Remote Controlled Home Appliances

Govt.
Polytechnic College Dewas Page 1

REMOTE CONTROLLI NG OF HOME
APPLI ANCES USI NG RF MODULE

A MAJOR PROJECT REPORT

A Dissertation submitted for the partial fulfillment of the
diploma of Engineering in Electronics &
Telecommunication
(Session-2014)
Guided By: - Submitted By:-
Mr. Ashish More Mayur Thakur
Mr. Jitendra Abhay (11125E03035)
Miss. Kavita Bhagat

Govt. Polytechnic College Dewas Page 2

ABSTRACT

Project title is REMOTE CONTROLLING OF HOME
APPLIANCES USING RF MODULE.
The main objective of this project is to develop a home automation
system with a RF controlled remote. As technology is advancing so houses
are also getting smarter. Modern houses are gradually shifting from
conventional switches to centralized control system, involving RF controlled
switches. Presently, conventional wall switches located in different parts of
the house makes it difficult for the user to go near them to operate. Even
more it becomes more difficult for the elderly or physically handicapped
people to do so. Remote controlled home automation system provides a
simpler solution with RF technology.
In order to achieve this, a RF remote is interfaced to the microcontroller on
transmitter side which sends ON/OFF commands to the receiver where
loads are connected. By operating the specified remote switch on the
transmitter, the loads can be turned ON/OFF remotely through wireless
technology



CHAPTER: - 1

INTRODUCTION

In this project REMOTE CONTROLLING OF HOME APPLIANCES
USING RF MODULE We show that how we control electrical appliances
with the help of WIRELESS REMOTE (Radio Frequency Module).
As we press the switch from transmitter end then immediate data
is to be transmitting in the air. Data receive in air by the Radio frequency
module and proceed to the electrical appliances circuit. In this project we
use two circuits one is transmitter and second is receiver.
In the transmitter part we send the RF code by the transmitter by
4 switches and in the receiver we use four relay coils for electrical output.
As we want to switch on any electrical appliances we press the switch of the
transmitter. As the switch is pressed, data is to be transmitting by the radio
frequency module.
In this project we use 433 Mhz modules for data transmission. We
use one encoder ic for data transmission. All the switches are connected to
the encoder. Encoder ic get the data from the switch and transmit the data
in serial by the RF transmitter. In the receiver circuit we use RF module to
get the data and decoded by the decoder. Decoder delivers the data into 4
bit and we use further control circuit to switch on/off.


CHAPTER: - 2

BLOCK DIAGRAM AND ITS DESCRIPTION

2.1 Basic Block Diagram

Fig 2.1 Basic Block Diagram

Switches
Parallel data
Encoder
HT12E
Serial data
RF Transmitter Serial data
RF Receiver
Serial data
Parallel data
Decoder
HT12D
Relays
Home
Appliances

2.2 Block Diagram Description

The basic block diagram of the REMOTE CONTROLLING OF
HOME APPLIANCES USING RF MODULE is shown in the above figure.
Mainly this block diagram consists of the following essential blocks.
1. Encoder HT12E
2. RF Transmitter
3. RF Receiver
4. Decoder HT12D
5. Relays

1. Encoder HT12E :-
The encoders are a series of CMOS LSIs for remote control
system applications. They are capable of encoding information which
consists of N address bits and 12_N data bits. Each address/data input can
be set to one of the two logic states. The programmed addresses/data are
transmitted together with the header bits via an RF or an infrared
transmission medium upon receipt of a trigger signal. The capability to
select a TE trigger on the HT12E or a DATA trigger on the HT12A further
enhances the application flexibility of the 212 series of encoders. The
HT12E additionally provides a 38 kHz carrier for infrared systems.

2. RF Transmitter :-
This radio frequency (RF) transmission system employs
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) with transmitter/receiver (Tx/Rx) pair
operating at 434 MHz. The transmitter module takes serial input and
transmits these signals through RF

3. RF Receiver :-
The RF receiver also operates at 433.92MHz, and has a
sensitivity of 3uV. The ASK receiver operates from 4.5 to 5.5 volts-DC, and
has both linear and digital outputs. It receives the data from the transmitter
and sends to the decoder IC

4. Decoder HT12D :-
The 212 decoders are a series of CMOS LSIs for remote
control system applications. For proper operation, a pair of encoder/decoder
with the same number of addresses and data format should be chosen. The
decoders receive serial addresses and data from programmed 212 series of
encoders that are transmitted by a carrier using an RF or an IR transmission
medium. They compare the serial input data three times continuously with
their local addresses. If no error or unmatched codes are found, the input
data codes are decoded and then transferred to the output pins. The 212
series of decoders are capable of decoding information that consists of N
bits of address and 12_Nbits of data. Of this series, the HT12D is arranged
to provide8 address bits and 4 data bits, and HT12F is used to decode 12
bits of address information.

5. Relays :-
A relay is an electrically operated switch. It allows one circuit
to switch a second circuit which is completely separated from the first. The
output from the driver IC is send to the corresponding relays which thus
results in its excitation and gets activated. As a result it controls the
corresponding home appliance.

CHAPTER: - 3

CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION: There are two main parts of the circuits.
Transmitter Circuit
Receiver Circuit

3.1 Transmitter Circuit:-

Fig 3.1 Transmitter Circuit Diagram


3.2 Receiver Circuit:-

Fig 3.2 Receiver Circuit Diagram


Fig.3.3 RELAY CONNECTION FOR EACH APPLIANCE



CHAPTER: - 4

WORKING
Our project as mentioned earlier is aimed at controlling 4
home appliances using a RF Module. It controls the on/off process of
the appliances interfaced to this circuit. The devices are operated
using the keypads 1-4. It performs the function of an RF transmitter
which sends Radio frequency after encoding information which
consists of N address bits and 12_N data bits by an encoder IC
HT12E. Each address/data input can be set to one of the two logic
states. The programmed addresses/data are transmitted together
with the header bits via an RF with a carrier of 315 MHz to
433.92 MHz frequency.

These series signals are received by RF Receiver these
are designed to receive signals of 315 MHz to 433.92 MHz. It senses
the received output and demodulates them. Therefore original
signals are retrieved after demodulation. The output from the
receiver is then sent to the decoder IC HT12D. HT12D is
programmed so as to decode the encoded signal from transmitter. It
decodes the signals from RF receiver and thereby it recognizes the
device to be functioned.


The inputs and outputs are thus controlled. The decoded output from
the decoder IC is obtained by the Hex Inverter CD4049.
The CD4049 is a CMOS logic chip that is six
independent inverters. It is used for interfacing and to make simple
clock pulse generators and oscillators. Connect two in series to make
a non-inverting buffer. The input-signal high level (VIH) can exceed
the VCC supply voltage when these devices are used for logic-level
conversions. The output of the hex inverter is applied to the 4013 d
flip flop. The outputs Q and Q dash switch their logic states
alternately in response to the set/reset or the clock pin out inputs.
When a clock frequency is applied at the CLK input, the output Q and
Q dash change states alternately as long as the clocks keep repeating.
Similarly the Q and Q dash status can be changed
by manually pulsing the set or the reset pins with a positive voltage
source. Normally the set and the reset pin should be connected to the
ground when not utilized.
Here the signals from 4013 d flip flop are given to the
base of the corresponding transistor. Thus, the external circuit gets
grounded at one end while it is provided +Vcc at its other end. So, the
circuit gets completed and starts operating. A total of four relays are
connected to the output pins of d flip flop IC 4013. When the relay
gets excited from the outputs appearing at the 4013 IC, it gets
activated.

Thus the coil gets energized and the COM gets connected to the N/O
contact and the AC mains circuit gets completed and the appliance
starts working.
Components used:-
7805 Voltage Regulator
HT12E ENCODER IC.
HT12D DECODER IC.
RF TRANSMITTER MODULE.
RF RECEIVER MODULE
4 DIFFERENT SWITCH
4013 ( D flip flop)
4049 ( hex inverter)
548 Transistors
Resistors
Capacitors
Relays
IN 4007 Diodes
LEDs
Aerial Antenna

4.1 HT12E Encoder IC :-
HT12E is a 212 series encoder IC (Integrated Circuit) for
remote control applications. It is commonly used for radio frequency (RF)
applications. HT12E simply converts 12 bit parallel data in to serial output
which can be transmitted through a RF transmitter. These 12 bit parallel
data is divided in to 8 address bits and 4 data bits. By using these address
pins we can provide 8 bit security code for data transmission and multiple
receivers may be addressed using the same transmitter.

Fig.4.1 (a) Block Diagram of HT12E


HT12E is able to operate in a wide voltage range from 2.4V
to 12V and has a built in oscillator which requires only a small external
resistor. Its power consumption is very low, standby current is 0.1A at 5V
VDD and has high immunity against noise. It is available in 18 pin DIP (Dual
Inline Package) and 20 pin SOP (Small Outline Package) as given below.

4.1.1 PIN Diagram and Description:-

Fig.4.1 (b) PIN Diagram of HT12E


VDD and VSS are power supply pins which are used to connect
positive and negative of the power supply respectively.
OSC1 and OSC2 are used to connect external resistance for the
internal oscillator. OSC1 is the oscillator input pin and OSC2 is the
oscillator output pin.

Fig.4.1 (c) Oscillator of HT12E

TE is used for enabling the transmission and is an active low input.
A0 A7 are the input address pins. By using these pins we can
provide a security code for the data. These pins can be connected to
VSS or left open.
D8 D11 are the input data pins. These pins can be connected to
VSS or may left open for sending LOW and HIGH respectively.
DOUT It is the serial data output of the encoder and can be
connected to a RF transmitter.


4.1.2 Working of HT12E:-

The HT12E 2
12
series encoder starts a 4 word transmission
cycle upon receiving transmission enable signal on TE input. This output
cycle will repeat as long as the transmission is enabled. When the
transmission enable (TE) signal switches to HIGH, the encoder output
completes the current cycle and stops as shown above. The encoder will be
in the Standby mode when the transmission is disabled.

4.1.3 FEATURES:-
Operating voltage
_2.4V~5V for the HT12A
_2.4V~12V for the HT12E
Low power and high noise immunity CMOS technology
Low standby current: 0.1_A (typ.) at VDD=5V
HT12A with a 38kHz carrier for infrared transmission medium


4.2 HT12E Decoder IC :-
HT12D is a 212 series decoder IC (Integrated Circuit) for
remote control applications manufactured by Holtek. It is commonly used for
radio frequency (RF) wireless applications. By using the paired

HT12E encoder and HT12D decoder we can transmit 12 bits of
parallel data serially. HT12D simply converts serial data to its input (may be
received through RF receiver) to 12 bit parallel data. These 12 bit parallel
data is divided in to 8 address bits and 4 data bits. Using 8 address bits we
can provide 8 bit security code for 4 bit data and can be used to address
multiple receivers by using the same transmitter.

Fig.4.2 (a) Block Diagram of HT12D

HT12D is a CMOS LSI IC and is capable of operating in a
wide voltage range from 2.4V to 12V. Its power consumption is low and
has high immunity against noise. The received data is checked 3 times for
more accuracy. It has built in oscillator; we need to connect only a small
external resistor. As HT12E, it is available in 18 pin DIP (Dual Inline
Package) and 20 pin SOP (Small Outline Package) as given below.

4.2.1 PIN Diagram and Description:-

Fig.4.2 (b) PIN Diagram of HT12D


VDD and VSS are used to provide power to the IC, Positive and
Negative of the power supply respectively. As I said earlier its
operating voltage can be in the range 2.4V to 12V.
OSC1 and OSC2 are used to connect external resistor for internal
oscillator of HT12D. OSC1 is the oscillator input pin and OSC2 is the
oscillator output pin as shown in the figure below.

Fig.4.2 (c) Oscillator of HT12E
A0 A7 are the address input pins. Status of these pins should match
with status of address pin in HT12E (used in transmitter) to receive
the data. These pins can be connected to VSS or left open.
DIN is the serial data input pin and can be connected to a RF receiver
output.
D8 D11 are the data output pins. Status of these pins can be VSS or
VDD depending upon the received serial data through pin DIN.
VT stands for Valid Transmission. This output pin will be HIGH when
valid data is available at D8 D11 data output pins.


4.2.2 Working of HT12D:-

HT12D decoder will be in standby mode initially i.e.,
oscillator is disabled and a HIGH on DIN pin activates the oscillator. Thus
the oscillator will be active when the decoder receives data transmitted by
an encoder. The device starts decoding the input address and data. The
decoder matches the received address three times continuously with the
local address given to pin A0 A7. If all matches, data bits are decoded and
output pins D8 D11 are activated. This valid data is indicated by making
the pin VT (Valid Transmission) HIGH. This will continue till the address
code becomes incorrect or no signal is received.


4.2.3 FEATURES:-

Operating voltage: 2.4V~12V
Low power and high noise immunity CMOS technology
Low standby current
Capable of decoding 12 bits of information
Binary address setting
Received codes are checked 3 times
Address/Data number combination
_ HT12D: 8 address bits and 4 data bits
_ HT12F: 12 address bits only

4.3 RF Module:-
An RF module (radio frequency module) is a (usually) small
electronic circuit used to transmit and/or receive radio signals on one of a
number of carrier frequencies. RF modules are widely used in electronic
design owing to the difficulty of designing radio circuitry. Good electronic
radio design is notoriously complex because of the sensitivity of radio
circuits and the accuracy of components and layouts required achieving
operation on a specific frequency.
Design engineers will design a circuit for an application which
requires radio communication and then "drop in" a radio module rather than
attempt a discrete design, saving time and money on development.


Fig.4.3 (a) RF Modules

RF modules are most often used in medium and low volume
products for consumer applications such as garage door openers, wireless
alarm systems, industrial remote controls, smart sensor applications,
and wireless home automation systems.
They are sometimes used to replace older infra
red communication designs as they have the advantage of not requiring
line-of-sight operation. Several carrier frequencies are commonly used in
commercially-available RF modules, including 433.92 MHz, 315 MHz,
868 MHz and 915 MHz. These frequencies are used because of national
and international regulations governing the used of radio for communication.

4.3.1 Type of RF Modules:-

The term RF module can be applied to many different types, shapes and
sizes of small electronic sub assembly circuit board. It can also be applied
to modules across a huge variation of functionality and capability. Most
standard, well known types are covered here:
Transmitter module
Receiver module
Transceiver module
A). Transmitter modules:-
An RF transmitter module is a small PCB sub-
assembly capable of transmitting a radio wave and modulating that wave to
carry data. Transmitter modules are usually implemented alongside a micro
controller which will provide data to the module which can be transmitted. it
is also a part of transreceiver.

B). Intelligent transmitter modules:-
An intelligent transmitter module is the same as a
transmitter module, but it is often made with an on-board micro controller to
handle radio data packetisation negating the need for an external micro
controller to convert data or Manchester encode it. This type of module is
usually used for designs requiring a quick route to market or if the designer
has little experience designing with radio.

C). Super heterodyne and super regenerative receiver:-
There are two types of RF receiver modules: super
heterodyne receivers and super-regenerative receivers. Super-regenerative
modules are usually low cost and low power designs using a series of
amplifiers to extract modulated data from a carrier wave.
Super-regenerative modules are generally imprecise as
their frequency of operation varies considerably with temperature and power
supply voltage. Super heterodyne receivers have a performance advantage
over super-regenerative; they offer increased accuracy and stability over a
large voltage and temperature range. This stability comes from a fixed
crystal design which in turn leads to a comparatively more expensive
product.
4.3.2 Transmitter Working:-


4.3.3 RF transmitter Pin description:-

Pin
No
Function Name
1 Ground (0V) Ground
2 Serial data input pin Data
3 Supply voltage; 5V Vcc
4 Antenna output pin ANT

4.3.4 Receiver working:-


4.3.5 RF Receiver Pin description:-

Pin
No
Function Name
2 Serial data output pin Data
3 Linear output pin; not connected NC
8 Antenna input pin ANT

4.3.6 Main factors affecting RF Module performance:-
As with any other radio-frequency device, the performance
of an RF module will depend on a number of factors. For example, by
increasing the transmitter power, a larger communication distance will be
achieved. However, this will also result in a higher electrical power drain on
the transmitter device, which will cause shorter operating life for battery
powered devices. Also, using a higher transmit power will make the system
more prone to interference with other RF devices, and may in fact possibly
cause the device to become illegal depending on the jurisdiction.


Correspondingly, increasing the receiver sensitivity will also
increase the effective communication range, but will also potentially cause
malfunction due to interference with other RF devices.
The performance of the overall system may be improved by
using matched antennas at each end of the communication link, such as
those described earlier.
Finally, the labeled remote distance of any particular
system is normally measured in an open-air line of sight configuration
without any interference, but often there will be obstacles such as walls,
floors, iron construction to absorb the radio wave signals, so the effective
operational distance will in most practical instances be less than specified.

4.3.7 FEATURES:-

RF Transmitter Features
Frequency Range: 433.92 MHZ.
Supply Voltage: 3~12V
Output Power : 4~16dBm
Circuit Shape: Saw
Supply Current: 3.5mA


RF Receiver Features
Receiver Frequency: 433.92 MHZ
Typical sensitivity: -105dBm
Supply Current: 3.5mA
Frequency: 1MHz
Low power consumption
Operation voltage: 5 Volts

4.4 7805 Voltage Regulator:-
7805 is a voltage regulator integrated circuit. It is a
member of 78xx series of fixed linear voltage regulator ICs. The voltage
source in a circuit may have fluctuations and would not give the fixed
voltage output. The voltage regulator IC maintains the output voltage at a
constant value. The xx in 78xx indicates the fixed output voltage it is
designed to provide. 7805 provides +5V regulated power supply.
Capacitors of suitable values can be connected at input and output pins
depending upon the respective voltage levels.
4.4.1 Pin Description of 7805 voltage regulator:-

Pin No Function Name
1 Input voltage (5V-18V) Input
3 Regulated output; 5V (4.8V-5.2V) Output


Fig.4.4 7805 Voltage Regulator

4.4.2 Advantages:-
7805 IC do not require additional components to provide a constant,
regulated source of power, making them easy to use, as well as
economical and efficient uses of space. Other voltage regulators may
require additional components to set the output voltage level, or to assist
in the regulation process. Some other designs (such as a switched) may
need substantial engineering expertise to implement.

7805 IC have built-in protection against a circuit drawing too much
power. They have protection against overheating and short-circuits,
making them quite robust in most applications. In some cases, the
current-limiting features of the 7805 device can provide protection not
only for the 7805 itself, but also for other parts of the circuit.

4.4.3 Disadvantages:-
The input voltage must always be higher than the output voltage by
some minimum amount (typically 2.5 volts). This can make these devices
unsuitable for powering some devices from certain types of power
sources (for example, powering a circuit that requires 5 volts using 6-volt
batteries will not work using a 7805).

As they are based on a linear regulator design, the input current
required is always the same as the output current. As the input voltage
must always be higher than the output voltage, this means that the total
power (voltage multiplied by current) going into the 78xx will be more
than the output power provided. The extra input power is dissipated as
heat. This means both that for some applications an adequate heat
sink must be provided, and also that a (often substantial) portion of the
input power is wasted during the process, rendering them less efficient
than some other types of power supplies. When the input voltage is
significantly higher than the regulated output voltage (for example,
powering a 7805 using a 24 volt power source), this inefficiency can be a
significant issue.

4.5 4013 ( D flip flop):-
4.5.1 General Description:-

The CD4013B dual D-type flip-flop is a monolithic
complementary MOS (CMOS) integrated circuit constructed with N- and P-
channel enhancement mode transistors. Each flip-flop has independent
data, set, reset, and clock input sand Q and Q outputs. These devices
can be used for shift register applications, and by connecting Q output to
the data input, for counter and toggle applications.

Fig.4.5 Pin Diagram of 4013 (D flip flop)

The logic level present at the D input is transferred to the Q
output during the positive-going transition of the clock pulse. Setting or
resetting is independent of the clock and is accomplished by a high level on
the set or reset line respectively.


The D-type has four inputs. These are:
DATA input: This is connected either to a LOW voltage, logic 0, or to
a HIGH voltage, logic 1.
CLOCK input: The triangle, next to the CLOCK input shows that it
is edge-triggered, that is, it responds to sudden changes in voltage,
but not to slow changes or to steady logic levels. The CLOCK input of
the 4013 D-type bistable is rising-edge triggered, meaning that it
responds only to a sudden change from LOW to HIGH.
Usually, the CLOCK input is connected to a subsystem which delivers
pulses. To test the 4013, you will need to build an astable.
SET input: The SET input is normally held LOW. When it is pulsed
HIGH, the outputs of the bistable are forced immediately to the SET
state, , .
RESET input: The RESET input is normally held LOW. When it is
pulsed HIGH, the outputs of the bistable are forced immediately to the
RESET state, ,


4.5.2 Connection Diagram:-

4.5.3 Logic Diagram:-


4.5.4 Features:-

Wide supply voltage range: 3.0V to 15V
High noise immunity: 0.45 VDD (typ.)
Low power TTL: fan out of 2 driving 74L compatibility: or 1 driving
74LS

4.6 4049 ( hex inverter):-
The CD4049 is a CMOS logic chip, which are six
independent inverters. It is used for interfacing and to make simple clock
pulse generators and oscillators. Connect two in series to make a non-
inverting buffer. The input-signal high level (VIH) can exceed the VCC
supply voltage when these devices are used for logic-level conversions.
These devices are intended for use as CMOS to DTL/TTL converters and
can drive directly two DTL/TTL loads. The Maximum power supply must not
exceed 18 volts.

Fig.4.6 Pin Diagram of 4049 (hex inverter)

4.6.1 The pin assignments of DIP 16 as CD4049:-

4.6.2 Features:-
Wide supply voltage range: 3V to 15V
Direct drive to 2 TTL loads at 5.0V over full temperature range.
High source and sink current capability
Special input protection permits input voltage greater than Vdd.


4.7 548 NPN Transistors:-
BC548 is general purpose silicon, NPN, bipolar junction
transistor. It is used for amplification and switching purposes. The current
gain may vary between 110 and 800. The maximum DC current gain is 800.

Its equivalent transistors are 2N3904 and 2SC1815. These
equivalent transistors however have different lead assignments. The
variants of BC548 are 548A, 548B and 548C which vary in range of current
gain and other characteristics.

Fig.4.7 (a) 548 NPN Transistor

The transistor terminals require a fixed DC voltage to
operate in the desired region of its characteristic curves. This is known as
the biasing. For amplification applications, the transistor is biased such that
it is partly on for all input conditions. The input signal at base is amplified
and taken at the emitter. BC548 is used in common emitter configuration for
amplifiers. The voltage divider is the commonly used biasing mode. For
switching applications, transistor is biased so that it remains fully on if there
is a signal at its base. In the absence of base signal, it gets completely off.

Fig.4.7 (b) DC Current Gain

4.8 Relay:-
A relay is an electrically operated switch. It allows one circuit to
switch a second circuit which is completely separated from the first. For
example a low voltage battery circuit can use a relay to switch a 230V AC
mains circuit. There is no electrical connection inside the relay between the
two circuits; the link is magnetic and mechanical.

Fig.4.8 (a) Electromagnetic relay operation

In the above figure, when controlling switch is closed, current flows through
the coil and thus, magnetic field is produced. The resulting magnetic field
attracts an armature that is mechanically linked to a set of contacts.


The movement makes a connection with a fixed contact and circuit gets
completed. When the current to the coil is switched off, the armature is
returned by a force approximately half as strong as the magnetic force to its
relaxed position and the connection is broken.

The relay's switch connections are usually labeled COM, N/C and N/O as
shown in figure 11 above:

COM = Common, always connect to this; it is the moving part of the
switch.
N/C = Normally Closed, COM is connected to this when the relay coil
is off.
N/O = Normally Open, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is
on.
Connect to COM and N/O if you want the switched circuit to be on
when the relay coil is on.
Connect to COM and N/C if you want the switched circuit to be on
when the relay coil is off.

4.8.1 Application:-

Relays are used as:
Amplifying a digital signal, switching a large amount of power with a
small operating power. Some special cases are:
o A telegraph relay, repeating a weak signal received at the end of
a long wire

o Controlling a high-voltage circuit with a low-voltage signal, as in
some types of modems or audio amplifiers,
o Controlling a high-current circuit with a low-current signal, as in
the starter solenoid of an automobile,
Detecting and isolating faults on transmission and distribution lines by
opening and closing circuit breakers (protection relays)

4.9 IN4007 Diode:-
The most common function of a diode is to allow an electric
current to pass in one direction (called the diode's forward direction), while
blocking current in the opposite direction (the reverse direction). Thus, the
diode can be viewed as an electronic version of a check valve.
This unidirectional behavior is called rectification, and is
used to convert alternating current to direct current, including extraction of
modulation from radio signals in radio receiversthese diodes are forms
of rectifiers.

Fig.4.9 Device package and Symbol of diode


However, diodes can have more complicated behavior than this
simple onoff action, due to their nonlinear current-voltage characteristics.
Semiconductor diodes begin conducting electricity only if a certain threshold
voltage or cut-in voltage is present in the forward direction (a state in which
the diode is said to be forward-biased). The voltage drop across a forward-
biased diode varies only a little with the current, and is a function of
temperature; this effect can be used as a temperature sensor or voltage
reference.
Semiconductor diodes' currentvoltage characteristic can be
tailored by varying the semiconductor materials and doping, introducing
impurities into the materials. These are exploited in special-purpose diodes
that perform many different functions. For example, diodes are used to
regulate voltage (Zener diodes), to protect circuits from high voltage surges
(avalanche diodes), to electronically tune radio and TV receivers (varactor
diodes), to generate radio frequency oscillations (tunnel diodes, Gunn
diodes, IMPATT diodes), and to produce light (light emitting diodes).

V-I Characteristics of Diode:-


4.10 Aerial Antenna:-
An aerial antenna is an electrical device which
converts electric power into radio waves, and vice versa. It is usually used
with a radio transmitter or radio receiver. In transmission, a radio transmitter
supplies an electric current oscillating at radio frequency (i.e. a high
frequency alternating current (AC) to the antenna's terminals, and the
antenna radiates the energy from the current as electromagnetic (radio
waves). In reception, an antenna intercepts some of the power of an
electromagnetic wave in order to produce a tiny voltage at its terminals that
is applied to a receiver to be amplified.

Antennas are essential components of all equipment that
uses radio. They are used in systems such as broadcasting, broadcast, two-
way radio, communications receivers, radar, cell phones, and satellite
communications, as well as other devices such as garage door
openers, wireless microphones, Bluetooth enabled devices, wireless
computer networks, baby monitors, and RFID tags on merchandise.

Typically an antenna consists of an arrangement of
metallic conductors (elements), electrically connected (often through a
transmission) to the receiver or transmitter. An oscillating current
of electrons forced through the antenna by a transmitter will create an
oscillating magnetic field around the antenna elements, while the charge of
the electrons also creates an oscillating electric along the elements.
These time-varying fields radiate away from the antenna into
space as a moving transverse electromagnetic field wave. Conversely,
during reception, the oscillating electric and magnetic fields of an incoming
radio wave exert force on the electrons in the antenna elements, causing
them to move back and forth, creating oscillating currents in the antenna.

Fig.4.10 Radiation Pattern of Aerial Antenna


4.11 Resistor:-
Resistors determine the flow of current in an electrical circuit.
Where there is high resistance in a circuit the flow of current is small, where
the resistance is low the flow of current is large. Resistance, voltage and
current are connected in an electrical circuit by Ohms Law. When a
resistor is introduced to a circuit the flow of current is reduced. The higher
the value of the resistor the smaller/lower the flow of current.

Fig.4.11 Four Band Resistor
Resistors are used for regulating current and they resist the
current flow and the extent to which they do this is measured in ohms ().
Resistors are found in almost every electronic circuit. The most common
type of resistor consists of a small ceramic (clay) tube covered partially by a
conducting carbon film. The composition of the carbon determines how
much current can pass through.


Resistors are too small to have numbers printed on them
and so they are marked with a number of colored bands. Each color stands
for a number. Three color bands show the resistors value in ohms and the
fourth shows tolerance. Resistors can never be made to a precise value and
the tolerance band (the fourth band) tells us, using a percentage, how close
the resistor is to its coded value.


4.12 Capacitor:-
A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is
a passive two-terminal electrical component used to store energy electro
statically in an electric field. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely,
but all contain at least two electrical conductors (plates) separated by
a dielectric (i.e., insulator). The conductors can be thin films of metal,
aluminum foil or disks, etc. The 'non conducting' dielectric acts to increase
the capacitor's charge capacity. A dielectric can be glass, ceramic, plastic
film, air, paper, mica, etc. Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical
circuits in many common electrical devices. Unlike a resistor, a capacitor
does not dissipate energy. Instead, a capacitor stores energy in the form of
an electrostatic field between its plates.

Fig.4.12 Ceramic and electrolytic capacitors

When there is a potential difference across the conductors
(e.g., when a capacitor is attached across a battery), an electric
field develops across the dielectric, causing positive charge (+Q) to collect
on one plate and negative charge (-Q) to collect on the other plate.

If a battery has been attached to a capacitor for a sufficient
amount of time, no current can flow through the capacitor. However, if an
accelerating or alternating voltage is applied across the leads of the
capacitor, a displacement current can flow.
An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant
value for its capacitance. Capacitance is expressed as the ratio of the
electric charge (Q) on each conductor to the potential difference (V)
between them. The SI unit of capacitance is the farad (F), which is equal to
one coulomb per volt (1 C/V). Typical capacitance values range from about
1 pF (10
12
F) to about 1 mF (10
3
F).
Selection of the correct type of capacitor is important in all
applications. Just satisfying capacitances and voltage requirements is
usually insufficient. In previous chapters, capacitors have been used to
perform the following functions:

Turn-off snubbering
dv/dt snubbering
Transient voltage sharing of series connected devices
Switched-mode power supply output filtering and dc blocking
Dc rail splitting for multilevel converters
Power L-C filters
as well as
Ac power factor correction and compensation
Dc rail decoupling
Voltage multipliers
motors for single phase supplies


CHAPTER: - 5

PCB Fabrication and Layout Designing

PCB FABRICATION TECHNIQUE:-
The first step of assembling is to produce a printed circuit board.
The fabrication of the program counter plays a crucial role in the electronic
field. The success of the circuit is also dependent on the PCB. As far as the
cost is concerned, more than 25% of the total cost is for the PCB design
and fabrication.

The board is designed using a personal computer. The layout is
drawn using the software Eagle 5.6. The layout is printed in a buffer
sheet using a laser procedure. First, a negative screen of the layout is
prepared with the help of a professional screen printer. Then the copper
clad sheet is kept under this screen. The screen printing ink is poured on
the screen and brushed through the top of the screen. The printed board is
kept under shade for few hours till the ink becomes dry.

The etching medium is prepared with the un-hydrous ferric
chloride water. The printed board is kept in this solution till the exposed
copper dissolves in the solution fully. After that the board is taken out and
rinsed in flowing water under a tap. The ink is removed with solder in order
to prevent oxidation.


Another screen, which contains component side layout, is
prepared and the same is printed on the component side of the board. A
paper epoxy laminate is used as the board. Both the component and the
track layout of the peripheral PCB is given at the end of this report.

PCB LAYOUT:-

(a) (b)

Fig.5 (a) Layout of receiver circuit and
(b) Layout of transmitter circuit

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