History

Hydropower has been used since ancient times to grind flour and perform others
tasks. In the mid-1770s, a French engineer ernard Forest de !lidor published
Architecture Hydraulique which described "ertical- and hori#ontal-a$is hydraulic
machines. In the late 1%00s, the electrical generator was de"eloped and could now
be coupled with hydraulics. &he growing demand for the Industrial 'e"olution would
dri"e de"elopment as well. In 1%7%, the world(s first house to be powered with
hydroelectricity was )ragside in *orthumberland, +ngland. &he old ,choelkopf
-ower ,tation *o. 1 near *iagara Falls in the ..,. side began to produce electricity
in 1%%1. &he first +dison hydroelectric power plant - the /ulcan ,treet -lant - began
operating ,eptember 00, 1%%1, in 2ppleton, 3isconsin, with an output of about 11.4
kilowatts. y 1%%5 there was about 64 hydroelectric power plants in the ..,. and
)anada. y 1%%7, there were 100 in the ..,.
2t the beginning of the twentieth century, a large number of small hydroelectric
power plants were being constructed by commercial companies in the mountains
that surrounded metropolitan areas. y 1710 as 608 of the power produced in the
.nited ,tates was hydroelectric, the Federal -ower 2ct was enacted into law. &he
2ct created the Federal -ower )ommission who(s main purpose was to regulate
hydroelectric power plants on federal land and water. 2s the power plants became
larger, their associated dams de"eloped additional purposes to include flood control,
irrigation and na"igation. Federal funding became necessary for large-scale
de"elopment and federally owned corporations like the &ennessee /alley 2uthority
91700: and the onne"ille -ower 2dministration 91707: were created. 2dditionally,
the ureau of 'eclamation which had began a series of western ..,. irrigation
pro;ects in the early 1700s was now constructing large hydroelectric pro;ects such as
the 171% oulder )anyon -ro;ect 2ct. &he ..,. 2rmy )orps of +ngineers was also
in"ol"ed in hydroelectric de"elopment, completing the onne"ille <am in 1707 and
being recogni#ed by the Flood )ontrol 2ct of 1705 as the premier federal flood
control agency.
Hydroelectric power plants continued to become larger throughout the twentieth
century. 2fter the Hoo"er <am(s 1,064 =3 power plant became the world(s largest
hydroelectric power plant in 1705 it was soon eclipsed by the 5%07 =3 >rand
)oulee <am in 1761. ra#il(s and -araguay(s Itaipu <am opened in 17%6 as the
largest, producing 16,000 =3 but was surpassed in 100% by the &hree >orges <am
in )hina with a production capacity of 11,400 =3. Hydroelectricity would e"entually
supply countries like *orway, <emocratic 'epublic of the )ongo, -araguay and
ra#il with o"er %48 of their electricity. &he .nited ,tates currently has o"er 1,000
hydroelectric power plants which supply 678 of its renewable electricity.
Generating methods
)ross section of a con"entional hydroelectric dam.

2 typical turbine and generator
Conventional
=ost hydroelectric power comes from the potential energy of dammed water dri"ing
a water turbine and generator. &he power e$tracted from the water depends on the
"olume and on the difference in height between the source and the water(s outflow.
&his height difference is called the head. &he amount of potential energy in water is
proportional to the head. &o deli"er water to a turbine while maintaining pressure
arising from the head, a large pipe called a penstock may be used.
Pumped-storage
&his method produces electricity to supply high peak demands by mo"ing water
between reser"oirs at different ele"ations. 2t times of low electrical demand, e$cess
generation capacity is used to pump water into the higher reser"oir. 3hen there is
higher demand, water is released back into the lower reser"oir through a turbine.
-umped-storage schemes currently pro"ide the most commercially important means
of large-scale grid energy storage and impro"e the daily capacity factor of the
generation system.
Run-of-the-river
'un-of-the-ri"er hydroelectric stations are those with comparably smaller reser"oir
capacities, thus making it impossible to store water.
Tide
2 tidal power plant makes use of the daily rise and fall of water due to tides? such
sources are highly predictable, and if conditions permit construction of reser"oirs,
can also be dispatchable to generate power during high demand periods. @ess
common types of hydro schemes use water(s kinetic energy or undammed sources
such as undershot waterwheels.
Sizes and capacities of hydroelectric facilities
Large and specialized industrial facilities

&he &hree >orges <am, seen here from space, is the largest operating hydroelectric
power stations at an installed capacity of 11,400 =3.
2lthough no official definition e$ist for the capacity range of large hydroelectric power
stations, facilities from o"er a few hundred megawatts to more than 10 >3 is
generally considered large hydroelectric facilities. )urrently, only three facilities o"er
10 >3 910,000 =3: are in operation worldwide? &hree >orges <am at 11.4 >3,
Itaipu <am at 16 >3, and >uri <am at 10.1 >3. @arge-scale hydroelectric power
stations are more commonly seen as the largest power producing facilities in the
world, with some hydroelectric facilities capable of generating more than double the
installed capacities of the current largest nuclear power stations.
3hile many hydroelectric pro;ects supply public electricity networks, some are
created to ser"e specific industrial enterprises. <edicated hydroelectric pro;ects are
often built to pro"ide the substantial amounts of electricity needed for aluminium
electrolytic plants, for e$ample. &he >rand )oulee <am switched to support 2lcoa
aluminium in ellingham, 3ashington, .nited ,tates for 2merican 3orld 3ar II
airplanes before it was allowed to pro"ide irrigation and power to citi#ens 9in addition
to aluminium power: after the war. In ,uriname, the rokopondo 'eser"oir was
constructed to pro"ide electricity for the 2lcoa aluminium industry. *ew Aealand(s
=anapouri -ower ,tation was constructed to supply electricity to the aluminium
smelter at &iwai -oint.
&he construction of these large hydroelectric facilities and the changes it makes to
the en"ironment, are often too at "ery large scales, creating ;ust as much damage to
the en"ironment as at helps it by being a renewable resource. =any speciali#ed
organi#ations, such as the International Hydropower 2ssociation, look into these
matters on a global scale.
Small
,mall hydro is the de"elopment of hydroelectric power on a scale ser"ing a small
community or industrial plant. &he definition of a small hydro pro;ect "aries but a
generating capacity of up to 10 megawatts 9=3: is generally accepted as the upper
limit of what can be termed small hydro. &his may be stretched to 14 =3 and 00
=3 in )anada and the .nited ,tates. ,mall-scale hydroelectricity production grew
by 1%8 during 100% from 1004, raising the total world small-hydro capacity to %4
>3. B"er 708 of this was in )hina 954 >3:, followed by Capan 90.4 >3:, the
.nited ,tates 90 >3:, and India 91 >3:.
,mall hydro plants may be connected to con"entional electrical distribution networks
as a source of low-cost renewable energy. 2lternati"ely, small hydro pro;ects may be
built in isolated areas that would be uneconomic to ser"e from a network, or in areas
where there is no national electrical distribution network. ,ince small hydro pro;ects
usually ha"e minimal reser"oirs and ci"il construction work, they are seen as ha"ing
a relati"ely low en"ironmental impact compared to large hydro. &his decreased
en"ironmental impact depends strongly on the balance between stream flow and
power production.
Micro

2 micro-hydro facility in /ietnam.
=icro hydro is a term used for hydroelectric power installations that typically produce
up to 100 D3 of power. &hese installations can pro"ide power to an isolated home
or small community, or are sometimes connected to electric power networks. &here
are many of these installations around the world, particularly in de"eloping nations
as they can pro"ide an economical source of energy without purchase of fuel.
E11F

=icro hydro systems complement photo"oltaic solar energy systems because in
many areas, water flow, and thus a"ailable hydro power, is highest in the winter
when solar energy is at a minimum.
Pico
-ico hydro is a term used for hydroelectric power generation of under 4 D3. It is
useful in small, remote communities that reGuire only a small amount of electricity.
For e$ample, to power one or two fluorescent light bulbs and a &/ or radio for a few
homes.
E11F
+"en smaller turbines of 100-0003 may power a single home in a
de"eloping country with a drop of only 1 m 90 ft:. -ico-hydro setups typically are run-
of-the-ri"er, meaning that dams are not used, but rather pipes di"ert some of the
flow, drop this down a gradient, and through the turbine before being e$hausted back
to the stream.
Calculating the amount of availale po!er
2 simple formula for appro$imating electric power production at a hydroelectric plant
isH P I Jhrgk, where
P is -ower in watts,
J is the density of water 9K1000 kgLm
0
:,
h is height in meters,
r is flow rate in cubic meters per second,
g is acceleration due to gra"ity of 7.% mLs
1
,
k is a coefficient of efficiency ranging from 0 to 1. +fficiency is often higher
9that is, closer to 1: with larger and more modern turbines.
2nnual electric energy production depends on the a"ailable water supply. In some
installations the water flow rate can "ary by a factor of 10H1 o"er the course of a
year.
"dvantages and disadvantages of hydroelectricity
"dvantages

&he Ffestiniog -ower ,tation can generate 050 =3 of electricity within 50 seconds
of the demand arising.
#conomics
&he ma;or ad"antage of hydroelectricity is elimination of the cost of fuel. &he cost of
operating a hydroelectric plant is nearly immune to increases in the cost of fossil
fuels such as oil, natural gas or coal, and no imports are needed.
Hydroelectric plants also tend to ha"e longer economic li"es than fuel-fired
generation, with some plants now in ser"ice which were built 40 to 100 years ago.
Bperating labor cost is also usually low, as plants are automated and ha"e few
personnel on site during normal operation.
3here a dam ser"es multiple purposes, a hydroelectric plant may be added with
relati"ely low construction cost, pro"iding a useful re"enue stream to offset the costs
of dam operation. It has been calculated that the sale of electricity from the &hree
>orges <am will co"er the construction costs after 4 to % years of full generation.
C$% emissions
,ince hydroelectric dams do not burn fossil fuels, they do not directly produce
carbon dio$ide. 3hile some carbon dio$ide is produced during manufacture and
construction of the pro;ect, this is a tiny fraction of the operating emissions of
eGui"alent fossil-fuel electricity generation. Bne measurement of greenhouse gas
related and other e$ternality comparison between energy sources can be found in
the +$tern+ pro;ect by the -aul ,cherrer Institut and the .ni"ersity of ,tuttgart which
was funded by the +uropean )ommission. 2ccording to this pro;ect, hydroelectricity
produces the least amount of greenhouse gases and e$ternality of any energy
source. )oming in second place was wind, third was nuclear energy, and fourth was
solar photo"oltaic. &he e$tremely positi"e greenhouse gas impact of hydroelectricity
is found especially in temperate climates. &he abo"e study was for local energy in
+urope? presumably similar conditions pre"ail in *orth 2merica and *orthern 2sia,
which all see a regular, natural free#eLthaw cycle 9with associated seasonal plant
decay and regrowth:.
$ther uses of the reservoir
'eser"oirs created by hydroelectric schemes often pro"ide facilities for water sports,
and become tourist attractions themsel"es. In some countries, aGuaculture in
reser"oirs is common. =ulti-use dams installed for irrigation support agriculture with
a relati"ely constant water supply. @arge hydro dams can control floods, which would
otherwise affect people li"ing downstream of the pro;ect.
&isadvantages
#cosystem damage and loss of land

Hydroelectric power stations that uses dams would submerge large areas of land
due to the reGuirement of a reser"oir.
@arge reser"oirs reGuired for the operation of hydroelectric power stations result in
submersion of e$tensi"e areas upstream of the dams, destroying biologically rich
and producti"e lowland and ri"erine "alley forests, marshland and grasslands. &he
loss of land is often e$acerbated by the fact that reser"oirs cause habitat
fragmentation of surrounding areas.
Hydroelectric pro;ects can be disrupti"e to surrounding aGuatic ecosystems both
upstream and downstream of the plant site. For instance, studies ha"e shown that
dams along the 2tlantic and -acific coasts of *orth 2merica ha"e reduced salmon
populations by pre"enting access to spawning grounds upstream, e"en though most
dams in salmon habitat ha"e fish ladders installed. ,almon spawn are also harmed
on their migration to sea when they must pass through turbines. &his has led to
some areas transporting smolt downstream by barge during parts of the year. In
some cases dams, such as the =armot <am, ha"e been demolished due to the high
impact on fish. &urbine and power-plant designs that are easier on aGuatic life are an
acti"e area of research. =itigation measures such as fish ladders may be reGuired at
new pro;ects or as a condition of re-licensing of e$isting pro;ects.
>eneration of hydroelectric power changes the downstream ri"er en"ironment.
3ater e$iting a turbine usually contains "ery little suspended sediment, which can
lead to scouring of ri"er beds and loss of ri"erbanks. ,ince turbine gates are often
opened intermittently, rapid or e"en daily fluctuations in ri"er flow are obser"ed. For
e$ample, in the >rand )anyon, the daily cyclic flow "ariation caused by >len
)anyon <am was found to be contributing to erosion of sand bars. <issol"ed o$ygen
content of the water may change from pre-construction conditions. <epending on the
location, water e$iting from turbines is typically much warmer than the pre-dam
water, which can change aGuatic faunal populations, including endangered species,
and pre"ent natural free#ing processes from occurring. ,ome hydroelectric pro;ects
also use canals to di"ert a ri"er at a shallower gradient to increase the head of the
scheme. In some cases, the entire ri"er may be di"erted lea"ing a dry ri"erbed.
+$amples include the &ekapo and -ukaki 'i"ers in *ew Aealand.
'lo! shortage
)hanges in the amount of ri"er flow will correlate with the amount of energy
produced by a dam. @ower ri"er flows because of drought, climate change or
upstream dams and di"ersions will reduce the amount of li"e storage in a reser"oir
therefore reducing the amount of water that can be used for hydroelectricity. &he
result of diminished ri"er flow can be power shortages in areas that depend hea"ily
on hydroelectric power.
Methane emissions (from reservoirs)

&he Hoo"er <am in .nited ,tates is a large con"entional dammed-hydro facility, with
an installed capacity of up to 1,0%0 =3.
@ower positi"e impacts are found in the tropical regions, as it has been noted that the
reser"oirs of power plants in tropical regions may produce substantial amounts of
methane. &his is due to plant material in flooded areas decaying in an anaerobic
en"ironment, and forming methane, a "ery potent greenhouse gas. 2ccording to the
3orld )ommission on <ams report,
E17F
where the reser"oir is large compared to the
generating capacity 9less than 100 watts per sGuare metre of surface area: and no
clearing of the forests in the area was undertaken prior to impoundment of the
reser"oir, greenhouse gas emissions from the reser"oir may be higher than those of
a con"entional oil-fired thermal generation plant.
E10F
2lthough these emissions
represent carbon already in the biosphere, not fossil deposits that had been
seGuestered from the carbon cycle, there is a greater amount of methane due to
anaerobic decay, causing greater damage than would otherwise ha"e occurred had
the forest decayed naturally.
In boreal reser"oirs of )anada and *orthern +urope, howe"er, greenhouse gas
emissions are typically only 18 to %8 of any kind of con"entional fossil-fuel thermal
generation. 2 new class of underwater logging operation that targets drowned
forests can mitigate the effect of forest decay.
E11F
In 1007, International 'i"ers accused hydropower firms for cheating with fake carbon
credits under the )lean <e"elopment =echanism, for hydropower pro;ects already
finished or under construction at the moment they applied to ;oin the )<=. &hese
carbon credits M of hydropower pro;ects under the )<= in de"eloping countries M
can be sold to companies and go"ernments in rich countries, in order to comply with
the Dyoto protocol.
E11F
Relocation
2nother disad"antage of hydroelectric dams is the need to relocate the people li"ing
where the reser"oirs are planned. In February 100%, it was estimated that 60-%0
million people worldwide had been physically displaced as a direct result of dam
construction.
E10F
In many cases, no amount of compensation can replace ancestral
and cultural attachments to places that ha"e spiritual "alue to the displaced
population. 2dditionally, historically and culturally important sites can be flooded and
lost.
,uch problems ha"e arisen at the 2swan <am in +gypt between 1750 and 17%0, the
&hree >orges <am in )hina, the )lyde <am in *ew Aealand, and the Ilisu <am in
&urkey.
'ailure hazard
ecause large con"entional dammed-hydro facilities hold back large "olumes of
water, a failure due to poor construction, terrorism, or other causes can be
catastrophic to downri"er settlements and infrastructure. <am failures ha"e been
some of the largest man-made disasters in history. 2lso, good design and
construction are not an adeGuate guarantee of safety. <ams are tempting industrial
targets for wartime attack, sabotage and terrorism, such as Bperation )hastise in
3orld 3ar II.
&he anGiao <am failure in ,outhern )hina directly resulted in the deaths of 15,000
people, and another 164,000 from epidemics. =illions were left homeless. 2lso, the
creation of a dam in a geologically inappropriate location may cause disasters like
the one of the /a;ont <am in Italy, where almost 1000 people died, in 1750.
E16F
,maller dams and micro hydro facilities create less risk, but can form continuing
ha#ards e"en after they ha"e been decommissioned. For e$ample, the small Delly
arnes <am failed in 1757, causing 07 deaths with the &occoa Flood, ten years after
its power plant was decommissioned in 1747.
E14F
Comparison !ith other methods of po!er generation
Hydroelectricity eliminates the flue gas emissions from fossil fuel combustion,
including pollutants such as sulfur dio$ide, nitric o$ide, carbon mono$ide, dust, and
mercury in the coal. Hydroelectricity also a"oids the ha#ards of coal mining and the
indirect health effects of coal emissions. )ompared to nuclear power, hydroelectricity
generates no nuclear waste, has none of the dangers associated with uranium
mining, nor nuclear leaks. .nlike uranium, hydroelectricity is also a renewable
energy source.
)ompared to wind farms, hydroelectricity power plants ha"e a more predictable load
factor. If the pro;ect has a storage reser"oir, it can be dispatched to generate power
when needed. Hydroelectric plants can be easily regulated to follow "ariations in
power demand.
.nlike fossil-fuelled combustion turbines, construction of a hydroelectric plant
reGuires a long lead-time for site studies, hydrological studies, and en"ironmental
impact assessment. Hydrological data up to 40 years or more is usually reGuired to
determine the best sites and operating regimes for a large hydroelectric plant. .nlike
plants operated by fuel, such as fossil or nuclear energy, the number of sites that
can be economically de"eloped for hydroelectric production is limited? in many areas
the most cost effecti"e sites ha"e already been e$ploited. *ew hydro sites tend to be
far from population centers and reGuire e$tensi"e transmission lines. Hydroelectric
generation depends on rainfall in the watershed, and may be significantly reduced in
years of low rainfall or snowmelt. @ong-term energy yield may be affected by climate
change. .tilities that primarily use hydroelectric power may spend additional capital
to build e$tra capacity to ensure sufficient power is a"ailable in low water years.
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