ETHNIC EDUCATION: ITS PURPOSES AND

PROSPECTS
by
James A. Hirabayashi
Dean of Ethnic Studies
San Francisco State University
Paper presented at the Second Annual Conference on Emerin Prorams. University of
!ashinton" Seattle" !ASH#$%&'$" $ovember ()*" +*(,.
Introduction
#n this essay # -ill focus on some basic assumptions underlyin the education of certain
ethnic minorities in this country" the problems of articulation -ith traditional educational
systems and future prospects iven this condition. !hen # say certain ethnic minorities" #
ma.e a distinction bet-een all ethnic minorities -hich refer to/ 0any roup -hich is defined
or set off by race" reliion" or national oriin" or some combination of these cateories 1+2
and those ethnic roups -ho consistently e3perience forms of social and economic
discrimination in our society Specifically" # -ill relate to 4lac." 5e3ican" 6atin" Asian" and
$ative Americans. # do not -ish to imply that this definition only distinuishes these roups"
but the primary push for the redefinition of education for the ethnic minorities has essentially
come from members of these ethnic roups.
4efore beinnin -ith the theme of this essay # -ill ma.e my biases e3plicit. # am an
advocate of separate ethnic studies prorams and am an active participant in one such
proram. 5y direct e3perience in proram development has been primarily -ith the Asian
American Studies proram and as an administrator of the School of Ethnic Studies at San
Francisco State University. As a result" the follo-in analysis -ill rely heavily upon the
events at San Francisco State" the site of one of the initial confrontations to start an
independent ethnic studies proram. Finally" # am formally trained in the field of
anthropoloy. Ethnic Experience and Ethnic Education
%iven the fundamental principles underlyin our society" it seems inevitable that certain
ethnic minorities in this country should ultimately rise in protest of the e3istin conditions.
After years of adaptin to a situation of ine7uity and notin the discrepancies bet-een the
society8s ideal values and behavioral norms and attitudes in reard to many phases of their
lives" it it surprisin that they should have -aited so lon. Perhaps in terms of a lon
historical perspective it -ill not be assessed so" but the events of the tumultuous Si3ties
appear to be a culmination of pent up emotions e3plodin into action. Undoubtedly one
related factor -as the push for radual social chane durin the Fifties on the part of the
liberals -ith the ultimate oal of interation of the ethnic minorities into the mainstream of
American life. &here -as a certain style used" characteri9ed by leal analyses deliberate
strateies and the mobili9ation of people for non)violent confrontations. Ho-ever" these
events -ere 7uic.ly to be follo-ed by spontaneous and more e3treme forms of direct
confrontation in the urban centers -here there -ere concentrationsof lo- income ethnic
populations. For them" conditions had become too drastic: it became a matter of survival to
act for the chanes in economic and social conditions -ere too slo- in evolvin and
emotions could no loner be contained.
&he thrust on educational institutions came some-hat later but rests essentially on the
same assessment of the conditions operatin -ithin the American society. Ho-ever"
inasmuch as the educational institutions are one of the ma;or means of sociali9in future
citi9ens" a re)e3amination of these institutions is particularly crucial in considerin the
process of social chane. #n the 7uest for social chane" reform in education is a necessary
part of the eneral process of chane to better life conditions for these ethnic minorities.
5ost of the early essays concernin the need for the development of ethnic Studies
based their rationale upon an emotional assessment of the life conditions of ethnic roups in
our society. &his -as certainly leitimate in vie- of the situation as outlined above -hen the
development of concerns about the pliht of the ethnic minorities -as intricately inter-oven
-ith concrete events such as discrimination in housin" employment and other forms of
ine7uity. &hese events relate essentially to a 7uestion of racism and therefore an emotional
evaluation -as a natural outcome of the situation. Ho-ever" it is not the fact of racism per se
that ives us the rationale for Ethnic Studies" it only ives us the reason for the development
of the rationale. &he correct -ay of developin a rationale for Ethnic Studies is to reconi9e
its leitimacy and to create a positive base from -hich to construct a meaninful proram for
the people it is to serve. &o build a rationale on the basis of racism results in neativism" and
this is not a healthy base upon -hich to develop a creative proram.
&he reconition of the leitimacy of Ethnic Studies essentially rests upon an assessment
of American society as a pluralistic society. Public and social science ideoloies and theories
concernin the relations of ethnic roups to American culture and society can be classified
into three main types/ +2 conformity to dominant society standards 1assimilation2" <2
bioloical" cultural and social blendin into a ne- synthesis 1acculturation2" and =2
preservation of sinificant portions of the oriinal culture and society -ithin the conte3t of the
American society 1pluralism2. #t -ould appear" from a cursory assessment of the literature"
that the ma;ority of the public and social science vie-s are either e3plicitly or implicitly
formulated in terms of the first type -ith an underlyin assumption of an eventual
assimilation to 0middle class standards.0 #t -ould seem that this oal motivated the actions
of the liberals of the Forties bent upon easin the ethnic minorities into one mainstream of
American life. &his vie- and the second vie-" i.e." the 0meltin pot synthesis"0 both postulate
a unitary model -ith the e3pectation that people conform to the model.1<2 'f the t-o" the
second type is much more palatable to the ethnic minorities" for at least there is some
attention paid to the variety of uni7ue cultural e3periences -hich are a part of their lives.
Ho-ever" there is an assumption that cultural traits from a variety of sources are
resynthesi9ed into a ne- unitary model -hich -ould provide an equally meaningful model
for all people.
!hen the conceptuali9ation is made in terms of a unitary model" reardless of the
sources of the model" ethnic roups are seen as assimilatin from diverent cultural
bac.rounds to some sinle uniform American culture. 6et us e3amine the case of the
mirant ethnic roups for illustrative purposes. A lare number of social scientists8
assessments of the ad;ustment of the mirant ethnic roups in America have used a
particular type of the acculturation)assimilation model. 4riefly" an ideal type is postulated for
the oriinal culture and society and li.e-ise an ideal type is conceptuali9ed for the American
Culture and society. Ethnic roups are then studied in the ne- settin and their ad;ustments
assessed in terms of 0ho- far they have divered from the oriinal culture and society0 and
ho- close they have come to the American culture and society.0 Some ethnic roups are
then considered 0more proressive0 than others because they have assimilated more
rapidly. Consider the assessments made of the Japanese Americans -here they have often
been labeled 0model minorities.01=2 &hey are assessed as havin made ood ad;ustments to
the deree that they have conformed closely to the ideals of middle class society.
&here are several underlyin assumptions in this type of acculturation)assimilation
model. &here are assumptions that the ideali9ed model on both ends of the continuer are
correct assessments of the realities and there is a further assumption that the chane
moves alon a continuum. Ho-ever" there are" in fact" many differences in levels and
orders of abstractions -hich are subsumed -hen a sinle model is enerali9ed for the
oriinal culture -hich the mirant is purported to have brouht -ith him to the ne- settin.
Differences in the ideal)behavioral" reional" class" rural)urban and other norms have been
subsumed to enerate the sinle 0ideali9ed0 model. &hat the mirant population is a self)
selected sample -hich may deviate from the ideali9ed norms" and hat it usually comes from
specific sements of the oriinal society are facts that are inored. #n short" the
conceptuali9ation of the oriinal culture and society of the mirants is usually an over)
enerali9ation -hich disreards the special situation and conditions of the mirants. &he
e3pectation that everyone moves alon a continuum is based on the assumption that -e
have had in the past" do have in the present" and -ill have in the future a uniform culture
and society.
&hus -e have mirants brinin their 0cultural baae"0 -hatever sements of the
oriinal society from -hence they come" and -hatever conceptuali9ation of the ideal values
of the oriinal society" and adaptin creatively to the ne- environment as they assess it.
&hey do not recreate the oriinal culture and society in totality for that is impossible. !hat
they do is to develop ne- meanins and relationships adaptin old forms -here they can"
but in novel -ays. &he important point here is that factors in the particular environment of
the ne- settin -ill most certainly affect the .ind of adaptation that ta.es place. &he
development of ethnic communities cannot be an e3act recreation of the oriinal cultural
form in the ne- environment" nor is it a uniform adaptation to some enerali9ed ideal -hich
subsumes the particular settins of these ethnic communities. &he distinctive resolution of
any ethnic roup should not be evaluated simply as a movement a-ay from some 0ideal0
to-ard some other 0ideal.0 >ather" it should be vie-ed as a creative development" an
evolutionary development rather than a hori9ontal movement: and it is an ever continuin
process.
# have used the e3ample of recent mirant ethnic roups to illustrate the adaptive
process to the eneral society. &he miration of the 4lac. people is 7uite distinct. &hey -ere
torn from their social and cultural conte3ts in Africa and forcibly resettled" by and lare and
consciously" in a socially framentary fashion. &he slave traders and plantation o-ners
bro.e up social roups in order to maintain an oppressive social and economic control over
them. #n spite of this social and cultural oppression" traits and trait comple3es survived and
combined -ith ne- adaptations to develop into uni7ue cultural forms in the ne- settin. #f #
do not elaborate further here it is because # am not as familiar -ith the details of this process
1and these should initially be developed by 4lac. people themselves2" but -e need not
belabor the point that 4lac. culture and society has many characteristic traits and a style
-hich distinuish it from that of 0middle class0 America" and that it is a viable and
evolutionary entity .
&he $ative Americans" of course" -ere not mirants but the oriinal settlers of this
continent. #n spite of lon)term overnmental policies -hich -ere desined either to
eliminate or to assimilate them 1the ultimate oal of the 4ureau of #ndian Affairs -as to -or.
themselves out of a ;ob after assimilation -as complete2" the $ative Americans -ho -ere
not completely decimated by social and cultural enocide throuh -ars" disease" social and
economic oppression continued to evolve their o-n uni7ue distinct life styles.
&hus the 4lac. and $ative American situations differ from that of recent ethnic mirants
insofar as time of contact is concerned" but in each case the minorities continued to evolve a
uni7ue style of livin. &herefore" reardless of the roup in 7uestion" no one can seriously
7uestion the e3istence of ethnic communities -ith life styles -hich vary from that
characteri9ed as 0middle class America.0 &his fact" coupled -ith the e3istence of racism in its
many forms" 1,2 ives rise to several specific educational needs amon those -ho ro- up"
live in and relate to these communities. &hese needs fall into t-o ma;or cateories/ those
-hich pertain to the understandin of the minorities themselves as members of ethnic
communities: and those -hich pertain to the relationship bet-een that ethnicity and the total
society. As it has been one of the functions of educational institutions to facilitate the
discovery and internali9ation of a 0correct0 model for individuals in our society" it becomes
necessary to challene traditional education -hich has enerally been based on a normative
philosophy -ith an assumption of assimilation to a sinle uniform society. &o the e3tent that
the traditional educational system assumes a unitary model for all members of the society
and to the e3tent that it does not relate directly to the perceptions and conceptions of the
ethnic minorities" the ethnic minorities cannot readily find meanin for themselves if a
positive understandin of their primary e3perience is prevented. 5oreover" racism
compounds their problem for their primary e3periences are ;uded neatively.
&here are those -ho contend that the traditional educational system no loner holds
assumptions -hich prevent the ethnic minorities from dealin -ith primary issues of their
ethnicity because certain corrections have been made no-" and ethnic content is bein
added to the traditional curricula: but # -ill arue that basic chanes have not been made.
5oreover" the traditional educational system is resistin chanes -hich -ill allo- ethnic
studies to develop the postulates needed to serve the primary needs of ethnic education.
&he main thesis of this essay is that the basic assumptions underlyin traditional education
do not accommodate concepts and perceptions of the ethnic minorities -ithout immediately
distortin them. And -ithout fundamental chanes in traditional education" # remain an
advocate of separate ethnic studies prorams.
The University Settin
&he university" in its broadest definition" is characteri9ed as a place for learnin -here
.no-lede and ne- ideas are developed" -here students are prepared for useful lives in our
society" and a place -here self) a-areness and intellectual development are promoted.
Althouh there are many sources -e may use for an assessment of the university and its
purposes" # shall ta.e one by my colleaues at San Francisco State University for not only
do they revie- the meanin of the university e3perience for students" but they do so in the
conte3t of the events -hich led to the stri.e of +*?@. 6et us first bein by e3aminin their
vie-s on ho- institutions fit into other aspects of the total culture and society in terms of their
social ideoloies/
A fully developed ideoloy provides individuals and roups -ith a frame of reference that
includes assumptions" pro;ected ideals" and e3pected patterns of behavior and processes. . .
mature ideoloies include assumptions about/ +2 the nature of the universe and man8s
relation to it: <2 the nature of man and his relation to his fello-s: =2 the purpose of institutions
and their relationships to individuals and roups: ,2 ideal oals and purposes of individuals
to be nurtured by institutions and society: and A2 appropriate processes and acceptable
behavior providin the means suested by + throuh , above.1A2
&hey also describe the university as an institution -hich has at least nine different lives/
life as an e3plorer" preserver and transmission belt" processor and 7uality controller" 7uasi)
home" tribal rite" critic" chane aent" place for self)discovery" and as a corporation.1?2
#n a traditional educational institution" if -e assume as an ob;ective a uniform culture and
society" a sinle uniform normative ideoloy -ould suffice as there -ould be compatible
assumptions underlyin the ideoloy. Ho-ever" because of the diversity of the life styles of
the people -ho ma.e up this nation" the assumptions underlyin the ideoloy of middle
class society must be called into 7uestion. 6et us isolate one of the assumptions contained
in their definition of a mature ideoloy" the nature of man and his relation to his fello-s" and
vie- it in con;unction -ith one of the 0lives0 of the university e3perience" life as a place for
self)discovery. #f the life styles for the ethnic minorities are at variance -ith that of 0middle
class0 America" as has been arued above" it follo-s that the ethnic minorities cannot
achieve self)understandin if they approach self) discovery -ith assumptions and
perceptions other than their o-n. Unless ethnic education sees the development of a
rationale based on their o-n assumptions" all other oals become diverted. &he 0lives0 of the
University as an institution" if they rest on middle class assumptions" do not serve the basic
needs of the students from ethnic communities.
%iven these differences" the issue of control of ethnic studies prorams becomes
paramount.) &he irony of the stri.e at San Francisco State is that the very people -ho -ere
forced to reconi9e Ethnic Studies are the self same people -ho no- sit in ;udment of
everythin that is done. All prorammatic developments" all staff appointments re7uire
ultimate approval by those in chare of the institution. #f -e isolate the assumptions
underlyin the 0ideal oals and purposes of individuals to be nurtured by institutions and
society0 1$o. , above2" and ta.e that in con;unction -ith one of the lives of the institution as
a corporation" -e can readily determine -hat administrators are chared to do" and there is
immediate and basic conflict. Specifically" the conflicts come out e3plicitly in almost all
decision ma.in procedures in the development of the proram. Buestions such as/ Do all of
the courses meet the academic standardsC Are the teachers 7ualified to teachC Does the
format in terms of -hich the course is conceptuali9ed fit into the e3istin curriculumC All are
;uded in terms of standardi9ed traditional criteria and ultimate fit into the eneral
educational system. Here # am not necessarily charin administrators -ith conscious and
malevolent intent" # am merely pointin out that the pervasive nature of the basic
assumptions underlyin the system are never made e3plicit" but they affect the nature and
.ind of ad;ustments forced upon ethnic studies at every turn. &hus" the issue of control is not
simply a 5achiavellian rab for po-er" as many have characteri9ed those -ho press for
ethnic studies" but it is an insistence upon the fundamental necessity of definin ethnic
education on its o-n terms.
Education! Research and Studies 1(2
&he discussion thus far has remained rather abstract. &o illustrate the pervasiveness of
the assumptions underlyin traditional education" it may be instructive for us to e3amine the
relation bet-een traditional education" conventional research" and ethnic education.
Conventional education and research rest upon certain assumptions -hich have resulted in
a total disreard of the particular needs of the ethnic minorities to understand themselves"
and they have not contributed a body of data for the e3plicit purpose of the education of the
ethnic minorities at either individuals or as members of their communities. !hy is this soC
&he ans-er comes from the in7uiry/ !hat motivates a conventional researcher to do
researchC
'ne of the primary motives is the validation of his activities in the eyes of his peers.
Consider those activities. &he basic conceptual frame-or. -hich he uses" the theories
-hich are based on the frame-or." the hypothesis he derives from those theories" the
methodoloy -hich he uses to enerate the data to test the hypotheses" all are based upon
certain speciali9ed assumptions underlyin that particular discipline. &he results of any
research are then evaluated in terms of -hat contribution it ma.es to the further clarification
and development of the conceptual frame-or. and the associated body of data of that
discipline. Central to the motivations of any iven researcher is that he contributes to the
oals of that discipline and the structure of the conventional research community demands
this .ind of accountability #f this is so" then those -ho are 0researched0 necessarily remain
0ob;ects0 to be used as sources of 0data"0 data based on their conceptuali9ations" for those
academicians to further the development of their o-n disciplines.
#t is true that some of these academicians may empathi9e -ith 0the people0 and in
addition to his primary motivation discussed above" may be motivated to 0help0 the
people as in the case of some applied behavioral scientists. Ho-ever" it still remains
that the conceptuali9ation of the problem and the articulation of solution continue to be
ine3tricably bound to the particular conceptual frame-or. of the behavioral scientist and
is not based on the conceptuali9ation of the members of the community. 4asically any
definition of 0help0 rests on value ;udments of -hat is ultimately ood. &herefore" any
value ;udment of -hat is ood for the community must arise from the people8s o-n
understandin of themselves and their lives.
&he -ay in -hich the people of the community remain 0ob;ects0 becomes clearer )
-hen -e e3amine ho- the 0data0 about the people are used. Since the results of the
research are presented in terms of conventional social science disciplines" as bro-sin in
any university library -ill readily sho-" these data are primarily available to the very
academicians -ho ive it validation" due to an elitist bias on the part of the same
academicians. Further" -hen -e e3amine the fundin of applied social science research
and any implementation of these in action prorams" -e must 7uestion the role of values
and motivations of those supplyin the funds. &hose values" inasmuch as they are based
on 0outside0 perspectives" cannot be the same as those of the community members" As
stated above" even if the -elfare of the community is claimed as a motive" the perception
of this is in terms of persons other than the members of the community so that at best it
becomes arbitrary" imposed and paternalistic.
Rationa"e #or An Ethnic Studies
#n the redefinition of Ethnic Studies and research -e must loo. at the issues both in
terms of the content and process. For not only do -e challene the relevancy of the basic
conceptuali9ations made of us by traditional academia" but also the very processes of
discovery and education -hich have become alienated from the people concerned. #n
traditional education" the academic elite are considered to be the repository of 0information0
and as Freire characteri9es this 0ban.in concept of education0 the data become deposited
in the students.1@2 4ut in true education it is necessary for individuals to become actively
involved in the process of their o-n education.
!e learn and come to understand ourselves and our -orld vie-s" i.e." the -ay -e see
ourselves in relation to all else" only -hen -e underta.e this process of understandin as
active participants. &o the e3tent that -e relin7uish bein active participants in this tas."
-e become alienated from ourselves: for -hat -e are tal.in about is not the ob;ective
-orld as such but our perceptions of it. 'ur forms of thouht" concepts and comple3 of
ideas are not isolated" static entities 0out there0 in the ob;ective -orld. 'ur feelins" our
aspirations" and motivations are the result of an onoin process" historically derived to be
sure" but uni7uely combined at any iven time. Any investiation of this process cannot
contribute to the development of our self)a-areness if it is based upon other than
meaninful themes and concepts to us. &o the e3tent that -e accept definitions of
ourselves based on the conceptions of others" to the e3tent that -e try to find meanins
from these definitions based on other than our o-n understandin of our primary
e3periences" do -e become alienated. 5oreover" if -e accept norms imposed on us and if
-e use those norms to pattern our behavior reardless of our life e3periences" -e -ill
estrane ourselves from those very e3periences and this process leads ultimately to our
dehumani9ation. &hus -hen our cultural conte3t is penetrated by outsiders" and their
descriptions are then imposed on us 1as in neative stereotypin2 in disrespect of our o-n
vie-s" this imposition inhibits our self)a-areness by curbin it. &herefore" it is absolutely
essential that self)understandin be based on an active participation in the process itself. A
closed cycle has e3isted in traditional education -hich did not include meaninful research
and .no-lede for the education of ethnic minorities and thus the university has been
prevented from fulfillin its proper role for the ethnic minorities.
Ethnic education must be relevant for the ethnic minorities and their communities. &he
codification of reality must be made in terms of symbols derived from the people themselves
-hich beins -ith the lanuae and the universe of the participants. #t follo-s that this
process must be tied closely -ith actual events as they occur in the community settin.
&hus" ethnic education must be tied closely to community involvement and research/
community people involved in education and the educational community involved in the
ethnic community.
Ethnic education must include the follo-in foci in research and studies/ a re)
e3amination of the historical e3periences of the people concerned" a thorouh study of the
community and its culture" and the articulations of the lives of those people -ith the total
society of -hich they are a part. #t is particularly crucial in its initial staes that -e ive free
rein to the development of the humanities and creative arts" for free e3pression of the life
e3periences is the basis upon -hich ethnic education must build ne- .no-lede and self)
understandin.
!hatever the focus" it is essential to bein -ith the codifications of reality based on the
people8s conceptions" and abstractions from this must not violate the fundamental
codifications. Any subse7uent ideas and approaches" then" must constantly be evaluated
in terms of the basic criteria set up to achieve ethnic education in terms of -hether they
accomplish these tas.s.
Conc"usions: Su$$ary and Prospects
&o summari9e the basic necessities of ethnic education/ it must deal directly -ith the life
e3periences of the ethnic minorities and deal -ith it by codifyin that reality in terms of the
conceptions and perceptions of those -ho are livin that life. #t must ta.e care that in the
process of abstraction" it does not destroy the lin.ae bet-een the primary e3perience and
the conceptuali9ations that follo- from it. &o ensure relevance for the ethnic minorities" and
to ensure the proper lin.ae in this process" it is necessary for ethnic education and the
community to enae in this process toether. An ethnic community must be an interal
part of the process of research and studies and the results must be directly relevant and
applicable to that community.
As lon as the university as ar. educational institution continues to operate in terms of its
e3istin set of assumptions" the successful implementation of ethnic studies prorams is
seriously curtailed from the outset. &he particular issue of fundamental assumptions
underlyin educational philosophy is seldom of concern to the traditional departments" as
they accept the basic assumptions and practices of the traditional educational system/ but
-e only need to point to cases such as the attempt to hire Anela Davis at U.C.6.A. to sho-
that should any proram challene the system8s definition of purpose and process" the issue
is al-ays settled in favor of the system.
Althouh # count amon my non)ethnic colleaues many -ho have been sympathetic
and have ained a measure of understandin of our position" # remain rather pessimistic of
the prospects of ethnic education -ithin the conte3t of traditional educational systems. &here
are inevitable and over-helmin forces represented by consistent and persistent
articulations -ith the operations of traditional education -hich mitiate aainst the
implementation of the fundamental precepts of ethnic education" ma.in the outloo. for
chane discourain. # do not say" thereby" that the effort has been for nauht for there have
been some chanes" not only in the minds of the ethnic population" but in challenes -hich
have forced ad;ustments on the part of traditional systems. Perhaps enouh of these
ad;ustments may call into 7uestion the basic assumptions underlyin their operations" but
that is yet to come. 5y perceptions of the situation as an administrator of an ethnic studies
proram is that the odds are over-helmin" and that radually the total forces of the system
-ill -ear us do-n. #n the -ords of Denis %oulet/ 0. . . his has been the -ay of all ideoloical
flesh. . our society secretes its o-n astric /.ices to polish the rouh stones of dissent into
smooth pearls of conformity.01*2
Since this resistance to accommodate is implicit and disuised" the ad;ustments of
traditional educational systems to ethnic education have been inade7uate. Darious
responses to pressures brouht by ethnic minorities include piecemeal and to.en
accommodations as for e3ample the re7uirement of primary and secondary teachers to ta.e
a fe- units in ethnic studies so that they can then 0relate0 to students comin from that
cultural bac.round. !ere it so simple" -e could have lon since solved many of the
educational issues for the ethnic minorities. &o ta.e another e3ample" university
administrators 0solved the problem0 by addin ethnic content into the traditional disciplines
and have even created 0paper derees0 by assemblin enouh of these courses for a ma;or
in ethnic studies. &his is no solution at all" for the fundamental concepts and perceptions are
still those of the traditional disciplines -hich # have arued do not address the basic issue of
codification of reality into symbols based on the perceptions of the ethnic minorities. 'ften
the failure of those prorams is pointed to -ith deliht on the part of the detractors of ethnic
studies as proof that they did not have substance" 7uality" or standards. &o the e3tent that
forces in the dominant society have been able to divert the purpose of ethnic education"
such factors uarantee failure for the ethnic minorities are 7uic. to reconi9e that it does not
serve their needs at all.
#t is not correct to merely lay all the blame on those outside of ethnic education. &o the
e3tent that -e -ho are involved fail to reconi9e the fact that" after all" -e are also
creatures of the total society and that -e have internali9ed those implicit assumptions in
terms of -hich this society operates" -e often. nelect to 7uestion the assumptions
underlyin traditional education and thus" -e do not need outside oppressors. !e function
very -ell in that respect ourselves.
So our tas. is difficult and -ill ta.e time. Perhaps my pessimism concernin the
educational system is ;ustified" and ultimately it -ill rind us do-n to the point -here ethnic
studies -ill be indistinuishable from any traditional department or proram. !hen that time
comes" the battle -ill have been lost and -e -ill only be able to ain solace in the fact that
there may have been some overall effect upon the system and upon those ethnic minorities
-ho have been involved in its development. 4ut -hen that time comes" and if the situation
for the ethnic minorities is not such that they are able to relate in a positive -ay to their o-n
life e3periences" it -ill be time to do somethin else.
Notes:
+2 5ilton 5. %ordon" Assimilation in American Life" 1'3ford University Press" +*?,2" p. <(.
<2 For a recent vie- of the 0meltin pot theory0 see S.#. Haya.a-a" 0&he 5eanin of the 5eltin Pot0" S.F.
Examiner" Sat." 5ar. *" +*(," P.ll.
=2 Harry El.6. Fitano and Stanley Sue" 0&he 5odel 5inorities"0 The Journal of Social Issues, Dol. <*" $o. <"
+*(=" pp.+)*.
,2 For a recent e3amination of the racism issue" see Harry Fitano" Race Relations, Prentice Hall"
+*(,.
A2 Devere Pentony" >obert Smith and >ichard A3en" nfinished Re!ellions, 1Jossey 4ass" #nc.: +*(+2" pp. AA)
A?.
?2 ibid." pp. +.
(2 &he follo-in comments of this section have been e3cerpted from J. Hirabayashi" 0>esearch and Studies"0
"roceedings of the #ational Asian American Studies $onference, July +*(=.
@2 Paulo Freire" "edagogy of the %&&ressed"1&he Seabury Press" +*(=2.
*2 Denis %oulet" 0Development or 6iberation"0 International 'e(elo&ment Re(ie), September" +*(+.
%i&"ioraphy
Freire" Paulo. "edagogy of the %&&ressed. $e- Gor./ &he Seabury Press" +*(=.
%ordon" 5ilton 5. Assimilation in American Life. $e- Gor./ '3ford University Press" + H,.
%oulet" Denis. 8Development or 6iberation0 International 'e(elo&ment Re(ie)" 1September +*(+2.
Haya.a-a" Samuel #. 0&he 5eanin of the 5eltin Pot"0 San Francisco Examiner, 15arch *" +*(,2.
Hirabayashi" James. 0>esearch and StudiesH"0 "roceedings of The #ational Asian American
Studies $onference II Davis/ University of California" +*(=.
Fitano" Harry H. 6. Race Relations. Enle-ood Cliffs/ Prentice Hall" +*(,.
Pentony" Devere" Smith" >obert and A3en" >ichard. nfinished Re!ellions. San Francisco/
Jossey)4ass" #nc." +*(+.
Sue" Stanley and Fitano" Harry H. 6. 1eds.2 Asian Americans* A Success Story+ Special issue of The Journal of
Social Issues Dol. <*" $o. <" +*(=.
C'IC( HERE RETURN TO TA%'E O# CONTENTS