Table of Contents

1.0 Abstract ..................................................................................................................................... 2

2.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 3
3.0 Theory ....................................................................................................................................... 4
4.0 Apparatus .................................................................................................................................. 9
5.0 Procedure .................................................................................................................................. 9
6.0 Results ..................................................................................................................................... 10
7.0 Discussion ............................................................................................................................... 14
8.0 Conclusions ............................................................................................................................. 16
9.0 References ............................................................................................................................... 17
Appendix I .................................................................................................................................... 18
Appendix II ................................................................................................................................... 22



2

1.0 Abstract

This beam bending experiment was performed using the Vishay FLEXOR Cantilever
Flexure Frame as well as the B.L.H. Digital Strain Indicator located in the Engineering
Department at UNBSJ.
Aluminum, Oak and Pine specimens were tested to determine the modulus of elasticity
using both a strain-based method, as well as calculating the modulus of elasticity using the
deflection of the specimen.
Through calculations, it was determined that the Aluminum specimen, as expected, held a
much higher modulus of elasticity than either Oak or Pine. Calculated results for each specimen
also resulted in very similar values to published values for each material, with strain method
results all being within 1 GPa of their respective published values.



3

2.0 Introduction
Beam bending is an important design consideration in the design and construction of any
load bearing structure, including structures only charged with bearing their own weight.
Whether the load is constant or variable, static or dynamic, pointed or distributed, we are able to
calculate the actual load applied on various members of the structure and plan accordingly.
Deflection in a beam is caused by the presence of an internal moment, with deflection
occurring along the direction of action of the moment. This is pivotal in building support
structures, as excessive bending must be avoided.
This beam bending experiment was performed on the 25
th
of November, 2013 to observe
elastic beam buckling in pine, oak and aluminum under various load increments, and to compare
obtained results to theoretical values.
The main objectives of the Beam Bending Laboratory were to determine the linear
correlation of load applied to a beam and the internal strain experienced, as well as exploring the
differences between metallic and wooden beams. Similarities were observed in the two wooden
beams, and comparatively high tensile strength was observed in the aluminum.
Please note that a full colour version of this report is available on the internet at
http://bit.ly/18wOW5d.


4

3.0 Theory

Structural elements such as beams deflect when a load is applied. Deflection is measured
as a distance or an angle. The load determines how and how much the beam deflects. There are
many different types of loading such as point, uniformly distributed, and uniformly varying
loads.
A point load is a load is applied at a certain point on the beam. Common examples are at
the center or end of a beam. A uniformly distributed load is where a load is applied evenly over
the whole beam. A uniformly varying load is where a load is increasing or decreasing over the
length of the beam. Beams may have more than just one of these load cases applied.

Point Load
Figure 1 A beam with a point load applied at the center
1


Uniformly Distributed Load
Figure 2 A beam with a uniformly distributed load applied
2



1
"Civil Engineering." : TYPES OF BEAMS & TYPES OF LOADINGS. N.p., n.d. Web. 1 Dec. 2013.
<http://civilengineerworks.blogspot.ca/2011/12/types-of-beams-types-of-loadings.html>.
2
"Uniformly Distributed Load on a Beam." efunda.com. N.p., n.d. Web. 1 Dec. 2013.
<http://www.efunda.com/glossary/formulas/beams/images/diagram_ss_uniform_1s.gif>.
5




Uniformly Varying Load
Figure 3 A beam with a uniformly varying load applied
3



The amount of deflection can be calculated using three different methods. The first
method is slopes by integration. The second method is known as superposition. Superposition is
when the deflections for a series of separate loadings acting on a beam may be superimposed.
For example, if v
1
is the deflection for one load and v
2
is the deflection for another load, the total
deflection for both loads acting together if the algebraic sum v
1
+ v
2
.
4
The third method to
calculating the deflection is the moment area method. This method is a somewhat graphical way
to find the deflection. Bending moment diagrams are used.
The rearranged formulae used to obtain calculated values for Modulus of Elasticity are as
follows:






3
"Civil Engineering." : TYPES OF BEAMS & TYPES OF LOADINGS. N.p., n.d. Web. 1 Dec. 2013.
<http://civilengineerworks.blogspot.ca/2011/12/types-of-beams-types-of-loadings.html>.
4
Hibbeler, Russell. Mechanics of Materials + Masteringengineering With Pearson Etext Standalone Access Card.
USA: Pearson College Div, 2013. Print.
6

Calculating the Modulus of Elasticity using a cantilever beam is somewhat more
straightforward, where the following formula applies:
Equation 1:

Where:
E = Modulus of Elasticity
P = Point Load
L
1
= Length from Strain Gauge to Point Load
b = Base, or Width of Beam
t = Thickness of Beam

5

- Illustration of deflection setup, depicting P and L
1
.








5
(Prof. Byron Walton, 2013)
7

By Deflection:
Equation 2:

(

) (

)
[
(

]

Where:
E = Modulus of Elasticity
P = Point Load
Y = Deflection
X = Deflection (measured at Micrometer)
L
2
= Distance from Fixed end to Location of Point Load
b = Base, or Width of Beam
t = Thickness of Beam


6

- Illustration of deflection setup, depicting P, Y, X, and L
2
.


6
(Prof. Byron Walton, 2013)
8

4.0 Apparatus

Vishay FLEXOR Cantilever Flexure Frame
B.L.H. Digital Strain Indicator
Vernier Calipers
Set of Weights with Hanger
Meter Stick
1/1000

Inch Precision Micrometer
Prepared Specimen Beams of Aluminum, Pine, and Oak
5.0 Procedure

Cross-Sectional dimensions of each specimen were found, as well as the following lengths:
o L
1
: Strain Gauge to Point Load
o L
2
: Support Point to Point Load
o X: Support Point to Screw Micrometer
Beam was placed into the Cantilever Flexure Frame for the group by lab coordinator.
Hanger was hung from end of beam.
A zero reading was taken on the screw micrometer, and the strain gauge was set at zero.
1N weight was placed on the hanger.
Strain measurement was recorded, as well as a deflection measurement on the micrometer.
Weight placement was repeated with measurements taken to a total of 6N for wooden
beams, 9N for aluminum beam.









9

6.0 Results

The experimental values for the modulus of elasticity for all three samples using both the
deflection and strain methods can be found in figure 6.0.1. Figures 6.0.2 to 6.0.4 are plots of the
strain method used in this experiment derived from equation 2, where 6PL
1
is the y-axis and bt
2

is the x-axis. The slope of the line of best fit is the modulus of elasticity. Figures 6.0.5 to 6.0.7
are plots of the deflection method, where the point load, P is plotted against deflection at the
deflection gauge, y
GAUGE
. The slopes of these plots are multiplied by a function of the area of the
moment divided by six times the moment of inertia, as seen in equation 1. Sample calculations
for determining the modulus of elasticity using the deflection method can be found in section
6.1. Raw measurement data can be found in Appendix I.


Experimental Moduli of Elasticity
(GPa)
Specimen Deflection Method Strain Method
Aluminum 66.838 70.341
Oak 9.317 10.054
Pine 8.143 9.396
Figure 6.0.1

Figure 6.0.2 Plot of the strain measurement method for Aluminum
y = 70,340,741.302x + 514.615
R = 0.998
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
14000
16000
0.000E+00 5.000E-05 1.000E-04 1.500E-04 2.000E-04
6
P
L

bt^2*
Strain Deflection in Aluminum
10


Figure 6.0.3 Plot of the strain measurement method for oak wood.

Figure 6.0.4 Plot of the strain measurement method for pine wood.


y = 10,054,096.05x - 1.26
R = 1.00
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
8000
9000
10000
0.00E+00 2.00E-04 4.00E-04 6.00E-04 8.00E-04 1.00E-03
6
P
L

bt^2*
Oak By Strain Measurement
y = 9,396,853.68x + 13.85
R = 1.00
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
8000
9000
10000
0.000E+00 2.000E-04 4.000E-04 6.000E-04 8.000E-04 1.000E-03 1.200E-03
6
P
L

bt^2*
Pine By Strain Measurement
11


Figure 6.0.5 Plot of the deflection measurement method for aluminum.

Figure 6.0.6 Plot of the deflection measurement method for oak wood.
y = 5.2961x + 0.2607
R = 0.9984
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
0.000 0.200 0.400 0.600 0.800 1.000 1.200 1.400 1.600 1.800
F
o
r
c
e

(
N
)

Deflection at Gauge (mm)
Aluminum By Deflection Measurement
y = 0.3661x + 0.0083
R = 1
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
0.000 2.000 4.000 6.000 8.000 10.000 12.000 14.000 16.000 18.000
F
o
r
c
e

(
N
)

Deflection at Gauge (mm)
Oak By Deflection Measurement
12


Figure 6.0.7 Plot of the deflection measurement method for pine wood.

6.1 Sample Calculations
The following is an example calculation to determine the modulus of elasticity using
equation 2. Experimental values from the test on the aluminum sample will be used.
(

)
()

()()

)

(

) ()









y = 0.3137x + 0.0338
R = 0.9999
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
0.000 5.000 10.000 15.000 20.000 25.000
F
o
r
c
e

(
N
)

Deflection at Gauge (mm)
Pine By Deflection Method
13

7.0 Discussion
This experiment to determine the moduli of elasticity via the strain and deflection
methods for beams went very well. The results were very close to the theoretical values and
most of the sources of error were strictly measurement errors. The theoretical modulus of
elasticity for each material was found at http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/young-modulus-
d_417.html, however the type of aluminum and wood samples was unknown. A general value
for the modulus of elasticity of any aluminum is approximately 69 GPa, for oak it is 11 GPa and
for pine it is 9 GPa.
In each case, the strain method was closer to the actual values than the deflection method,
and the deflection method consistently gave a lower modulus of elasticity than both the strain
method and the actual modulus of elasticity. The deflection method for aluminum was 3% lower
than the theoretical value of 69 GPa and the strain method was 1.9% higher. In the case of the
oak specimen, the deflection method yielded 9.3 GPa, a 15% lower result than the actual value of
11 GPa, whereas the strain method resulted in 10 GPa, 8.6% higher than theoretical. The pine
samples experimental modulus of elasticity from the deflection method was 9.5% lower than the
actual value of 9 GPa while the strain method yielded a 4.4% higher result at 9.4 GPa.
The variation in the results is almost exclusively due to measurement errors. The
electronic strain meters numbers could never be completely stabilized so an average was taken
for each result. This could be partially attributed to the weights applying varying force due to the
slight motion of the weights. Another possibility is that the measurements of the cross-sectional
area and the distances for the deflection method were not accurate. The ruler went only to
millimeters which could have caused variation in the results. Another variation from the
published values is that the exact type of material is unknown. The published moduli of
elasticity presented are a general representation of the material, however for aluminum it ranges
from 68.9 GPa for 2014-T6 to 73.1 GPa for 6061-T6. This is also the case for the wood samples.
The exact species and dryness of the samples are unknown so the generally recognized values of
11 GPa for oak and 9 GPa for pine has been used, which could lead to skewed results.
It is interesting that the strain method consistently yielded higher results than the
deflection method. The results from the deflection method indicate that the beam is more
flexible than it actually is. This could be due to not correctly measuring the deflection. A higher
greater than actual deflection would result in a lower modulus of elasticity. It could also be that
the strain gauge is located closer to the support and impurities in the samples would not affect
the reading as much as the deflection method reading.



14

Experimental Moduli of Elasticity (GPa)
Specimen Deflection Method Strain Method Published Value
Aluminum 66.838 70.341 69
Oak 9.317 10.054 11
Pine 8.143 9.396 9



15

8.0 Conclusions
The beam bending laboratory session was generally successful, as observed values for
modulus of elasticity were very close to published values, falling within between 1.9% and 9.0%.
The objectives of this experiment were fulfilled. It was determined that the experimental values
for the Modulus of Elasticity by strain method compared to their respective published values are
as follows:
- For Aluminum: 70.341GPa Experimentally, compared to 69 GPa Published
- For Oak: 10.054 GPa Experimentally, compared to 11 GPa Published
- For Pine: 9.396 GPa Experimentally, compared to 9 GPa Published
While we are generally pleased with the observed results in Strain Method, the Deflection
Method results are subject to more uncertainties and possibilities for error, contributing to the
expected and observed loss of accuracy.
Group 2 is confident that the laboratory session was completed successfully, as evidenced
by observed values closely shadowing published values.



16

9.0 References

"Civil Engineering." : TYPES OF BEAMS & TYPES OF LOADINGS. (2011, 12 01). Retrieved
12 01, 2013, from blogspot.ca: <http://civilengineerworks.blogspot.ca/2011/12/types-of-
beams-types-of-loadings.html
blogspot.ca. (n.d.). Civil Engineering." : TYPES OF BEAMS & TYPES OF LOADINGS.
Retrieved 12 01, 2013, from blogspot.ca:
<http://civilengineerworks.blogspot.ca/2011/12/types-of-beams-types-of-loadings.html
efunda.com. (n.d.). "Uniformly Distributed Load on a Beam.". Retrieved 12 01, 2013, from
efunda.com:
<http://www.efunda.com/glossary/formulas/beams/images/diagram_ss_uniform_1s.gif>.
Hibbeler, R. (2014). Mechanics of Materials (9 ed.). Montreal, Quebec: Pearson Prentice Hall.
Prof. Byron Walton, U. S. (2013). CE2023 Lab: Plastic Bending of a Beam. Saint John, NB:
UNBSJ.
wikipedia.org. (n.d.). wikipedia.org: Deflection (Engineering). Retrieved 12 01, 2013, from
wikipedia.org: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deflection_(engineering)



17

Appendix I


Measured Dimensions of Test Specimens
Specime
n
base(b,
mm)
Thickness (t,
mm)
Mom. of Inert. (I,
mm^4)
Length 1 (L1,
mm)
Length 2 (L2,
mm) x (mm)
Aluminu
m 25.42 6.250 517.171 248.000 287.000 254.000
Oak 24.5 5.000 255.208 253.000 286.000 254.000
Pine 24.6 4.950 248.639 253.000 286.000 253.000

Aluminum
By Deflection Measurement: By Strain Measurement
Loading
(N)
y(in)
(mm) y(final) (mm) y(gauge) (mm)
Strain
(mm/mm) 6PL1 bt^2*
0 0.61 0.610 0.000 0.000E+00 0
0.000E+
00
1 0.61 0.737 0.127 1.100E-08 1488
1.092E-
05
2 0.61 0.914 0.304 3.200E-08 2976
3.178E-
05
3 0.61 1.092 0.482 5.600E-08 4464
5.561E-
05
4 0.61 1.328 0.718 7.500E-08 5952
7.447E-
05
5 0.61 1.499 0.889 9.800E-08 7440
9.731E-
05
6 0.61 1.702 1.092 1.220E-07 8928
1.211E-
04
7 0.61 1.880 1.270 1.420E-07 10416
1.410E-
04
8 0.61 2.083 1.473 1.640E-07 11904
1.628E-
04
9 0.61 2.261 1.651 1.850E-07 13392
1.837E-
04











18

Oak
By Deflection Measurement: By Strain Measurement
Loading
(N)
y(in)
(mm) y(final) (mm) y(gauge) (mm)
Strain
(mm/mm) 6PL1 bt^2*
0 6.8072 6.807 0.000 0.000E+00 0
0.000E+
00
1 6.8072 9.474 2.667 2.480E-07 1518
1.519E-
04
2 6.8072 12.268 5.461 4.910E-07 3036
3.007E-
04
3 6.8072 14.986 8.179 7.400E-07 4554
4.533E-
04
4 6.8072 17.704 10.897 9.890E-07 6072
6.058E-
04
5 6.8072 20.420 13.613 1.230E-06 7590
7.534E-
04
6 6.8072 23.190 16.383 1.480E-06 9108
9.065E-
04

Pine
By Deflection Measurement: By Strain Measurement
Loading
(N)
y(in)
(mm) y(final) (mm) y(gauge) (mm)
Strain
(mm/mm) 6PL1 bt^2*
0 2.616 2.616 0.000 0.000E+00 0
0.000E+
00
1 2.616 5.639 3.023 2.640E-07 1518
1.591E-
04
2 2.616 8.839 6.223 5.310E-07 3036
3.201E-
04
3 2.616 11.989 9.373 8.000E-07 4554
4.822E-
04
4 2.616 15.291 12.675 1.072E-06 6072
6.462E-
04
5 2.616 18.466 15.850 1.341E-06 7590
8.083E-
04
6 2.616 21.666 19.050 1.603E-06 9108
9.662E-
04





19






12630.33

66.838 Gpa
















25448.3
9.317
Gpa
















25958.28
8.143
GPa




y = 5.2961x + 0.2607
R = 0.9984
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
0.000 0.200 0.400 0.600 0.800 1.000 1.200 1.400 1.600 1.800
F
o
r
c
e

(
N
)

Deflection at Gauge (mm)
Aluminum By Deflection Measurement
y = 0.3661x + 0.0083
R = 1
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
0.000 2.000 4.000 6.000 8.000 10.000 12.000 14.000 16.000 18.000
F
o
r
c
e

(
N
)

Deflection at Gauge (mm)
Oak By Deflection Measurement
y = 0.3137x + 0.0338
R = 0.9999
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
0.000 5.000 10.000 15.000 20.000 25.000
F
o
r
c
e

(
N
)

Deflection at Gauge (mm)
Pine By Deflection Method
20










































y = 70,340,741.302x + 514.615
R = 0.998
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
14000
16000
0.000E+00 5.000E-05 1.000E-04 1.500E-04 2.000E-04
6
P
L

bt^2*
Strain Deflection in Aluminum
y = 10,054,096.05x - 1.26
R = 1.00
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
8000
9000
10000
0.00E+00 2.00E-04 4.00E-04 6.00E-04 8.00E-04 1.00E-03
6
P
L

bt^2*
Oak By Strain Measurement
y = 9,396,853.68x + 13.85
R = 1.00
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
8000
9000
10000
0.000E+00 2.000E-04 4.000E-04 6.000E-04 8.000E-04 1.000E-03 1.200E-03
6
P
L

bt^2*
Pine By Strain Measurement
21

Appendix II


- Cantilever Beam Bending Apparatus


- Digital Strain Indicator
22


- Aluminum Specimen, with Strain Gauge, Loaded in Frame

- Micrometer Measuring Location of Beams Surface
23


- Unloaded Hanger at Point-Load Position on Aluminum Beam