Nanotechnology

Nanotechnology (sometimes shortened to "nanotech") is the study of manipulating matter on an atomic and
molecular scale. Generally, nanotechnology deals with developing materials, devices, or other structures possessing
at least one dimension sized from 1 to 100 nanometres. Quantum mechanical effects are important at this
uantum!realm scale.
"anotechnology is very diverse, ranging from e#tensions of conventional device physics to completely new
approaches $ased upon molecular self!assem$ly, from developing new materials with dimensions on the nanoscale
to direct control of matter on the atomic scale. "anotechnology entails the application of fields of science as diverse
as surface science, organic chemistry, molecular $iology, semiconductor physics, microfa$rication, etc.
Origin :
%he emergence of nanotechnology in the 1&'0s was caused $y the convergence of e#perimental advances such as
the invention of the scanning tunneling microscope in 1&'1.
%he early (000s also saw the $eginnings of commercial applications of nanotechnology, although these were limited
to $ul) applications of nanomaterials, such as the *ilver "ano platform for using silver nanoparticles as an
anti$acterial agent, nanoparticle!$ased transparent sunscreens, and car$on nanotu$es for stain!resistant te#tiles
Fundamental concepts
"anotechnology is the engineering of functional systems at the molecular scale. %his covers $oth current wor) and
concepts that are more advanced. +n its original sense, nanotechnology refers to the pro,ected a$ility to construct
items from the $ottom up, using techniues and tools $eing developed today to ma)e complete, high performance
products.
-ne nanometer (nm) is one $illionth, or 10&, of a meter. .y comparison, typical car$on!car$on $ond lengths, or the
spacing $etween these atoms in a molecule, are in the range 0.1(0.1/ nm, and a 0"1 dou$le!heli# has a diameter
around ( nm.
%he lower limit is set $y the size of atoms (hydrogen has the smallest atoms, which are appro#imately a uarter of a nm diameter)
since nanotechnology must $uild its devices from atoms and molecules. %he upper limit is more or less ar$itrary $ut is around the
size that phenomena not o$served in larger structures start to $ecome apparent and can $e made use of in the nano device.
%wo main approaches are used in nanotechnology. +n the "$ottom!up" approach, materials and devices are $uilt from
molecular components which assem$le themselves chemically $y principles of molecular recognition. +n the
"top!down" approach, nano!o$,ects are constructed from larger entities without atomic!level control.
1reas of physics such as nanoelectronics, nanomechanics, nanophotonics and nanoionics have evolved during the
last few decades to provide a $asic scientific foundation of nanotechnology
2aterials reduced to the nanoscale can show different properties compared to what they e#hi$it on a macroscale,
ena$ling uniue applications. 3or instance, opaue su$stances $ecome transparent (copper)4 sta$le materials turn
com$usti$le (aluminum)4 insolu$le materials $ecome solu$le (gold). 1 material such as gold, which is chemically
inert at normal scales, can serve as a potent chemical catalyst at nanoscales.
Simple to complex: a molecular perspective
2odern synthetic chemistry has reached the point where it is possi$le to prepare small molecules to almost any
structure. %hese methods are used today to manufacture a wide variety of useful chemicals such as pharmaceuticals
or commercial polymers.
%hese approaches utilize the concepts of molecular self!assem$ly and5or supramolecular chemistry to automatically
arrange themselves into some useful conformation through a $ottom!up approach. %he concept of molecular
recognition is especially important6 molecules can $e designed so that a specific configuration or arrangement is
favored due to non!covalent intermolecular forces. %he 7atson8ric) $asepairing rules are a direct result of this, as
is the specificity of an enzyme $eing targeted to a single su$strate, or the specific folding of the protein itself
Current research
Graphical representation of a rota#ane, useful as a molecular switch. %his 0"1 tetrahedron9(1: is an artificially designed
nanostructure of the type made in the field of 0"1 nanotechnology. ;ach edge of the tetrahedron is a (0 $ase pair 0"1 dou$le
heli#, and each verte# is a three!arm ,unction.
Nanomaterials
%he nanomaterials field includes su$fields which develop or study materials having uniue properties arising from their nanoscale
dimensions.
< +nterface and colloid science has given rise to many materials which may $e useful in nanotechnology, such as car$on nanotu$es
and other fullerenes, and various nanoparticles and nanorods. "anomaterials with fast ion transport are related also to nanoionics
and nanoelectronics.
< "anoscale materials can also $e used for $ul) applications4 most present commercial applications of nanotechnology are of this
flavor.
< =rogress has $een made in using these materials for medical applications4 see "anomedicine.
< "anoscale materials are sometimes used in solar cells which com$ats the cost of traditional *ilicon solar cells
< 0evelopment of applications incorporating semiconductor nanoparticles to $e used in the ne#t generation of products, such as
display technology, lighting, solar cells and $iological imaging4 see uantum dots
Functional approaches
%hese see) to develop components of a desired functionality without regard to how they might $e assem$led.
< 2olecular scale electronics see)s to develop molecules with useful electronic properties. %hese could then $e
used as single!molecule components in a nanoelectronic device.9(>: 3or an e#ample see rota#ane.
< *ynthetic chemical methods can also $e used to create synthetic molecular motors, such as in a so!called nanocar.
Biomimetic approaches
< .ionics or $iomimicry see)s to apply $iological methods and systems found in nature, to the study and design of
engineering systems and modern technology. .iomineralization is one e#ample of the systems studied.
< .ionanotechnology is the use of $iomolecules for applications in nanotechnology, including use of viruses.9(':
"anocellulose is a potential $ul)!scale application.
Tools and techniques
%he tip of a scanning pro$e can also $e used to manipulate nanostructures (a process called positional assem$ly). ?owever, this is
still a slow process $ecause of low scanning velocity of the microscope.
@arious techniues of nanolithography such as optical lithography, A!ray lithography dip pen nanolithography,
electron $eam lithography or nanoimprint lithography were also developed. Bithography is a top!down fa$rication
techniue where a $ul) material is reduced in size to nanoscale pattern.
1nother group of nanotechnological techniues include those used for fa$rication of nanotu$es and nanowires, those
used in semiconductor fa$rication such as deep ultraviolet lithography, electron $eam lithography, focused ion $eam
machining, nanoimprint lithography, atomic layer deposition, and molecular vapor deposition, and further including
molecular self!assem$ly techniues such as those employing di!$loc) copolymers
%he top!down approach anticipates nanodevices that must $e $uilt piece $y piece in stages, much as manufactured
items are made
+n contrast, $ottom!up techniues $uild or grow larger structures atom $y atom or molecule $y molecule. %hese
techniues include chemical synthesis, self!assem$ly and positional assem$ly
Applications
-ne of the ma,or applications of nanotechnology is in the area of nanoelectronics with 2-*3;%Cs $eing made of small nanowires
D10 nm in length.
1s of 1ugust (1, (00', the =ro,ect on ;merging "anotechnologies estimates that over '00 manufacturer!identified nanotech
products are pu$licly availa$le, with new ones hitting the mar)et at a pace of EF per wee).
2ost applications are limited to the use of "first generation" passive nanomaterials which includes titanium dio#ide in sunscreen,
cosmetics, surface coatings,9E': and some food products4 8ar$on allotropes used to produce gec)o tape4 silver in food pac)aging,
clothing, disinfectants and household appliances4 zinc o#ide in sunscreens and cosmetics, surface coatings, paints and outdoor
furniture varnishes4 and cerium o#ide as a fuel catalyst.
3urther applications allow tennis $alls to last longer, golf $alls to fly straighter, and even $owling $alls to $ecome
more dura$le and have a harder surface. %rousers and soc)s have $een infused with nanotechnology so that they will
last longer and )eep people cool in the summer. .andages are $eing infused with silver nanoparticles to heal cuts
faster. 8ars are $eing manufactured with nanomaterials so they may need fewer metals and less fuel to operate in
the future.9F0: @ideo game consoles and personal computers may $ecome cheaper, faster, and contain more memory
than)s to nanotechnology.9F1: "anotechnology may have the a$ility to ma)e e#isting medical applications cheaper
and easier to use in places li)e the general practitionerCs office and at home
Implications
.road societal implications of untracea$le weapons of mass destruction, networ)ed cameras for use $y the government, and
weapons developments fast enough to desta$ilize arms races.
1nother area of concern is the effect that industrial!scale manufacturing and use of nanomaterials would have on
human health and the environment, as suggested $y nanoto#icology research.
.acteriostatic silver nanoparticles used in soc)s to reduce foot odor are $eing released in the wash.9F/: %hese particles are then
flushed into the waste water stream and may destroy $acteria which are critical components of natural ecosystems, farms, and waste
treatment processes
Health and environmental concerns
Gesearchers have found that when rats $reathed in nanoparticles, the particles settled in the $rain and lungs, which
led to significant increases in $iomar)ers for inflammation and stress response9/E: and that nanoparticles induce s)in
aging through o#idative stress in hairless mice