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Little is known of the training of children during the Achaemenid period. The aim of Persian education was to produce efficient soldiers, says j. S. Scott. He argues that Even nobles and highly placed Persian civil servants were illiterate.
Little is known of the training of children during the Achaemenid period. The aim of Persian education was to produce efficient soldiers, says j. S. Scott. He argues that Even nobles and highly placed Persian civil servants were illiterate.
Little is known of the training of children during the Achaemenid period. The aim of Persian education was to produce efficient soldiers, says j. S. Scott. He argues that Even nobles and highly placed Persian civil servants were illiterate.
Little is known of the training of children during the Achaemenid period. In two Elamite documents from Persepolis drafted in the 23rd regnal year of Darius I (499 B.C.E.) Persian boys (who) are copying texts are mentioned (Hallock, nos. 871, 1137); the texts in question are records of the issue of grain to twenty-nine individuals and wine to sixteen. It is possible that the boys were learning Persian cuneiform script, which was probably known only to a few scribes, as it was used mainly for royal triumphal inscriptions. Even nobles and highly placed Persian civil servants were illiterate, and writing played no part in standard Persian education. The Persians therefore used foreign scribes (writing chiefly in Aramaic) in the state chancery. Greek sources provide some idea of typical Persian education. According to Herodotus, Persian boys were not allowed into the presence of their fathers until the age of five years; until then they lived among the women. From ages five to twenty years they were trained in horsemanship, archery, and telling the truth (Herodotus, 1.136). Persians regarded lying as the worst of offenses, whereas prowess in arms was the mark of manliness. Xenophon wrote in Cyropaedia that until the age of sixteen or seventeen years the sons of Persian nobles were brought up at the royal court, practicing riding, archery, throwing the spear, and hunting. They were also instructed in justice, obedience, endurance, and self-restraint (1.2.2- 12, 7.5.86, 8.6.10; cf. idem, Anabasis 1.9.2-6; Strabo, 15.3.18). Clearly, apart from ethical guidance, the aim of Persian education was to produce efficient soldiers. This conclusion is confirmed by the tomb inscription of Darius I: Trained am I both with hands and with feet. As a horseman I am a good horseman. As a bowman I am a good bowman both afoot and on horseback. As a spearman I am a good spearman both afoot and on horseback (DNb 40-45; Kent, Old Persian, pp. 139-40). In Alcibiades (attributed to Plato, 1.120-23) it is noted that Persian princes were assigned at the age of fourteen years to four eminent Persians, called respectively the wisest, most just, most temperate, and bravest, who tutored them in the worship of the gods, government, temperance, and courage respectively. Plutarch (Artaxerxes 3.3) mentioned a priest who taught the wisdom of the Magi to Cyrus the Younger (q.v. vi). There is practically no information on education in the eastern satrapies of the Achaemenid empire, but the evidence for Babylonia and Egypt, where traditional educational systems continued under Persian rule, is extensive. In both countries formal education was restricted to boys. Reading and writing, as well as some grammar, mathematics, and astronomy, were taught in scribal schools. In Achaemenid Babylonia literacy was widespread among the non- Iranian population; scribes were numerous and included the sons of shepherds, fishermen, weavers, and the like. Many school texts have survived from Mesopotamia. They include Sumerian-Babylonian dictionaries, tablets with cuneiform signs, and collections of examples of grammatical usage and exercises (Oppenheim, pp. 244-49). The literacy rate was even higher among the Achaemenid military colonists in Elephantine in Egypt (qq.v.), where witnesses to contracts in Aramaic usually signed their own names (Naveh, p. 22). Darius I ordered the restoration of the medical school at Sais in Egypt. It seems, however, that among the Egyptians education remained the privilege of the nobility: The Egyptian dignitary Ujahorresne declared that there were no children of nobodies among the students in this medical school (Posener, pp. 1-2, 22).
Bibliography: (For cited works not found in this bibliography and abbreviations found here, see Short References.) Boyce, Zoroastrianism II, pp. 181, 212-13, 261. R. T. Hallock, Persepolis Fortification Tablets, Chicago, 1969. S. W. Hirsch, The Friendship of the Barbarians. Xenophon and the Persian Empire, Hanover, N.H., 1985, pp. 85-87. J. Naveh, The Development of the Aramaic Script, The Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities, Proceedings 5/1, Jerusalem, 1970. A. L. Oppenheim, Ancient Mesopotamia. Portrait of a Dead Civilization, Chicago, 1977. G. Posener, La premire domination perse en gypte, Cairo, 1936. (Muhammad A. Dandamayev) Originally Published: December 15, 1997 Last Updated: December 9, 2011 This article is available in print. Vol. VIII, Fasc. 2, pp. 178-179
ii. IN THE PARTHIAN AND SASANIAN PERIODS No concrete evidence on education in Parthian times has survived. It may be postulated, however, that it was similar to education in the Sasanian period. Information about the latter period is confined mainly to education of princes, the nobility, the clergy, and administrative secretaries (dab!rs, q.v.). Most peasants were illiterate, but most urban merchants were probably acquainted at least with writing and calculation (Christensen, Iran Sass., p. 416). The required education for a child of a noble or an upper-class family is described in the Pahlavi treatise Xusraw ud R"dag (Pahlavi Texts, ed. Jamasp-Asana, pp. 27-38): writing, religious instruction, physical education, and training in courtly arts. A noble child would begin attending school (fra-hangest#n) at the proper age, between five and seven years (Wiz!rkard, p. 177; cf. !abar", I, pp. 815, 855: Arda#"r at seven years, Bahr$m V at five years) and would have completed general training and religious studies by the age of fifteen years (Andarz ! P$ry$tk"%#n, par. 1; Pahlavi Texts, ed. Jamasp-Asana, p. 41). At school he would learn to write and would memorize the ya%ts, H#d$xt, Bay#n Yasn, and Vid"vd#d, the same training provided for a future h"rbed (religious teacher). In addition, he would listen to the Zand, the Pahlavi translation of the Avesta. Astrology was also part of the curriculum (Xusraw ud R"dag,pars. 8-10, 14). The education of a certain Mihr$m-Gu#nasp, son of a noble Sasanian family who later converted to Christianity and was martyred, was similar. He was said to have been initiated into Middle Persian literature and the Zoroastrian religion at an early age. He could recite the ya%ts and hold the barsom (q.v.) at the age of seven years (Hoffmann, p. 94; Christensen, Iran Sass., pp. 413-14). According to Ab% Man&%r 'a!$leb" (&orar, p. 712), ("r)ya (later Kavad II, r. 628 C.E.) read Kal!la wa Demna at school. The account of the education of D$r$b (q.v.) given in the '#h-n#ma (Moscow, VI, pp. 359-60, vv. 93-103; cf. 'a!$leb", &orar, p. 394; cf. Xusraw ud R"dag, pars. 11-12) probably reflects Sasanian norms: He first learned the Avesta and Zand and was then trained in riding, archery, polo, and the military arts. It was customary to entrust the education of a prince, especially a crown prince, to a tutor, in some instances far from the court. For example, at the end of the Arsacid period B$bak (q.v.) sent Arda#"r (q.v.; 224-40) at the age of seven years to the argbed (q.v.) T"r", who was probably commander of the fortress of D$r$bgerd (see D*R*B ii), to be educated (!abar", I, p. 815; Bal!am", ed. Bah$r, p. 876). Writing (dib!r!h), riding (asw#r!h), and other skills were parts of his education (K#r-n#mag, ed. Antia, chap. II, p. 5 par. 4). Arda#"r himself, while at the court of the last Arsacid king, Ardav$n (see ARTABANUS), had trained princes in horsemanship and hunting ('a!$leb", &orar, p. 475). Bahr$m V (Bahr$m G)r, q.v.; 421-39), whose education was said to have been entrusted to Mon+er, Arab ruler of ,"ra in Mesopotamia, was instructed by various tutors (mo!addeb) in writing, archery, riding, and law. His general education is reported to have finished at the age of twelve years, after which he continued training in archery and riding until he attained mastery (!abar", I, pp. 855-57; Meskawayh, pp. 78-79; D"navar", ed. Guirgass, p. 53; 'a!$leb", &orar, p. 541; '#h- n#ma, Moscow, VII, pp. 270-71; Bal!am", ed. Bah$r, pp. 929-30). A noble education also involved learning to play musical instruments and sing, games like chess and backgammon, and general information about wines, flowers, women, and riding animals (Xusraw ud R"dag, pars. 13, 15, 57-58, 62-63, 66, 69-93, 96, 99-100). When Arda#"r was relegated by Ardav$n to service in the royal stable, he reportedly amused himself by playing the lute ((anb)r) and singing (sr$d-w#z!g; K#r-n#mag, ed. Antia, chap. 3, p. 11 par. 2; cf. '#h-n#ma, ed. Khaleghi, II, p. 30, VI, p. 178, about Rostam and Esfand"$r respectively). Ferdows"s description of the education of Prince S"$va# by Rostam in Z$bol provides a model of princely education in Sasanian and probably Parthian times as well. The prince was not only trained in horsemanship, archery, hunting, and the arts of war but also learned social etiquette, ceremonial rites, conduct on festive occasions, and delivery of orations. The results of his education were later apparent in the skills in archery, polo, and hunting that he exhibited when he lived at the court of Afr$s"$b (q.v.; '#h-n#ma, ed. Khaleghi, II, pp. 207, 289-94). There is some evidence that in the Sasanian period women attended school, at least for general religious studies, though probably in relatively small numbers (Kotwal and Kreyenbroek, pp. 18, 38, 43); the main part of their training, however, consisted of domestic skills learned at home (D"nkard, ed. Madan, I, p. 935; Christensen, Iran Sass., p. 418). There is one piece of evidence suggesting that some women were well versed in Sasanian civil law (Bartholomae, p. 35; Christensen, Iran Sass., p. 418). Three terms for school are attested in Pahlavi books: frahangest#n, lit., place of education (Xusraw ud R"dag, par. 8; K#r-n#mag, ed. Antia, chap. 2, p. 8 par. 21); dib!rest#n, probably a school for training scribes and secretaries (Andarz ! *durb#d, pars. 58, 129, in Pahlavi Texts, ed. Jamasp-Asana, pp. 63, 69; Xw"%k#r!h ! R"dag#n, pars. 1, 3, 5, 23, in Junker, pp. 15, 16, 20; Sad dar na+r, chap. 51, p. 37); and h"rbedest#n, evidently a school for religious studies (Andarz ! P$ry$tk"%#n, par. 8, in Pahlavi Texts, ed. Jamasp-Asana, p. 43; Andarz $ k$dak#n, par. 25, in Junker, p. 20). The general term for teacher was hamm$zg#r, for religious teacher h"rbed, and for instructor frahangbed (D"nkard, ed. Madan, pp. 274, 757; cf. !abar", I, p. 1063: mo!addeb al-as#wera instructor of horsemen). The sources provide scanty information on educational methods. In two Pahlavi treatises (Xw"%k#r!h ! R"dag#n and Andarz $ k$dak#n) that have survived in P$zand, the duties of boys at school, at home, and on the way from home to school are described (Junker, pp. 15- 21). Physical punishment was administered at school (cf. Z#dspram, chap. 27, p. 97 par. 8; Pahlavi Texts, ed. Jamasp-Asana, p. 130, par. 9, where beating with a very long stick is mentioned).
Bibliography: (For cited works not found in this bibliography and abbreviations found here, see Short References.) C. Bartholomae, Zum sassanidischen Recht IV, Sb. der Heidelberger Akademie der Wissenschaften 13, Heidelberg, 1922/5. G. Hoffmann, Auszge aus syrischen Akten persischer Mrtyrer, Leipzig, 1880. H. F. J. Junker, ed., Ein mittelpersisches Schulgesprch, Sb. der Heidelberger Akademie der Wissenschaften 3/15, Heidelberg, 1912. F. M. Kotwal and P. Kreyen-broek, The H"rbedest#n and N"rangest#n I, Paris, 1992. Meskawayh, Taj#reb al-omam I, ed. A. Em$m", Tehran, 1366 (/1987. Sad dar na+r, ed. B. N. Dhabhar, Bombay, 1909. Wiz!rkard ! d"n!g, ed. P. Sanjana, Bombay, 1848. (A-mad Tafa..ol") Originally Published: December 15, 1997 Last Updated: December 9, 2011 This article is available in print. Vol. VIII, Fasc. 2, pp. 179-180