Analg and Digital Control System Design: Transfer-Function, State-Space, and Algebraic Methods Chi-Tsong Chen ‘State University of New York at Stony Brook Saunders College Publishing Harcourt Brace Jovanovich College Publishers Fort Worth Philadelphia San Diego New York Orlando Austin San Antonio Toronto Montreal London sydney TokyoChapter 1 Chapter 2 La 12 24 2.2 23 Contents Introduction 1 Empirical and Analytical Methods 1 Control Systems 2 Position Control Systems 2 Velocity Control Systems 4 Temperature Control Systems 6 Trajectory Control and Autopilot 6 1.2.5. Miscellaneous Examples 7 Problem Formulation and Basic Terminology 9 Scope of the Text 11 Mathematical Preliminary 14 Physical Systems and Models 14 Linear Time-Invariant Lumped Systems 16 2.2.1 Mechanical Systems 17 2.2.2 RLC Networks 20 2.2.3 Industrial Process—Hydraulic tanks 22 Zero-Input Response and Zero-State Response 24 2.3.1 Zero-Input Response—Characteristic Polynomial 25 elChapter 3 Chapter 4 ‘CONTENTS 24 25 2.6 27 28 31 32 33 34 35 3.6 a7 41 42 43 44 45 Zero-State Response—Transfer Function 27 2.4.1 Proper Transfer Functions 30 2.4.2 Poles and Zeros 34 Block Representation—Complete Characterization 39 2.5.1. The Loading Problem 43 State-Variable Equations 45 Solutions of State Equations—Laplace Transform Method 50 2.7.1 Time-Domain Solutions 52 2.7.2. Transfer Function and Characteristic Polynomial 54 Discretization of State Equations 57 Problems 60 Development of Block Diagrams for Control Systems 69 Introduction 69 Motors 70 3.2.1 Field-Controlled DC Motor 70 3.2.2, Armature-Controlled DC Motor 72 Measurement of Motor Transfer Functions 75 Gears 78 Transducers 81 Operational Amplifiers (Op-Amps) 84 Block Diagrams of Control Systems 88 3.6.1. Reaction Wheels and Robotic Arms 91 Manipulation of Block Diagrams 94 3.7.1 Mason's Formula 98 3.7.2 Open-Loop and Closed-Loop Transfer Functions 101 Problems 102 tive and Qualitative Analyses of Control Systems 111 Introduction 111 First-Order Systems—The Time Constant 111 4.2.1 Effects of Feedback 115 Second-Order Systems 116 Time Responses of Poles 123 Stability 125Chapter 5 Chapter 6 46 47 5.6 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 ‘CONTENTS, xv The Routh Test 129 4.6.1 Stability Range 135 Steady-State Response of Stable Systems—Polynomial Inputs 138 4.7.1 Steady-State Response of Stable Systems—Sinusoidal Inputs 141 4.7.2 Infinite Time 144 Problems 147 Computer Simulation and Realization 154 Introduction 154 Computer Computation of State-Variable Equations 155 Existing Computer Programs 159 Basic Block Diagrams and Op-Amp Circuits 162 Realization Problem 165 5.5.1 Realizations of N(s)/D(s) 167 5.5.2 Tandem and Parallel Realizations 172 Minimal Realizations 177 5.6.1 Minimal Realization of Vector Transfer Functions 179 Problems 183 Design Cri Constraints, and Feedback 188 Introduction 188 Choice of a Plant 188 Performance Criteria 189 6.3.1 Steady-State Performance—Accuracy 191 6.3.2. System Types—Unity-Feedback Configuration 194 6.3.3. Transient Performance—Speed of Response 195 Noise and Disturbances 197 Proper Compensators and Well-Posedness 198 Total Stability 202 6.6.1 Imperfect Cancellations 203 6.6.2 Design Involving Pole-Zero Cancellations 206 Saturation—Constraint on Actuating Signals 207 Open-Loop and Closed-Loop Configurations 209 ‘Two Basic Approaches in Design 216 Problems 217Chapter 7 Chapter 8 CONTENTS. 13 14 15 16 Wd 18 81 82 83 84 85 8.6 87 88 The Root-Locus Method 223 Introduction 223 Quadratic Systems with a Constant Numerator 223 7.2.1 Desired Pole Region 225 7.2.2 Design using Desired Pole Region 228 More on Desired Pole Region 231 The Plot of Root Loci 233 7.4.1, Properties of Root Loci—Phase Condition 236 7.4.2 Complexities of Root Loci 246 7.4.3, Stability Range from Root Loci—Magnitude Condition 247 Design using the Root-Locus Method 250 7.5.1 Discussion 254 Proportional-Derivative (PD) Controller 255 Phase-Lead and Phase-Lag Networks 260 Concluding Remarks 262 Problems 263 Frequency-Domain Techniques 270 Introduction 270 Frequency-Domain Plots 271 Plotting Bode Plots 275 8.3.1 Non-Minimum-Phase Transfer Functions 284 8.3.2 Identification 286 Stability Test in the Frequency Domain 289 8.4.1 Principle of Argument 289 8.4.2 The Nyquist Plot 290 8.4.3 Nyquist Stability Criterion 294 8.4.4 Relative Stability—Gain Margin and Phase Margin 297 Frequency-Domain Specifications for Overall Systems 300 Frequency-Domain Specifications for Loop Transfer Functions—Unity-Feedback Configuration 305 8.6.1 Why Use Bode Plots? 310 8.6.2. Design from Measured Data 311 Design on Bode Plots 312 8.7.1 Gain Adjustment 314 Phase-Lag Compensation 315Chapter 9 Chapter 10 89 8.10 8.11 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 10.1 10.2 10.3 104 10.5 CONTENTS xvii Phase-Lead Compensation 321 Proportional-Integral (PI) Compensators 327 Concluding Remarks 332 Problems 332 The Inward Approach—Choice of Overall Transfer Functions 339 Introduction 339 Implementable Transfer Functions 340 9.2.1 Asymptotic Tracking and Permissible Pole-Zero Cancellation Region 345 Various Design Criteria 346 Quadratic Performance Indices 350 9.4.1 Quadratic Optimal Systems 350 9.4.2 Computation of Spectral Factorizations 354 9.4.3 Selection of Weighting Factors 358 Three More Examples 361 9.5.1 Symmetric Root Loci 365 ITAE Optimal Systems 367 9.6.1 Applications 371 Selection Based on Engineering Judgment 375 Summary and Concluding Remarks 378 Problems 380 Implementation—Linear Algebraic Method 384 Unity-Feedback Configuration—Model Matching 385 Unity-Feedback Configuration—Pole Placement by Matching, Coefficients 388 10.3.1, Diophantine Equations 390 10.3.2 Pole Placement with Robust Tracking 397 10.3.3 Pole Placement and Model Matching 400 ‘Two-Parameter Compensators 402 10.4.1 Two-Parameter Configuration—Model Matching 405, Effect of D,(s) on Disturbance Rejection and Robustness 411 10.5.1 Model Matching and Disturbance Rejection 419xvii Chapter 11 Chapter 12 ‘CONTENTS. 10.6 10.7 Ma 12 113 14 115 116 W7 19 12.1 12.2 12.3 124 12.5 Plant Input/Output Feedback Configuration 422 Summary and Concluding Remarks 425 Problems 428 State-Space Design 432 Introduction 432 Controllability and Observability 432 11.2.1 Pole-Zero Cancellations 438 Equivalent State-Variable Equations 440 Pole Placement 442 Quadratic Optimal Regulator 449 State Estimators 453 11.6.1 Reduced-Dimensional Estimators 456 Connection of State Feedback and State Estimators 459 11.7.1 Comparison with Linear Algebraic Method 461 Lyapunov Stability Theorem 465 11.8.1 Application—A Proof of the Routh Test. 467 Summary and Concluding Remarks 470 Problems 471 Discrete-Time System Analysis 475 Introduction 475 Why Digital Compensators? 476 AID and D/A Conversions 478 The 2-Transform 481 12.4.1 The Laplace Transform and the z-Transform 484 12.4.2 Inverse z-Transform 487 12.4.3 Time Delay and Time Advance 488 Solving LTIL Difference Equations 490 12.5.1 Characteristic Polynomials and Transfer Functions 491 12.5.2 Causality and Time Delay 494 Discrete-Time State Equations 495 12.6.1 Controllability and Observability 496 Basic Block Diagrams and Realizations 497 12.7.1 Realizations of N(z/D(z) 49912.8 129 12.10 Chapter 13 13.1 13.2 13.4 13.5 13.6 13.7 13.8 13.9 Chapter 14 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 Appendix A Al A2 A3 CONTENTS xix Stability 500 12.8.1 The Final-Value and Initial-Value Theorems 502 Steady-State Responses of Stable Systems 503 12.9.1 Frequency Responses of Analog and Digital Systems 506 Lyapunov Stability Theorem 507 Problems 508 Discrete-Time System Design 511 Introduction 511 Digital Implementations of Analog Compensators—Time-Domain Invariance 512 13.2.1 Frequency-Domain Transformations 516 An Example 522 13.3.1 Selection of Sampling Periods 524 Equivalent Digital Plants 526 13.4.1 Hidden Dynamics and Non-Minimum-Phase Zeros 528 Root-Locus Method 534 Frequency-Domain Design 540 State Feedback, State Estimator and Dead-Beat Design 541 Model Matching 544 Concluding Remarks 547 Problems 548 PID Controllers 51 Introduction 551 PID Controllers in Industrial Processes 552 14.2.1 Rules of Ziegler and Nichols 558 14.2.2 Rational Approximations of Time Delays 559 PID Controllers for Linear Time-Invariant Lumped Systems 561 Digital PID Controllers 563 The Laplace Transform 67 Definition 567 Inverse Laplace Transform—Partial Fraction Expansion 570 Some Properties of the Laplace Transform 571