terms.
BINOMIAL THEOREM. A rule for expanding (x + y)
n
, where n
is a positive integer. The result is
( )

( )

The (k+1) th term is
(

Where (

) is the binominal coefficient.

BIOT-SAVART LAW. A law expressing the intensity of the
magnetic field in the neighborhood of a long, straight wire carrying
a steady current. If a permanent magnet is rigidly attached in any
position to a rod or frame which is capable of rotation about such a
wire as an axis, it is found that there is no resultant torque about the
wire. From this it ie readily shown that the field intensity varies
inversely as the distance from the wire (see vector potential). If the
current is i (abamperes) and the distance r (cm), the intensity is
given by the Biot-Savart law as H = 2t/r (oersteds). The Ampere
law is sometimes called by this name, since either of the two laws
may be deduced from the other.