The Structure of Tensors 1

The Structure of the Elastic Tensor

A study of the possibilities opened up by
Kelvin 150 years ago
Klaus Helbig, Hannover
The Structure of Tensors 2
The customary official representation
The tensor c
ijkl
connects the symmetric stress tensor o
ij

symmetrically with the symmetric strain tensor c
kl

The tensor c
ijkl
has 3
4
=81components
The two symmetries of stress and strain mean
o
ij
= o
ji
, c
kl
= c
lk
, thus c
ijkl
= c
jikl
= c
ijlk

The symmetrical connection means c
ijkl
= c
klij

Thus only 21 of the 81 components are
significant!
The Structure of Tensors 3
Hookes Law
There are still 36 terms, but, e.g., c
2313
=c
1323

The Structure of Tensors 4
The Voigt mapping
With only 21 significant components, the elastic tensor can
obviously be mapped on a symmetric 66 matrix
Such mapping should preserve the elastic energy density
2E = o
ij
c
ij
= o
p
c
p
The Voigt mapping achieves this by the mapping rules
p = i o
ij
+ (1o
ij
)(9ij ) , q = k o
kl
+ (1o
kl
)(9kl )
o
p
= o
ij
, c
pq
= c
ijkl
, c
q
= (2 o
kl
)c
kl

The Structure of Tensors 5
The Voigt mapping, visual
o
11
o
12
o
13
o
12
o
22
o
23
o
13
o
23
o
33
c
11
c
12
c
13
c
12
c
22
c
23
c
13
c
23
c
33
o
11
o
22
o
33
o
23
o
13
o
12
o
11
o
22
o
33
o
23
o
13
o
12
c
1
1
c
22
c
33
2 c
23
2 c
13
2c
12
Mapping
for the
stress tensor
Mapping
for the
strain tensor
But this would not keep
the scalar product o
.
c!
But this does.
The Structure of Tensors 6
Properties of the Voigt mapping
Advantages
The Voigt mapping preserves the elastic energy density
The entries in all three Voigt arrays are not tensor-
or vector components, thus
we loose all advantages of tensor algebra
The Voigt mapping preserves the elastic stiffnesses
Disadvantages
Stress and strain are treated differently
The norms of the three tensors are not preserved
The Structure of Tensors 7
Lost Advantages of Tensor Algebra
There is no invariant representation
Representation in another coordinate system by the
simple rule c
kl
= r
ki
r
lj
c
ij
is not possible

For rotation of the coordinate system, one has to
use the Bond relations, Mohrs Circle, and other
constructs.
The Structure of Tensors 8
The Kelvin mapping
2E = o
ij
c
ij
= o
p
c
p
The Kelvin mapping preserves E by the mapping rules
p = i o
ij
+(1-o
ij
)(9ij ) , q = k o
kl
+ (1o
kl
)(9kl )
o
p
= (o
ij
+2(1o
ij
)) o
ij
,
c
q
= (o
kl
+2(1o
kl
)) c
kl
,
C
pq
= (o
ij
+2(1 o
ij
)) (o
kl
+2(1 o
kl
)) c
ijkl
,
The Structure of Tensors 9
Properties of the Kelvin mapping
Advantages
The Kelvin mapping preserves the elastic energy density
The norms of the three tensors are preserved
Only disadvantage: the values of the stiffness
components are changed
Stress and strain are treated identically
The maps of stress, strain, and stiffness have all properties
of tensors of 1st respectively 2nd rank in 6D-space, thus we
keep all advantages of tensor algebra
The Structure of Tensors 10
A tensor is a tensor by any name!
It is important to realize that a tensor is a physical entity that does not
depend on the way we describe it.
The description we choose is not a question of ideology, but of
scientific economy: for many problems the Voigt mapping is the
natural choice, but there are problems that are much more easily solved
in the Kelvin form.
For instance: if in a mapping (a change of description) the norm of
the tensor is not defined (as in the Voigt mapping), it does not mean
that the norm is lost, only that we cannot access it easily as long as
we use this description.
For some problems the 4th-rank tensor is the most convenient
notation.
The Structure of Tensors 11
Which notation? Each has is place!
The Voigt notation is the de facto standard in the outside
world: in the entire literature, elastic parameters are listed in
this notation, and users expect that results are listed in this
form. For this reason, algorithms to deal with tensors in Voigt
notation are useful.
The 4-subscript tensor notation is convenient for operations as
the change of coordinate systems: the very definition of a
tensor is based on this operation.
The strength of the Kelvin notation is the possibility to
reduce an elastic tensor to its invariant (coordinate free)
representation, and conversely to construct tensors with
given invariants. It should be used in the analysis of tensors.
The Structure of Tensors 12
Practical aspects of multiple notations
Even ten years ago, a conversion from one notation to another
was not a trivial matter, and the 6561 multiplications needed
for a transformation of the coordinate system might have taken
up to a minute.
The current project will be completed with a Tensor Toolbox
written as a Mathematica notebook. In Reader format it can
be used on any computer without the program.
Today a scientist is hardly ever without access to a computer,
and the relevant routines can be freely exchanged. Most of the
important operations give results instantly, i.e., with
response times below two seconds.
The Structure of Tensors 13
A simple tool for conversion
For conversion between the Voigt- and Kelvin notation, only
one array is needed:
For the stiffnesses, one uses the outer product of _:
1 1 1 2 2 2
_=
o
K
= o
V
_, o
V
= o
K
/_, c
K
= c
V
/

_, c
V
= c
K
_,
1 1 1 2 2 2
1 1 1 2 2 2
1 1 1 2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2
C
K
=
C
V

The Structure of Tensors 14
How did Kelvin come to his description?
Not as a mapping of a 4th-rank 3D tensor on a 2nd-rank 6D
tensor, because neither did exist then.
The line of thought can be described like this:
1. A strain can be described by 6 linearly independent base strains.
2. A stress can be described by 6 linearly independent base stresses.
3. It is convenient to use bases of the same type for stress and strain.
4. It is convenient to use a set orthogonal types for the common basis.
5. The weight of the different components should be such that the
product of aparallel pair of stress and strain is preserved under coordinate
transformations from one to another orthonormal base (hence the 2).
In this way Kelvin had defined a 6D Cartesian vector space
The Structure of Tensors 15
Kelvin went on to the invariant description
Hookes law can be thought of as a linear mapping of
the strain space on the stress space
The map is described by the 66 stiffness matrix
6. The ideal base strain generates a parallel base stress (of the same type).
Kelvin called such strains principle strains, we call them eigenstrains. As
examples he gave for isotropic media hydrostatic pressure -> uniform
volume compression and shear strain -> shear stress.
7. In a base consisting of (orthogonal) eigenstrains, the 66 representation of
the stiffness tensor is diagonal, with the eigenstiffnesses the only non-zero
components.
Kelvin thus had produced the eigenvalue decomposition or the
canonical representation of the stiffness tensor by its invariants.
The Structure of Tensors 16
Eigensystem of isotropic media
The Structure of Tensors 17
Nomenclature
I have called the eigenvalues eigenstiffnesses, and the
eigenvectors eigenstrains. Why these special terms?
The nature of the 6 eigenstrains is of great importance for many tasks,
but not easily seen in an arbitrarily oriented coordinate system. If these
details are important, the eigenstrain vectors are treated as 33 tensors
and brought into invariant (canonical) form. The elements of these
representations are called eigenvalues and eigenvectors.
A similar eigenvalue problem exists for the inverse of Hookes Law.
The resulting items are called eigencompliances and eigenstresses.
The Structure of Tensors 18
How does eigenvalue decomposition
work in the different notations?
The eigenvalue decomposition can be formulated
as: find a stress that is generated by a parallel strain
Four-subscripts: o
ij
= c
ijkl
c
kl
=Ac
ij
=>(c
ijkl

o
ik
o
jl
A) c
kl
= 0
Meaningful problem, solution has to be programmed
Voigt notation: the problem cannot be formulated easily, since
stresses and strains are expressed in terms of different bases.
Kelvin notation: o
p
= C
pq
c
q
= Ac
p
=> (c
pq
- o
pq
A) c
q
= 0
Standard eigenvalue/eigenvector problem, routines for
solution in every math-package
The Structure of Tensors 19
What does the invariant description mean?
Of the 21 parameters of a general elastic tensor,
only the six eigenstiffnesses are genuinely elastic
The remaining 15 parameters are geometric: the 15
free parameters that describe a set of six mutually
perpendicular 6D unit vectors
Conjecture: All geometric parameters must be real.
Only the eigenstiffnesses can assume complex values.
Of these 15, three are extraneous to the problem:
they are the Euler angles that describe the
orientation of the material with respect to the global
coordinate system
The Structure of Tensors 20
How does all this affect our work?
The invariant description is possible for every
medium. Obviously the medium is stable if all six
eigenstiffnesses are positive.
In modeling a dissipative medium one cannot freely
assign imaginary parts to the stiffnesses. If we would
do that, we might end up with complex eigenstrains,
in violation of the concept of a strain type.
How do we assign imaginary parts to the 21 stiffnesses? We
need a method to construct tensors from their eigensystem,
i.e., a eigenvalue composition.
The Structure of Tensors 21
Eigenvalue composition of a tensor
If E is a 66 orthonormal matrix and
L is a diagonal matrix with 6 positive elements, then
C = E
.
L
.
E
T

is a symmetric, positive definite, 66 matrix with the
elements of L as eigenvalues and the column vectors
of E as eigenvectors
If we choose the intended eigenstrains as column
vectors of E and place the intended eigenstiffnesses
on the diagonal of L, we can generate a stiffness
tensor C with an arbitrarily chosen eigensystem.
The Structure of Tensors 22
How should the eigensystem be chosen?
Obviously, the symmetry of the stiffness tensor and some
other properties like the order of elastic waves is
controlled by the chosen eigensystem. An educated choice
requires that we know more about the nature of the
eigenstrains and the way they influence (together with the
eigenstiffnesses) the stiffness tensor.
Such a study is not necessary if we just want to make an
existing tensor dissipative: we just have to determine the
eigensystem, add imaginary parts (of the correct sign) to the
eigenstiffnesses, and re-compose.
The Structure of Tensors 23
Example: a dissipative orthotropic medium
The following complex-valued stiffness tensor C was used:
The real part was invented in 1991, the imaginary
part came from a different source.
9.00-.03i 3.60-.02i 2.25-.16i
9.84-.03i 2.40-.16i
5.94-1.3i
4.00-.01i
3.20-.01i
4.36-.01i
Are these data consistent with our assumptions?
Kelvin form
The Structure of Tensors 24
The eigensystem of the tensor C
All eigenstiffnesses have a small imaginary part, but so have
two components of each of three eigenstrains.
What does that mean?
.622-.002i .737 -.26+.073i 0 0 0
.693 -.67+.024i -.24+0.02i 0 0 0
.359-.066i .033-.037i .93 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 1 0 0
Moreover, this matrix is not orthonormal !
14.29-.37 i 5.80-.015 i 4.68-.99 i 4.36-.011i 4.00-.011 i 3.20-0.11 i
The Structure of Tensors 25
The improved dissipative tensor C
The real part of the eigenstrains together with the
complex eigenstiffnesses result in:
The changes are moderate, but now everything is consistent.
9.00-.22i 3.58-.22i 2.17-.16i
9.78-.24i 2.37-.13i
5.90-.90i
4.00-.01i
3.20-.01i
4.36-.01i
Note: the shear stiffnesses have not changed at all.
The sheareigenstiffnesses are equal to the corresponding
shear stiffnesses (in Kelvin form)
Kelvin form
The Structure of Tensors 26
Anatomy of the strain tensor
Since the appearance of the eigenstrains depends on
their orientation with respect to the global coordinate
system (three Euler angles!), we have to look at the
invariant representation of strains.
Any (unit) strain tensor can be part of the
eigensystem of a stable stiffness tensor
Two invariants of a strain tensor are the trace
and the determinant
Strains with vanishing trace are called isochoric
Strains with vanishing determinant are called
wave-compatible
The Structure of Tensors 27
Wave compatibility?
The term wave compatible sounds oddly out of place in a
discussion that so far concerned only static aspects.
Consider a homogeneous strain in an unbounded medium.
Even an infinitesimal strain can lead to very large
displacements at large distance from the reference point.
Homogeneous strain in unbounded media cannot exist.
Some homogeneous strains can exist along a plane.
The Structure of Tensors 28
Wave compatibility explained
Ultimately we are interested in plane waves. Any
displacement can be attached to a plane wave, but only
those strains that can exist along a plane without
creating infinite displacements.
Such strains are compatible with wave propagation
perpendicular to the plane. Hence their name.
The Structure of Tensors 29
Strains that are not wave compatible
These two strains could
not travel as a plane wave
in 3-direction: with
distance from the center
the displacement would
grow without limit, and a
shear strain in the 13- and
23-planes would
be enforced
The Structure of Tensors 30
Three strains that are wave compatible
These three strains could
travel as a plane wave in
3-direction without
generating locally large
displacements
The plane shear strain
(lowest example) could
travel not only in
3-direction, but also in
1-direction
The Structure of Tensors 31
All strains that are wave compatiblein
a given coordinate direction
Note that each
shear strain
could travel in
two directions!
Six mutually orthogonal unit strains
The Structure of Tensors 32
All strains (as 6D-vectors) that are wave
compatiblein a given coordinate direction
Note that each shear strain could travel in two
directions!
Six mutually orthogonal unit strains
Of the two shear strains that can travel in 3-direction,
one can also
travel in
1-direction, the
other also in
2-direction, etc.
The Structure of Tensors 33
Symmetry planes and shear eigenstrains
Consider a set of six orthonormal eigenstrains, two of them plane shear
strains in the 23- and 13- planes. It has the form
The symmetry of a medium is controlled by its symmetry planes.
Proposition: Two shear eigenstrains that share an axis define a
symmetry plane perpendicular to this axis.
The 12-plane is a symmetry plane if the set
is invariant under a change of sign of the 3-
axis, i.e. for elements with an even number
of subscripts 3, i.e., for all but the two
shear strains.
are arbitrary entries
The two shear eigenstrains change sign, but
for an eigenstrain this is irrelevant.
The Structure of Tensors 34
Symmetry planes and shear waves
Two shear eigenstrains that share
an axis thus define a symmetry
plane perpendicular to this axis
The symmetry of a medium is controlled by its symmetry planes
A symmetry plane supports shear wave with cross-plane polar- ization
in all direction. Conversely, a plane that does support these waves is a
symmetry plane
This holds for any two shear
eigenstrains
The Structure of Tensors 35
The equivalence set
We had found that three of the 21 parameters
describing an elastic tensor are extraneous: they
describe not the tensor, but its orientation with
respect to the default system (e.g., NEdown)
For a tensors without any symmetry plane that
means that there is a three-parametric manifold of
equivalent tensors that differ only in orientation.
These are the elements of the equivalence set.
If we construct a tensor with symmetry planes, we can
choose the shear eigenstrains to let the symmetry
planes coincide with the coordinate planes
The Structure of Tensors 36
Equivalence for a single symmetry plane
Two shear eigentensors define a single plane of symmetry.
Let the normal to this plane be the 3-axis. The 1- and 2-axis
can have still any orientation in the symmetry plane, thus
there is a 1-parametric manifold of equivalent tensors.
This problem occurs with monoclinic and trigonal tensors,
which have only one symmetry plane (but also with
tetragonal tensors, where the plane orthogonal to the
fourfold axis is regarded as the symmetry plane).
We choose the orientation which gives the lowest number of
stiffnesses. As far as elasticity is concerned, this is always
possible. In a different (crystallographic) coordinate system,
the number is higher (mono:12->13, trigo & tetra-> 6->7).
The Structure of Tensors 37
Effect of one single shear eigenstrain
A single shear eigenstrain has no effect on symmetry,
but a strong effect on the stiffness matrix.
The black disks represent real numbers
The A, B,F are arbitrary positive numbers
This orthonormal
eigensystem leads to
this Voigt stiffness
matrix with 16
independent stiffnesses
The tensor is stable by design
The Structure of Tensors 38
Two shear eigenstrains -> monoclinic
Two shear eigenstrains generate a plane of symmetry, thus
the tensor has monoclinic symmetry.
The matrix on the right is automatically in the coordinate
system by the two shear planes and the symmetry planes
and therefore has twelve not thirteen stiffnesses.
This orthonormal
eigensystem leads to
this Voigt stiffness
matrix with twelve
independent stiffnesses
The Structure of Tensors 39
Three shear eigenstrains > orthotropic
Three shear eigenstrains generate three planes of symmetry,
thus the tensor has orthotropic symmetry.
This orthonormal
eigensystem leads to
this Voigt stiffness
matrix with nine
independent stiffnesses
Orthotropy marks an important point: up to now we had just to add
new planes to increase the symmetry. Also, the shape of the matrix
has reached its final form. From now on, co-planar shear tensors and
identical eigenstiffnesses will be needed to increase symmetry.
The Structure of Tensors 40
Example: Transverse Isotropy
TI is the anisotropy best known. On the other hand, the
symmetry is high enough to give a good example of how
additional symmetry planes depend on the eigensystem.
The equatorial plane must be a
symmetry plane. The eigenstiffnesses
control the velocities of the waves
with the appropriate in-plane shears
along the three red lines. Thus the
eigenstiffnesses must be identical.
This makes the 3-axis at least a 4-fold axis. In addition we
certainly have a shear eigenstrain in the 12-plane, since the
two other shear planes are symmetry planes too.
The Structure of Tensors 41
The eigensystem of Transverse Isotropy
To simplify the discussion, I determined with Mathematica
the eigensystem of a general TI medium.
I obtained for 14
Estff 2c
55
2c
55
2c
66
2c
66
11
22
33
23
13
12
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
The Structure of Tensors 42
The eigensystem of TI: #5 and #6
p = c
11
+ (c
33
- c
66
)/2, q = [(p-c
33
)
2
+ 2c
13
2
]/2
Estff p q p + q
11
22
33
23
13
12
A
A
C
0
0
0
B
B
D
0
0
0
Each of the two tensors is orthogonal to the other four.
To be orthogonal to each other, we need C
.
D = 2 A
.
B
The Structure of Tensors 43
Overview of Eigensystems I
Eigensystems of monoclinic, orthotropic, and trigonal
symmetry
Capital letters: E
plane shear;
asterisk: d*
isochoric strain
The Structure of Tensors 44
Overview of Eigensystems II
Eigensystems of tetragonal, TI, cubic, and isotropic
symmetry
Capital letters: E
plane shear;
asterisk: d*
isochoric strain
Underlined:
coplanar shear tensors