Rate= increase in M of product of reaction over time and decrease of reactants

Rate= change in products / change in time = change reagents / change in time

Factors affecting rate:
1. Concentration (speeds up with increasing M of reactants)
2. Presence of catalyst
3. Temperature
4. Surface area
Rate law:
Rate= k [A]
x
[B]
y

-where k is the rate constant and varies with temperature
-exponents are order of reaction (not related to moles in equation)

First order:
-kt = ln [A]t/ [A]o
Second order:
1/ [A]t = kt + 1/ [A]o
Where At is the final concentration and Ao is the initial
Half-life= time it takes for reaction to consume half its reactants (depends on order)
Collision theory:
K=Zfp
Reactants must collide for reaction to be possible (z)
Collision orientation (p)
Activation energy- minimum energy (f)
f= e
-Ea/RT
Increase in T= more collision because molecules move faster
State= reaction results from collision forms an activated complex
Activated complex= unstable group of atoms that break up to form reactants
Transition states:
-partial bonds
-very unstable
-bonds break not formed
-highest energy
Endothermic- Energy higher in products than reactants
Exothermic- Energy higher in reactants than products
Rate determining step= rate law of RDS is rate law for reaction and uses slowest step
Catalyst:
-Material present that alters rate of reaction but doesnt consume it
-used up then reproduced later
-provides alternate path
-changing Ea (activation energy)
-changing A (frequency factor- how frequent molecules run into each other)
Homogeneous catalyst= catalyst in same phase as reactants
Heterogeneous catalyst= catalyst in different phase than reactants
Alkanes:
-Bond polarity, dipole moments, and lone pairs
-solubility
-hydrophobic
-hydrophilic
Isomers= compounds with same molecular formula but different structure
Geometric isomers= Same atomic connections but different and fixed spatial orientation
(same formula but atoms in different positions)
-pi bonds (double bonds) prevents rotation= results in only double bond
Trans (E) isomer: alkyl halides on the opposite side
Cis (Z) isomer: alkyl halides on same sides
Y attached = isopropyl
t attached = t-butyl
Alkyl halides
-abbreviated halogens (fluoro, chloro, bromo, iodo)
Unsaturated hydrocarbons
-contains double or triple carbon-carbon bonds
Alkene
-sigma bond using sp2
-pi bond using p
Oxidation=reaction with oxidizing agent or combustion
Addition reaction=reactants added to each carbon atom of C=C to form C-C
Aromatic hydrocarbon
-ring structures with pi bonds
-benzene is with 3 double bonds and phenyl with circle in middle
Ortho= 1,2
Meta= 1,3
Para= 1,4
Substituent= atom attached to some sort of structure that is the basis of molecule
-benzene can be substituent, but use phenyl instead of benzene
Alcohol:
--ol ending
-weak acid and not ionic
-OH polar
Primary- OH on c with 1 c-c bond (2Hs)
Secondary- OH on c with 2 c-c bond (2H)
Tertiary- OH on c with 3 c-c bond (0Hs)
Ether:
-formed by 2 alcohols
-alkyl group on alcohol
-small dipole moment
-treat shorter R group as alkoxy and name main branch as alkane
Ex: 3- methoxyhexane
Aldehydes:
-Carbon double bond to O
-Carbonyl group at the end of chain
-alkyl prefix + -anal
Ketone:
-Carbon double bond to O
-Carbonyl group in the middle of chain
-alkyl prefix + -anone
Carboxylic acid:
-Hydrocarbon with 2 oxygen atoms (double bond to Oxygen and OH group) at end of chain
-anoic acid
-weak acid
Ester:
- Hydrocarbons with double bond to O and another O that continues the chain
-anoate
Amines:
-places 1, 2, or 3 Hydrogens with alkyl group
-basic= accepts H+ to form OH
Primary- 1 alkyl group (2Hs)
Secondary- 2 alkyl group (1H)
Tertiary- 3 alkyl group (OH)
Amide:
-reaction of amines and carboxylic acids
Polymers:
-made up of repeating small units (monomers)
Synthetic polymers
-celluloid=chemical modification of natural polymers
-biological polymer=dna, proteins
Addition polymers
-monomers containing double bonds which are broken to form long single bond chain
Condensation polymers
-monomers contain functional group undergoes condensation to form polymer chain
Homopolymers
-polymers made up of the same units
Copolymers
-polymers made up of more than one monomer
Transition metals= Atoms with partially filled d orbitals (d
n
) where n is # of electrons
-high melting and boiling points
-para/diamagnetism
-good electrical conductor
-Valance s-orbital level of transition metal is lower in energy than valance d-orbital
Half Shell stability= energy lowered when electrons fill 2 shells half way or s half and d full
Complex ions= monatomic cations combine with multiple electron donating groups
Ligand=attached to anion or neutral molecule
-molecule with lone pairs of electrons = Lewis base
Lewis base= donates electron density
Lewis acid= accepts electron density
Coordinate covalent bonds= bond formed when pair of electron donated by one atom
Coordination compound= electrons donated as a pair from ligand to empty orbital (2 fill empty)
Crystal field theory:
-electron structure of coordination compound
-as ligands interact with electrons on metal, d orbital of each change due to presence of ligands
around metal
# of electrons that came with metal go into d orbitals
-light absorbed is when electron is excited from one orbital to another
DELTA = E
photon
= hc/wavelength
DELTA=crystal field split (energy gap)
Ephoton=energy of light
h=plancks constant
c= speed of light
Energy gap:
-size depends on ligands
High spin= minimum amount of electron pairing (electrons spread on lower and upper)
Weak field= lower and higher filled up so less pairs

Low spin= maximum amount of electron pairing (more electrons paired)
Strong field= lower energy filled up to get pairs
4 main polymer:
1. Lipids=insoluble in water, but soluble in non-polar solvent
Fatty acid= carboxylic acid (polar head and non-polar tail)
Saturated- no c=c in side chain
Unsaturated- have c=c
Monosaturated- 1 c=c
polyunsaturated- more than c=c
Phospholipids= ester with OH group and hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tail
2. Carbohydrates= C, O, Hs
Monosaccharide= simplest form of carbs
Disaccharide= 2 monosaccharide
Polysaccharide= 3+ monosaccharide
-glycosidic link= ring in same direction
-glycosidic link= ring in alternate orientation
Hydrolysis= addition of water to break glycosidic link
3. Proteins= simple polymers of amino acids (Carboxylic acid reacts with amino acid)
Amino acid= very polar and soluble in water
Zwitterions= when amino acid change form in polar solvent and pH (one side and other +)
Primary structure (1) connectivity of amino acid
-linked by peptide
Secondary structure (2) geometry of amino acid
-formed by H bond beween NH and C=O
Tertiary structure (3) fold structure of amino acid (hold chain together)
-Fibrous protein= lacking 3 structure
-Globular protein= folds on themselves
Quaternary structure (4) multiple proteins together
4. Nucleic acids= polymer of nucleotides
Nucleotide structure:
a) Cyclic sugar (backbone)
b) Phosphate group
c) Aromatic base
Organic bases= A, T, G, C, U
Bases:
a) Purine= cytosine, thymine & uracil
b) Pyrimidine= Adenine & Guanine