Spring, 2008 Vol. 2, No.

76 Publication of the Northeast Organic Farming Association 1077-2294

Inside This Issue
ming, special childrens programming, and an
old fashioned country fair.
Do: Bring your reusable shopping bag!
The Farmers Market will offer an array of fresh
products from local farms to take home and
enjoy as the summer winds down.
Dont: Be nervous about fnding your way
around the UMass Campus.
There will be signs and friends from NOFA all
over campus to help you park, register, and fnd
your dorm, campsite, workshop or event. We
look forward to a seamless transition to our
new, beautiful home at UMass.
Do: Look forward to a weekend of refection,
celebration and growth with all your friends at
NOFA.
Dont: Miss Out!!
Registration for the conference will begin in
April. Please visit our website at www.no-
famass.org for more information!
See you in August.
Features
Organic Farming vs. CO
2
: Some Facts 10
NH Commissioner of Ag Lorraine Merrill 40
Soil Building for Orchard Fruit 41
NOFA-NY Winter Conference Review 42
Organic Land Care Training Report 43
Domestic Fair Trade Assn. Meeting Report 44
Supplement on
Manure and
Organic Farming
Composted Manure as Eco-Fertilizer 11
Composting Solid Manure 14
Auto Fuel and Cow Manure 18
Manure Management and Antibiotics 19
Manure Component Guide 19
Reducing E. coli Risks on Organic Farms 20
Cow Pies to Cow Pots: Adding Value 23
Manure & Compost as Nutrient Sources 27
Methane Recovery from Animal Manures 30
Returning Manure to the Land 34
Pig Manure Converted to Crude Oil 38
Departments
Editorial 2
Letters 3
NOFA Exchange 4
News Notes 6
Book Reviews 38
NOFA Contact People 46
Calendar 47
Spring is almost here!
As the weather warms up, plans for the summer
conference are well under way
Do: Save the Date! August 8-10, 2008
Summer is a busy time for all of us, so be sure
to mark the date in your calendar.
This is a weekend you dont want to miss!
Do: Bring your Family, Friends & Neighbors.
The summer conference is all about community.
It is a time to share thoughts, ideas, knowledge,
and of course food! A weekend of learning,
refection and fun, there is something for every-
one to participate in and enjoy.
Dont: Miss out on the chance to be a part of
the conference by contributing to this years lo-
cal meal.
The local meal is a wonderful time to share a
delicious organic meal with friends, old and
new. It is also a chance for people to learn
more about local farmers and farms, and taste
the fruits of your labor.
NOFAs summer conference planning commit-
tee is looking for suppliers for this summers lo-
cal organic meal. If you run a certifed organic
farm and are interested in having your farms
products showcased in the summer conference
local meal, please contact: John Ferris: (413)
548-6930, j_david_ferris@hotmail.com
Do: Attend Saturdays keynote speech, by
Mark McAfee.
We are pleased to announce that Saturdays
keynote speaker will be Mark McAfee, founder
of the Organic Pastures Dairy Company in
California. OPDC is the only retail approved
raw organic dairy products producer in North
America.
A pioneer in raw organic milk production, safe-
ty and technology, Mark has been at the fore-
front of the movement to change laws regarding
raw milk. He has much to share and promises
to inspire and educate.
Do: Look forward to all there is to learn at the
summer conference!
We are fnalizing our workshop list now, and
cannot wait to share the wonderful presenters
and their wealth of knowledge and expertise
with conference attendees.
Over 150 presenters from all over the Northeast
will present on a range of topics, from global
warming to wine-making, honeybees to herbs,
chickens to CSAs, soil to spirituality, and
much more. You will come away from work-
shops enriched and eager to put what you have
learned to use on your farm, in your home, and
in your community.
Dont: Worry About your Kids and Teens
Running concurrently with the adult workshops
are exciting ones for kids and teens. As you
attend workshops, your children and teenagers
will be occupied with their own - learning new
things and having fun!
Childrens workshops will be creative and
enjoyable, flled with crafts and games. Teen
workshops will cover topics like urban agri-
culture, raising animals, practical activism, and
more. Your teens are also sure to be excited to
attend their very own dance with a DJ on Satur-
day evening!
Do: Count on being entertained!
Along with information and education, the con-
ference also offers plenty of time to relax and
celebrate! Families from all over the Northeast
come to the conference to enjoy a traditional
contra-dance, a spicy zydeco dance band, drum-
Some Dos And Donts for the
NOFA Summer Conference
2008 NOFA Summer Conference logo
Mark McAfee, Saturday keynoter
Th e Na t u r a l Fa r me r
S p r i n g , 2 0 0 8 2
The Natural Farmer is the newspaper of the Northeast
Organic Farming Association (NOFA). In most chapters,
regular members receive a subscription as part of their
dues, and others may subscribe for $15 (in the US or
$20 outside the US). It is published four times a year at
411 Sheldon Rd., Barre, MA 01005. The editors are Jack
Kittredge and Julie Rawson, but most of the material is
either written by members or summarized by us from
information people send us.
Upcoming Issue Topics - We plan a year in advance so
that folks who want to write on a topic can have a lot of
lead time. The next 3 issues will be:
Summer 2008 On-Line Marketing of Farm Products
Fall 2008 Winter Production
Winter 2008-09 Organic Mulches
Moving or missed an issue? The Natural Farmer will not
be forwarded by the post offce, so you need to make
sure your address is up-to-date if you move. You get your
subscription to this paper in one of two ways. Direct
subscribers who send us $15 are put on our database
here. These folks should send address changes to us.
Most of you, however, get this paper as a NOFA member
beneft for paying your chapter dues. Each quarter every
NOFA chapter sends us address labels for their paid
members, which we use to mail out the issue. If you
moved or didnt get the paper, your beef is with your
state chapter, not us. Every issue we print an updated list
of NOFA Contact People on the last page, for a handy
reference to all the chapter names and addresses.
As a membership paper, we count on you for articles, art
and graphics, news and interviews, photos on rural or
organic themes, ads, letters, etc. Almost everybody has a
special talent or knows someone who does. If you cant
write, fnd someone who can to interview you. Wed like
to keep the paper lively and interesting to members, and
we need your help to do it.
We appreciate a submission in any form, but are less
likely to make mistakes with something typed than hand-
written. To be a real gem, send it via electronic mail
(TNF@nofa.org.) Also, any graphics, photos, charts, etc.
you can provide (especially in a .jpg or .pdf format) will
almost certainly make your submission more readable
and informative. If you have any ideas or questions, one
of us is usually near the phone - (978) 355-2853, fax:
(978) 355-4046. The NOFA Interstate Council website is
www.nofa.org.
ISSN 1077-2294
copyright 2008,
Northeast Organic Farming Association
The Natural Farmer
Needs You!
Advertise in or Sponsor The Natural Farmer
Frequency discounts: if you buy space in several
issues you can qualify for substantial discounts off
these rates. Pay for two consecutive issues and get
10% off each, pay for 3 and get 20% off, or pay
for 4 and get 25% off. An ad in the NOFA Summer
Conference Program Book counts as a TNF ad for
purposes of this discount.
Deadlines: We need your ad copy one month before
the publication date of each issue. The deadlines are:
January 31 for the Spring issue (mails Mar. 1)
April 30 for the Summer issue (mails Jun. 1)
July 31 for the Fall issue (mails Sept. 1)
October 31 for the Winter issue (mails Dec. 1)
Disclaimer: Advertisers are helping support the
paper so please support them. We cannot investigate
the claims of advertisers, of course, so please
exercise due caution when considering any product
or service. If you learn of any misrepresentation in
one of our ads please inform us and we will take
appropriate action. We dont want ads that mislead.
Sponsorships: Individuals or organizations wishing
to sponsor The Natural Farmer may do so with a
payment of $200 for one year (4 issues). In return,
we will thank the sponsor in a special area of page 3
of each issue, and feature the sponsors logo or other
small insignia.
Contact for Display Ads or Sponsors: Send display
ads or sponsorships with payment (to TNF)
to our advertising manager Bob Minnocci, 662
Massachusetts Ave. #6, Boston, MA 02118. If you
have questions, or want to reserve space, contact Bob
at (617) 236-4893 or BMinnocci@aol.com.
Advertisements not only bring in TNF revenue, which
means less must come from membership dues, they also
make a paper interesting and helpful to those looking for
specifc goods or services. We carry 2 kinds of ads:
The NOFA Exchange - this is a free bulletin board service
(for subscribers or NOFA members who get the TNF) for
occasional needs or offerings. Send in up to 100 words
and well print it free in the next issue. Include a price (if
selling) and an address, E-mail or phone number so readers
can contact you directly. If you dont get the paper yourself
you can still send in an ad - just send $5 along too! Send
NOFA Exchange ads directly to The Natural Farmer, 411
Sheldon Rd., Barre, MA 01005 or (preferably) E-mail to
TNF@nofa.org.
Display Ads - this is for those offering products or
services on a regular basis! You can get real attention with
display ads. Send camera ready copy to Bob Minnocci,
662 Massachusetts Ave. #6, Boston, MA 02118 or
BMinnocci@aol.com and enclose a check (to TNF) for
the appropriate size. The sizes and rates are:
B&W Color
Full page (15 tall by 10 wide) $300 $420
Half page (7 1/2 tall by 10 wide) $155 $215
One-third page (7 1/2 tall by 6 1/2 wide) $105 $145
One-quarter page (7 1/2 tall by 4 7/8 wide) $80 $110
One-sixth page (7 1/2 tall by 3 1/8 wide), or
(3 3/4 tall by 6 1/2 wide) $55 $75
Business card size (1 1/2 tall by 3 1/8 wide) $15 $20
Note: These prices are for camera ready copy on clean
paper, or electronically in jpg or pdf format. If you want
any changes we will be glad to make them - or to typeset a
display ad for you - for $25 extra. Just send us the text, any
graphics, and a sketch of how you want it to look. Include
a check for the space charge plus $25.
by Jack Kittredge
Manure that most humble and homely of
substances! In one situation, when there is too
much, it can be a smelly polluting mess. In another,
when properly and promptly managed, its a rich
resource bringing fertility to exhausted soils and a
storehouse of energy for human use. The value of
manure is clearly demonstrated in a place like India,
where collecting and drying cow dung is widely
practiced, and the commodity is used as a cooking
fuel.
In organic farming manure has a place of honor.
When incorporated directly in the soil 3 to 4 months
before taking off a crop it is an ideal source of
plant nutrition. When mixed with carbonaceous
materials and turned it makes an excellent compost.
Increasingly, large diary farms are looking to their
manure as a source of methane for farm energy.
Some are even using it to generate electricity for
sale.
Scale matters, however, and as the deaths
and illnesses resulting from the 2006 spinach
contamination episode demonstrated, there can
be too much manure. In that case feces from large
feedlot beef operations in Californias Salinas Valley
contaminated nearby spinach felds. In both cases
the operations were very large, so that the feedlots
had no good management plan for their excess
In Defense of Manure
manure, and mechanized cutting machines, once
contaminated, spread fecal bacteria to hundreds of
acres of spinach.
As a result of that episode there are harsh and costly
measures being proposed by regulatory agencies
to exclude all forms of animal life from contact
with felds where greens are being grown. Rather
than travel down that path, which would make it
diffcult for small, diverse and mixed operations to
continue, perhaps it makes more sense to look at
how manure can be properly managed and how it
can be incorporated in a healthy farming system. In
this issue we will look at some of these practices.
Cowpies drying on a wall in India. They will be used as fuel for cooking fres.
Th e Na t u r a l Fa r me r
S p r i n g , 2 0 0 8 3
Dear Editor:
In the December/January issue of
Horticulture magazine there is a short, informative
article, the frst of a series, concerning the issue
of invasive plants. It says that invasive plants
are second only to land development as a factor
in the loss of native species. Plants with feshy
berries preferred by birds, such as autumn olive,
are especially diffcult to control. I believe that
we environmentalists must look at a picture larger
than our own special interests. Yes the problem is a
complicated one but so is global warming the time
for action is now.
Marnie Lacouture
Dear Julie and Jack,
After reading Julies article in The Natural
Farmer (Farm Labor: Working with Ex-Offenders) I
had to write this note applauding your generous work
with the Almost Home folks. Bravo to you! I pray
that God will bless your efforts abundantly, for you
are truly doing the work of peace and justice. I hope I
get to meet you in person at a future NOFA event.
I am sending the article to my daughter-
in-law who works as a Public Defender in New
Hampshire: it will cheer her on diffcult days.
Sincerely, Barbara Sheldon Melone
Dear Barbara,
Thank you for your very kind words. It is
funny, but when we are doing the work that we are
supposed to be doing in life, it seems as if it is
not only easy, but fun, and totally valuable to us,
along with others. For Jack and me it has only been a
positive experience to work with the guys at Almost
Home, and for this we feel quite grateful for the
opportunity. And as we have introduced Brian and
Edwin to other farmers around (to help supplement
their income in the winter when we cant provide
adequate work), their experiences have been similar.
I hope that more farmers all around the Northeast
can make these kinds of connections, as it will be a
beneft to everyone. I hope to meet you too, Barbara.
Julie
Letters to
the Editor
Please help us thank these
Friends of Organic Farming
for their generous support!
Socially Responsible Investing
Douglas J. Calnan
Financial Consultant, Vice President-Investments
douglas.calnan@agedwards.com
(800) 543-8010 Norwell, MA
Member SIPC 2007 A.G. Edwards & Sons, Inc.
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3 Days on Our Diversified, 3 Days on Our Diversified, 3 Days on Our Diversified, 3 Days on Our Diversified, 3 Days on Our Diversified,
Horse Powered Family Farm Horse Powered Family Farm Horse Powered Family Farm Horse Powered Family Farm Horse Powered Family Farm
Small Classes & Home Grown Meals Small Classes & Home Grown Meals Small Classes & Home Grown Meals Small Classes & Home Grown Meals Small Classes & Home Grown Meals
Draft Horse Workshops Draft Horse Workshops Draft Horse Workshops Draft Horse Workshops Draft Horse Workshops
Horse Training
Draft Horses I & II
Women & Draft Horses
Farming with Draft Horses
Jay & Janet Bailey Family
www.fairwindsfarm.org
511 Upr Dummerston Rd.
Brattleboro, VT 05301
802-254-9067
Maki ng a connecti on between trees & peopl e
Design/Build David Johnson (802) 644-8187 Cambridge, VT.
Th e Na t u r a l Fa r me r
S p r i n g , 2 0 0 8 4
NOFA
Exchange
Blow Your Own Horn
Attention Northeastern Organic Farmers! NOFAs
summer conference planning committee is looking
for suppliers for this summers local organic dinner.
If you are interested in having your farms products
showcased in the summer conference local meal,
please contact John Ferris: (413) 548-6930,
j_david_ferris@hotmail.com
Apprentice postions open at Simple Gifts Farm.
We are seeking 3 hard-working, motivated and
fun full-time seasonal apprentices at Simple Gifts
Farm. Learn all aspects of production on a 38-acre
community-preserved farm less than a mile from
downtown Amherst, MA. We market through a
150-member CSA and through an onsite farmstand
and a farmers market. Compensation is $600/
month + housing + health insurance. Further in-
formation about the farm and the positions can be
found at www.simplegiftsfarmcsa.com, or call (413)
549-1585.
The Meeting School, a small Quaker day & board-
ing school located in Southern New Hampshire
is seeking to hire a Farm Manager/Educator. The
individual will be responsible for coordinating the
daily aspects of an organic farm (livestock, gardens)
within a school/community environment, along with
house parenting teens. Room/Board and compre-
hensive compensation/beneft package are included.
Please send resume to: The Meeting School, 120
Thomas Road, Rindge, NH 03461, 603-899-3366,
www.meetingschool.org, offce@meetingschool.
com
300 acre farm in Albany County, NY looking to start
up an organic grass-fed beef or dairy operation or
CSA. Housing available. 1920s barn, 2 pole barns
and pond. Want to retain ownership of the family
farm at this time but open to long term (or short
term) lease or partnership. Contact me at quercus-
2alba@gmail.com
Mark Fulford of Teltane Farm will be teaching a
two-day workshop on Organic Orchard Care &
Composting at D Acres Organic Farm and Edu-
cational Homestead in Dorchester, NH. Grafting,
biological soil nutrition, and compost tea recipes.
May 10 & 11, $50 per day including lunch, accom-
modations available. Dave Wichland of Wichland
Woods will present Mycological Landscaping, dem-
onstrating growing elm oysters on straw and morels
in garden beds on April 12, $36 w/lunch. Instruction
and hands-on methods applied to the organic, no-
till, annual and perennial polycultures @ DAcres.
Contact info@dacres.org or www.dacres.org to
register or for more information.
Preserve Your Farm. We are a married couple,
(Permaculture Designer and Green Building Engi-
neer) in CT with no kids looking to buy a farm in
CT or central/western MA to preserve in perpetuity.
We hope to start an educational facility for organic
growing/Permaculture/green building. Please help
us create our dream and we will protect your farm
from development. Please contact us at: info@
healwithnature.com or call (860) 712-3485.
Web TV show looking for farms to feature. The Nat-
ural Princess is a web-based TV show that encour-
ages viewers to seek out locally grown food, and
highlights organic, natural ingredients and sustain-
able agriculture. The producer is looking for farms
in Connecticut as well as in Westchester, Putnam,
and Dutchess Counties in New York to feature in
upcoming episodes. Interested? For further informa-
tion please contact: Alicia Ghio at 203-748-8619 or
(preferably) email
alicia@thenaturalprincess.com. Or visit www.the-
naturalprincess.com.
Farm Manager Wanted for organic medicinal herb
farm in Whiting VT. Responsibilities include all
aspects of planning, greenhouse production, crop
management, tractor and related equipment use
and maintenance, harvest, processing, and manag-
ing interns and employees. Experienced applicants
only please. Position starts March 08 and could be
a year round full time position for the right person.
Salary negotiable based on experience. Contact Jeff
at 802-888-7278
Hutchins Farm, a 30+ acre certifed organic veg-
etable/fruit farm in Concord, MA is seeking enthu-
siastic, motivated workers for the 2008 season. We
grow a wide variety of vegetables and herbs, as well
as strawberries, blueberries, and apples. We hire a
couple people in the spring, adding more as the sea-
son progresses--from July through October the crew
may number nine people. Preference is given to
those who can commit to working full time through
the fall. Experience is a plus, but not necessary.
Were unable to offer housing. For more informa-
tion contact Brian Cramer at hutchfarm@earthlink.
net, or call 978-369-5041
Franklin Community Cooperative
Serving Your Community With
Deliciously Healthy Foods
Now with two stores...
Local, Organic Produce Meat & Cheese
Bakery Specialties Deli, eat in or take out
Supplements & Body Care Items
Natural Groceries Monthly Specials
Green Fields Market
144 Main Street, Greenfield
Mon-Fri 8-8, Sat 9-6
Sunday 10-5
(413) 773-9567
We Are Cooperatively Owned By Over 1,650 Local Families.
McCuskers Market
3 State Street, Shelburne Falls
Open Daily 7 a.m. to 7 p.m.
(413)625-9411
Don't take it so hard !
SoPhTec Water Conditioning Systems
solve your hard water problems
without salt, electricity or chemicals.
Controls hardness, calcium scale and corrosion.
Removes existing scale. Helps control sulfur odor.
Saves energy costs. No maintenance or service.
Use less soaps & detergents.
Extends equipment life (such as water heater).
Prevents scale buildup, clogging of pipes & equipment.
Safe for soil, plant life & animals.
SoPhTec is a cost effective, environmentally friendly
alternative to a salt based softener.
Total system cost for the home is only $409
- shipping & handling included (continental US).
90 day money back guarantee & ten year warranty (residential system).
711 W 17th St., Bldg. F-3, Costa Mesa, CA 92627
To place your order or receive additional information call or write:
MagneTec 949-548-7639 Toll Free 1-877-854-SOFT (7638)
e-mail magnetec@sbcglobal.net
Conditioned water used for irrigation penetrates the soil and
the plant cells better than unconditioned water. It significantly
reduces water spotting on leaves and fruit. In greenhouse tests
cuttings rooted more quickly and produced healthier plants.
Crops such as cantaloupes and tomatoes have been shown to
produce more and larger fruit.
Works with city or well water.
Other applications: Farms, Greenhouses,
Dairies & Irrigation Systems.
The SoPhTec water conditioning system makes
hard water act like soft water.
Th e Na t u r a l Fa r me r
S p r i n g , 2 0 0 8 5
Farm Manager Wanted Organic farm two hours
from NYC. Salary, insurance, managers house
provided. March 15 - November 15, 2008. Year-
round manager preferred. Applicants have extensive
experience with organic vegetable, fruit farming.
They use computers and work 70 hours a week.
Ideal person is outgoing, with vision and business
sense. Couples welcome. Farm description: 50
acre historic farm (13 acres open) in private valley,
mountain view. Stone Ridge, NY. The farm sells to
local and NYC farmers markets and restaurants.
For more information email esopuscreekfarm@
gmail.com, call 917-309-7511. To apply send
resume, three references and requirements. Other
positions available.
Assistant Farm Manager, organic produce farm in
Eastern, NY, May-Nov. 50 Hours per week, $8.50
per hour, workmans comp., farm produce, farm
house apartment (could be appropriate for couple
if partner is interested in a feld crew position), Re-
sponsibilities: coordinate harvest, pack and record
keeping, tractor cultivation,, general farm work:
greenhouse, transplanting, feld work, picking,
marketing and delivery. Qualifcations: two seasons
farm work including tractor experience, must be
organized, self motivated with good communication
skills, Spanish speaking helpful, Educational Oppor-
tunity: CRAFT farmer training program. Contact:
Willy Denner or Claudia Kenny, Little Seed Gar-
dens, Lseed2002@yahoo.com, 518-392-0063
Seeking Market Gardener, Jaffrey, NH. One acre
plus organic space available for an energetic market
gardener this coming season. Must have at least 2
years experience in gardening. Consultation avail-
able if needed. This is an opportunity to develop
your own business in conjunction with others.
The goal is to provide high intensive, sustainable,
organic, year round produce. Call Svea Johnson,
978-369-3624
Couple with young family and 2 draft horses
looking for house to rent with land in No. Central
Massachusetts. Hoping for opportunity to raise live-
stock, grow food. Our skills include farming, home
repair, and renovation. Could pay rent or barter for
part. 978-724-3561
On-site permaculture consult-athon led by Ethan
Roland of Appleseed Permaculture in Bedford, MA.
This event will begin with an introduction of some
core principles in the morning and then explore how
they play out though the day at two different homes.
Learning about design and seeing basic permacul-
ture solutions applied will demystify the process of
design and empower people to do there own design
work. Saturday, June 7, 2008, 2 Glenridge Dr.,
Bedford, MA 9:30-12:30 and 2-5 $20 per half day,
$35 full day (NOFA Members $15/half day, $25/
full day) Information: Ethan Roland 518-610-1375
Registration: Linda Ugelow 781-275-1425
Join the Pioneer Valley Seed Collective for a Seed
Saving Celebration on Sunday, March 16 at the
Montague Grange in Montague, MA. Seed-sav-
ing, once an essential skill passed from generation
to generation, is almost a lost art. By restoring our
seed, we can help to restore heritage food and farm-
ing traditions in our community. The event begins
at 1 PM, and culminates with a potluck at 5 PM.
There will be a series of workshops, as well as a
seed swap. The cost is $5 - $10 (sliding scale). For
more information, contact Suzanne Webber (413)
367-2281 or visit www.growseed.org
For Sale: Vegetable production and farm stand re-
lated items, Old Chatham, NY. Three sloped display
stands with chalkboard backs, 8 L x 33 D x 64 H
(each $125) Ten painted display boxes (ea $3-5)
Portable metal step shelf that accepts 3 boards ($35)
Two custom fabric Open fags, 2x5 (ea $75)
48 Colman greens harvester ($105) Glaser wheel
hoe with cultivator and offset ($180) Tissue paper
in cinnamon, mulberry, sage, teal, waxed green (ea
$15) Five 2x4 corded forescent fxtures (ea $30)
Assorted pots, plug fats and fats Inquire 518-
794-0716, fullbellyfarm@taconic.net
Hard-working apprentices sought for Full Moon
Farm, an established certifed organic 250-mem-
ber CSA in northern VT. Currently in Burlingtons
Intervale but moving to our new digs in Hinesburg
where we can add beef cattle, laying hens and
broilers. Several positions offered from April- Nov.
Stipend, housing, veggies. Contact Rachel or David
at (802) 863-2199 or email: davidz@together.net.
Call for the location of your
nearest wholesale distributor
Depot Street
Bradford, VT 05033
Ph. 802.222.4277
Fax 802.222.9661
info@norganics.com
www.norganics.com
Fertilizers:
Azomite
Cheep Cheep 4-3-3
Chilean Nitrate 16-0-0
Greensand
Greensand Plus 0-0-17
Kelp Meal
Natural Sulfate of Potash 0-0-51
Organic Gem 3-3-.3
Phosphate Rock 0-3-0
Phosphate Rock and Greensand Mix
Pro-Gro 5-3-4
Pro-Start 2-3-3
Stress-X Powder
Livestock Nutritionals:
Redmond Trace Mineral Conditioner, Salt
Blocks & Granular Salt
*
Pest Controls:
Horticultural Oil
PowderGard
Pyganic
Seacide
Surround
*
*Many of our products that are not OMRI listed may be allowed for use on a
certifed organic farm. Check with your certifcation representative to be sure.
EDUCATIONAL VIDEOS
FOR VEGETABLE FARMERS
High Tunnels: Using Low-Cost
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Season
Vegetable Farmers and Their
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Vegetable Farmers and Their
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Farmers and Their Innovative
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To order, send your name, mailing address, and
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*these videos also available as VHS tapes,
$5 each includes postage
www.uvm.edu/sustainableagriculture
Th e Na t u r a l Fa r me r
S p r i n g , 2 0 0 8 6
News
Notes
compiled by Jack Kittredge
Five Killed in Manure Pit Accident
In July a Virginia farmer entered a manure pit to un-
clog a transfer pipe. He was overcome by methane
and lack of oxygen. Subsequent attempts to rescue
him brought the same fate to a farm employee, and
then the farmers wife and two children. This trage-
dy underscores the fact that in a closed area methane
will displace air and can quickly suffocate. It can
also explode in the presence of a fame or spark.
source: The Virginia Biological Farmer, Third
Quarter, 2007
Vermont House Passes Bill Allowing Growing of
Agricultural Hemp
The Vermont House of Representatives has passed
the Hemp for Vermont bill, by a 127 to 9 vote.
You can read the fnal bill at: http://www.ruralver-
mont.org/archives/003557.html
source: Rural Vermont press release, February 7,
2008
Cows Up to 8 Years Old Now Allowed from
Canada
As of November, 2007, the USDA is allowing cattle
up to 8 years old to enter the USA from Canada.
Previously, the limit had been 2.5 years of age.
Consumers Union says this puts Americans at risk
of Mad Cow Disease since fve Canadian cattle
born after 1999 have been detected with the disease.
Currently in the US one in ten thousand slaughtered
cattle are tested for it.
source: Acres, USA, January, 2008
Microwave Cooking Speeds Debilitation?
A small Swiss study suggest that a family fed organ-
ic vegetables which were frozen, defrosted, and then
cooked in a microwave suffered market increases in
serum cholesterol and leukocytes not present in the
blood of a control group. The researchers posit that
microwave energy may destroy bacteria which serve
as anti-infection factors.
source: Acres, USA, February, 2008
Study fnds pesticide residues in childrens urine
and saliva
A study published online in the Environmental
Health Perspectives found that the urine and saliva
of Seattle-area children eating a variety of conven-
tional foods from area groceries contained biologi-
cal markers of organophosphates pesticides. When
the same children ate organic fruits, vegetables and
juices, signs of pesticides were not found. The
transformation is extremely rapid, said Chensheng
Lu, the principal author of the study. Once you
switch from conventional food to organic, the pesti-
cides (malathion and chlorpyrifos) that we can mea-
sure in the urine disappears. The level returns imme-
diately when you go back to the conventional diets,
said Lu, a professor at Emory Universitys School of
Public Health and a leading authority on pesticides
and children. The community has double the median
national income, but the wealth of Mercer Island
made no difference in the outcome, he said. We are
confdent that if we did the same study in poor com-
munities, we would get the same results, he said.
The study is being repeated in Georgia.
source: Seattle PI, January 30, 2008, http://seattle-
pi.nwsource.com/local/349263_pesticide30.html
Research Proposals Invited on Organic Fruit
Funding is now available to support research and
education on the topic of organic fruit. Research
must be conducted on certifed organic land and
farmers must be involved in all the projects.
Farmers may submit project proposals. For more
information, visit the Organic Farming Research
Foundation website www.ofrf.org or contact Jane
Sooby, organic research specialist, at jane@ofrf.org
or 831-426-6606. The deadline is July 15, 2008.
source: OFRF press release, November 14, 2007
Suit Challenges GE Beets
A coalition of farmers, food safety advocates, and
conservation groups have fled suit in federal court
challenging the deregulation of herbicide-tolerant
Roundup Ready sugar beets by the Animal and
Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) of the
U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA). Attorneys
from the Center for Food Safety and Earthjustice
are representing plaintiffs Organic Seed Alliance,
Sierra Club, High Mowing Seeds, and the Center for
Food Safety in the lawsuit, which seeks a thorough
assessment of environmental, health, and associated
economic impacts of the deregulation as required by
federal law.
This spring, commercial sugar beet farmers
in the western United States will begin planting
Roundup Ready sugar beets, which are genetically
engineered (GE) to be resistant to Monsantos herbi-
cide Roundup. GE sugar beets are wind pollinated,
and there is a strong possibility that pollen from
Roundup Ready sugar beets could contaminate non-
GE sugar beets and important food crops such as
chard, and red and yellow beets (or table beets).
Such biological contamination would also be dev-
astating to organic farmers, who face debilitating
market losses if their crops are contaminated by a
GE variety.
source: Center for Food Safety press release,
January 22, 2008
Veggies Reduce Risk of Macular Degeneration
Risk of age-related macular degeneration is re-
duced by consuming high levels of plant pigments
lutein and zeaxanthin, according to a study in the
September issue of Archives of Ophthalmology. The
pigments are present in yellow and dark leafy veg-
etables.
source: In Good Tilth, November/December, 2007
Organic Valley Introduces Pasture Butter
The coop will be marketing year-round a butter
made only during the months of intensive pasturing.
It was distributed by Whole Foods, Wild Oats, and
other outlets beginning in February, 2008. The prod-
uct was released because many customers believed
summer butter was exceptionally healthy.
source: Organic Business News, January, 2008

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NAIS Presses Forward
The USDAs National Animal Identifcation System
Business Plan makes clear the agencys plans for
assigning premise identifcation numbers and mov-
ing forward with individual animal identifcation.
Despite claims that the system is voluntary, the
rules included in the Business Plan effectively re-
quire all premises and all animals to be in the sys-
tem. By February 2008, USDA will publish a rule
rolling all mandatory disease control program num-
bers, including those for Brucellosis, Tuberculosis,
Pseudo Rabies, Scrapie and Avian Infuenza
programs, into a numbering system that will be
NAIS-compliant. Because a uniform animal iden-
tifcation numbering system is needed to make the
NAIS successful, we do intend that, in the future,
only the ``840 AIN will be recognized for offcial
use, reads a passage in the July 18, 2007 Federal
Register entry on Final Rule for AINs (Animal
Identifcation Numbers).
NAIS adds a level of documentation, con-
trol and cost that will discourage small farmers and
fock owners from continuing their work. Hobbyists,
backyarders, what is left of the traditional fam-
ily farm, and niche markets will all be negatively
impacted by NAIS, as will our nations tradition of
liberty, said Craig Russell, president of the Society
for Preservation of Poultry Antiquities.
source: January 23 press release from the Society
for Preservation of Poultry Antiquities
European Group on Ethics Says No to Clones
The European Group on Ethics, an agency of the
European Commission, has doubts as to whether the
cloning of animals is ethical and sees no convincing
arguments to justify the production of food from them
or their offspring. The opinion, based on the current
level of suffering and poor health of cloned animals,
was issued at the request of Commission President
Barroso after the US Food and Drug Administration
(FDA) announced it was considering authorizing
food products derived from clones. The Opinion is
accessible at http://ec.europa.eu/european_group_
ethics/index_en.htm
source: Center for Food Safety press release,
January 17, 2008
Organic Trade Association: Organic Will Not
Include Food From Cloned Animals
The Organic Trade Association (OTA) has reiterated
that meat, milk and other products produced from
cloned animals will not be able to be sold as organic
in the United States. OTA issued the reassurance
after the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
announced its conclusion that foods from cloned
animals and their offspring are as safe as those pro-
duced from traditionally bred animals. The national
organic standards enforced by the U.S. Department
of Agriculture require that organisms be developed
and grown by systems that must be compatible
with natural conditions and processes-including
the breeding and raising of animals for meat and
for dairy or other animal production. Cloning as a
production method is incompatible with the Organic
Foods Production Act (OFPA) and is prohibited un-
der the National Organic Program regulations. Thus,
animals produced using cloning technology are in-
compatible with national organic standards and can-
not be considered organic.
source: OTA press release, January 15, 2008
California Bill Would Require Labels on All
Foods from Cloned Animals
Dissatisfed with the Food and Drug
Administrations (FDAs) controversial announce-
ment that milk and meat from cloned animals are
safe for sale to the public, California State Senator
Carol Migden has introduced a bill requiring all
food products from cloned animals and their off-
spring to display clear and prominent labeling.
Public opinion clearly and consistently calls for
food labeling. Most recently, a 2007 national sur-
vey conducted by Consumers Union found that
89 percent of Americans want to see cloned foods
labeled. Sixty-nine percent said that they have con-
cerns about cloned meat and dairy products in the
food supply. Last year Senator Migden authored
a similar bill (SB 63) that was passed by the en-
tire California legislature before being vetoed by
Governor Schwarzenegger.
source: Consumers Union press release, January
24, 2008
Soil Association Bans Nanomaterials
The Soil Association one of the worlds pioneers
of organic agriculture has announced that it is ban-
ning human-made nanomaterials from the organic
cosmetics, foods and textiles that it certifes. In its
newly published standard the Soil Association bans
the use of human-made nanomaterials whose basic
particle size is less than 125nm and whose mean
particle size is less than 200nm. While the Soil
Associations ban only affects organic production
for goods certifed in the UK, other organic certifers
worldwide are expected to follow suit.
Nanoparticles are small particles of chemi-
cals where at least one dimension is less than 100
nanometer (nm). Currently they are used in cos-
metics to deliver active chemicals deeper into the
skin and some nutrient supplements for enhanced
absorption. They are also being developed for use in
some foods (such as a low fat mayonnaise where the
suspended oil droplets are only made of a thin shell
of oil, rather then entire droplets of oil) and pharma-
ceuticals. There are over 500 manufacturer-identi-
fed consumer products on the market that contain
nanomaterials. However, since manufacturers are
not required to disclose the presence of nano-scale
materials, its virtually impossible for people to
make fully informed choices.
There is little scientifc understanding, the
announcement states, about how these substances
affect living organisms, but initial studies show
negative effects. Three years ago, scientists advised
the Government that the release of nanoparticles
should be avoided as far as possible. Though the
Government acknowledged the risks, no action has
been taken to impose controls. Following the pre-
cautionary approach, in line with organic principles,
the Soil Association has banned manufactured
nanoparticles as ingredients under our organic stan-
dards.
source: Soil Association press release, January 15,
2008
Th e Na t u r a l Fa r me r
S p r i n g , 2 0 0 8 8
Draft Animal Website Created
As a result of the 2007 Northeast Animal Power
Field Days, a New Website has been created to fa-
cilitate discussions about Draft Animal Power. The
website is set up as a discussion forum including a
Calendar feature, Frequently Asked Questions, and
some starter Categories and Threads of discussion.
More categories and threads will be created as the
community grows. Please Join this new community
and lets get this party started! Spread the word! Go
to: www.draftanimalpower.com and sign up - its
FREE
Codex Committee Leaning Toward Allowing GE
Food Labeling
The Codex Committee on Food Labeling working
group met in Accra, Ghana at the end of January.
The Committee is a body has been charged with
considering whether a countrys mandating labeling
of GE food should be seen as a violation of WTO
rules promoting free trade. Although prospects for
progress initially looked bleak at the start of meet-
ing, the forces for mandatory labeling achieved a
signifcant turnaround. The delegates, with US and
Canada dissenting from one paragraph, reached
agreement on a draft text that could, if adopted, pro-
vide guidance on labeling of GE/GM food and pro-
tect countries that adopt mandatory labeling.
source: Feb. 8, 2008 personal Email
Record Soybean Prices Seen for 2008 Organic
Crop
With organic soybeans already at a record high of
$21 a bushel, one group of growers is now asking
$25 from Japanese buyers. Even conventional soy-
beans are trading in futures markets at up to $12.84,
nearly twice what they were a year ago. Experts pre-
dict the crop will sell for $20 to $21 for food grade,
and $17 to $18 for feed grade beans. Organic corn
will probably range from $9 to $10 a bushel.
source: Organic Business News, January, 2008
Copenhagen World Leader in Organic Food
One in every ten food items purchased in
Copenhagen carries an organic label. The Danish
national average is 7%.
source: Agra Europe, November 16, 2007
Consumers Win on Milk Labeling
Monsanto and dairies using Posilac or rBGH, the
genetically engineered bovine growth hormone
which increases milk production but stresses cow
health, have suffered a defeat at the hands of con-
sumers and anti-GE advocates. Proposals to ban
labeling of milk from farms not using the hormone
have been defeated in Pennsylvania and Indiana.
In Indiana HB 1300, with bipartisan sponsor-
ship, passed the House Agriculture Committee 10-0
on January 22. Immediately a national coalition of
rBGH opponents linked up with Indiana activists
alerted lists in Indiana, developed and delivered a
sign-on letter with over 70 organizations and busi-
nesses, connected with rBGH-free dairies to express
opposition, and simply bombarded Indiana legisla-
tors with e-mails and phone calls protesting the
bill. In a little more than a week the sponsor, Rep.
Friend, declined to bring it to a foor vote, knowing
he didnt have the votes to pass it.
In Pennsylvania, agriculture offcials have
backed down from a similar ban on milk labels. The
ban was to take effect February 1, to the dismay of
consumer activists and many smaller dairies who
choose not to inject their cows with hormones. But
the move has been superseded by new standards is-
sued after a review by the offce of Gov. Rendell.
Rendell ordered the agency to review the policy
after consumer outcry, his spokesman said. The only
major concession given was that processors are now
required to include the FDA disclaimer that there
is no signifcant difference between rBGH and
rBGH-free milk.
source: January 30 email to GE Activists, http://
www.gmwatch.org/archive2.asp?arcid=8688
USDA Gets Earful on Leafy Greens
Over 3500 people objected to the USDAs proposal
to adopt a marketing agreement on leafy greens
that would entail fencing out livestock and wildlife
from felds, canceling conservation projects and re-
moval of grassed waterways to create sterile zones.
Although such a marketing agreement would be
voluntary, growers are afraid it would set a prec-
edent to which buyers would then require sellers to
adhere, leading to a food safety arms race.
source: Growing for Market, January, 2008
California GE Bill Passes State Assembly
AB 541, which could become Californias frst
state law protecting farmers from the hazards of
genetically engineered crops, passed out of the full
Assembly on January 29 with a vote of 49-12. It had
the support of the California Farm Bureau as well as
California Certifed Organic Farmers, Community
Alliance with Family Farmers, the National Farmers
Union and many food safety and environmental or-
ganizations. The newly amended bill would provide
for:
1. Protection from patent infringement lawsuits for
farmers unknowingly contaminated by GE crops.
Currently, farmers with crops that become con-
taminated by patented seeds or pollen have been
the target of such lawsuits without clear recourse or
defense.
2. The establishment of a mandatory crop sampling
protocol to be used by patent holders when investi-
gating farmers they believe may have violated pat-
ents or seed contracts. This protocol would require
the farmers written permission for sampling, and
provide for a state agriculture offcial to accompany
the patent holder during the sampling and collect
duplicate samples for independent verifcation if re-
quested by either party.
I am very pleased that the stakeholders on
this issue have found a way to address one of the
issues related to genetic contamination of crops,
stated Assembly Member and sponsor Jared
Huffman. While there is still work to do on other
issues concerning genetically engineered food, AB
541 would be an important step in establishing basic
protections for Californias farmers. The bill will
now move to the Senate for consideration.
source: Genetic Engineering Policy Project email,
January 29, 2008
Honey Beats Cough Suppressant
A Penn State study compared the effectiveness of a
little buckwheat honey before bedtime with no treat-
ment and with treatment with dextromethorphan
(DM), a common cough suppressant found in many
over-the-counter remedies. Honey provided the
greatest relief of symptions concluded researcher
Dr. Ian Paul.
source: Acres, USA, February, 2008
Th e Na t u r a l Fa r me r
S p r i n g , 2 0 0 8 9
Lawsuit Challenges Federal Approval of
Genetically Engineered Beets
A suit fled in federal court challenges the deregulation
of herbicide-tolerant Roundup Ready sugar beets
by the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service
(APHIS) of the U.S. Department of Agriculture
(USDA). Attorneys are representing plaintiffs
Earthjustice, Organic Seed Alliance, Sierra Club,
High Mowing Organic Seeds, and the Center for
Food Safety in the lawsuit, which seeks a thorough
assessment of environmental, health, and associated
economic impacts of the deregulation as required by
federal law.
This spring, commercial sugar beet farmers in
the western U.S. will begin planting Roundup Ready
sugar beets, which are genetically engineered (GE)
to be resistant to Monsantos herbicide Roundup.
Sugar beet seeds are primarily grown in Oregons
Willamette Valley, also an important seed growing
area for crops closely related to sugar beets, such as
organic chard and table beets. The groups contend
that wind-pollinated GE sugar beets will inevitably
cross-pollinate with related crops being grown in
close proximity, contaminating conventional sugar
beets and organic chard and table beet crops. Such
biological contamination would also be devastating
to organic farmers, who face debilitating market loss-
es if their crops are contaminated by a GE variety.
source: Center for Food Safety press release, January
23, 2008
Kraft Shakes up Dairy Market, Offers rBGH-
free Cheese
Kraft Foods Inc. says it will start selling a line of
cheese made with milk from cows free of rBGH by
June. Some consumer groups, citing scientifc stud-
ies, say the production-boosting hormone can cause
cancer, despite assurances from U.S. food regulators
that it is safe. Such a move by the nations biggest
food company could force rivals to offer products
free of artifcial hormones.
source: http://chicagobusiness.com/cgi-bin/mag/ar-
ticle.pl?article_id=29091, January 12, 2008
Unwanted Immune Responses Triggered by GM
Pharma Corn
Minute quantities of a bacterial protein inserted
in corn has been found to cause unwanted im-
mune responses in mice. The authors of a paper in
Environmental Health Perspectives comment, The
results indicate that special care will be needed with
transgenic corn to reduce exposure to workers and
the public if this protein is used commercially in
corn or other food crops, to avoid unwanted immune
responses in people
source: http://www.gmwatch.org/archive2.
asp?arcid=8675
MRSA and Pigs
Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus is a
deadly bacteria which killed nearly 19 thousand
Americans in 2005. It was assumed to be contracted
in hospitals, but a new study printed in Veterinary
Microbiology shows that pigs and pig farmers com-
monly carry the disease. The greatest incidence,
by far, occurred on farms where large amounts of
antibiotics were used in pig feed. Many doctors are
urging that we limit routine antibiotic use in animal
feed to preserve useful medicines for human dis-
eases.
source: Acres, USA, January, 2008
Eco Labels Abound
Consumers Reports website identifes 17 different
food-related labeling programs, and several dozen
marketing terms in common use now. It dubs 20 of
these not meaningful. One private company ac-
tive in the business, Scientifc Certifcation Systems,
has developed a label for farmers, handlers, and
processors who want to lay claim to a Sustainable
Agriculture label. There are labels for Bird
Friendly, Certifed Naturally Grown, Certifed
Flavor Rich, Salmon-Safe, and Grass-Fed
among others.
source: Growing For Market, December, 2007
California Bans Raw Milk
A new state law in California will make it impos-
sible to sell raw milk after March, 2008. The law
says that raw milk must meet the same standard as
pasteurized no more than 10 coliform bacteria
per milliliter. Since pasteurization kills virtually
all the bacteria, and consumers purchase raw milk
precisely because they want the live bacteria and
enzymes present, this amounts to a ban on the sale
of the product. The two raw milk dairies in the state
are going to court to try to prevent implementation
of the ban.
source: Acres, USA, February, 2008
Nitrite and Nitrate in Vegetables Help Fight
Heart Damage
Recent studies show that nitrite and nitrate, previ-
ously viewed as toxic because they were thought
to form carcinogenic nitrosamines, in fact limit the
damage from reperfusion the return of blood to
oxygen-starved heart muscle following a heart at-
tack. Europeans consume almost 100 times the ni-
trite and nitrate of Americans, and this may well ex-
plain why the Mediterranean diet is so heart-healthy
despite a high fat content.
source: Growing For Market, December, 2007
Food Miles and C0
2
While the local food movement has talked about
food miles the distance food travels from farm
to consumer research shows that environmental
eating is no so easy. Rich Pirog of the Leopold
Center for Sustainable Agriculture says: What one
would want to do is look at your carbon footprint
across a whole food supply chain. A study in Great
Britain, for instance, show that roses imported from
Kenya caused less carbon dioxide than those grown
in Holland. The Kenyan roses were feld-grown
while and those in Holland required a heated, light-
ed greenhouse.
source: Growing for Market, January, 2008
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Special Supplement on
Manure and Organic Farming
by Mark Shwartz
from The Stanford Report, March 15, 2006
Organic farming has long been touted as an
environmentally friendly alternative to conventional
agriculture. A new study in the Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences (PNAS) provides
strong evidence to support that claim.
Writing in the March 6 online edition of PNAS,
Stanford University graduate student Sasha B.
Kramer and her colleagues found that fertilizing
apple trees with synthetic chemicals produced more
adverse environmental effects than feeding them
with organic manure or alfalfa. The intensifcation
of agricultural production over the past 60 years and
the subsequent increase in global nitrogen inputs
have resulted in substantial nitrogen pollution and
Composted Manure as Eco-Fertilizer
ecological damage, Kramer and her colleagues
write. The primary source of nitrogen pollution
comes from nitrogen-based agricultural fertilizers,
whose use is forecasted to double or almost triple by
2050.
Nitrogen compounds from fertilizer can enter the
atmosphere and contribute to global warming, adds
Harold A. Mooney, the Paul S. Achilles Professor of
Environmental Biology at Stanford and co-author
of the study. Nitrogen compounds also enter our
watersheds and have effects quite distant from the
felds in which they are applied, as for example in
contaminating water tables and causing biological
dead zones at the mouths of major rivers, he says.
This study shows that the use of organic versus
chemical fertilizers can play a role in reducing these
adverse effects.
Nitrogen treatments
The PNAS study was conducted in an established
apple orchard on a 4-acre site in the Yakima
Valley of central Washington, one of the premiere
apple-growing regions in the United States. Some
trees used in the experiment had been raised with
conventional synthetic fertilizers. Others were
grown organically without pesticides, herbicides or
artifcial fertilization. A third group was raised by a
method called integrated farming, which combines
organic and conventional agricultural techniques.
Conventional agriculture has made tremendous
improvements in crop yield but at large costs to
the environment, the authors write. In response
to environmental concerns, organic agriculture has
become an increasingly popular option.
During the yearlong experiment, organically grown
trees were fed either composted chicken manure
or alfalfa meal, while conventionally raised plants
were given calcium nitrate, a synthetic fertilizer
widely used by commercial apple growers. Trees
raised using the integrated system were given a
blend of equal parts chicken manure and calcium
nitrate. Each tree was fertilized twice, in October
and May, and given the same amount of nitrogen at
both feedings no matter what the source - alfalfa,
chicken manure, calcium nitrate or the manure/
calcium nitrate blend.
Groundwater contamination
One goal of the PNAS experiment was to
compare how much excess nitrogen leached into
the soil using the four fertilizer treatments - one
conventional, two organic (manure and alfalfa) and
one integrated. When applied to the soil, nitrogen
fertilizers release or break down into nitrates
- chemical compounds that plants need to build
proteins. However, excess nitrates can percolate
through the soil and contaminate surface and
groundwater supplies. Besides having detrimental
impacts on aquatic life, high nitrate levels in
drinking water can cause serious illness in humans,
particularly small children. According to the PNAS
study, nearly one in 10 domestic wells in the United
States sampled between 1993 and 2000 had nitrate
concentrations that exceeded the Environmental
Protection Agencys drinking water standards.
To measure nitrate levels during the experiment,
water was collected in resin bags buried about
40 inches below the trees and then analyzed in
the laboratory. The results were dramatic. We
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Th e Na t u r a l Fa r me r
S p r i n g , 2 0 0 8 12
measured nitrate leaching over an entire year and
found that it was 4.4 to 5.6 times higher in the
conventional treatment than in the two organic
treatments, with the integrated treatment in
between, says John B. Reganold, the Regents
Professor of Soil Science at Washington State
University and co-author of the study.
Nitrogen gas emissions
The research team also compared the amount of
nitrogen gas that was released into the atmosphere
by the four treatments. Air samples collected in
the orchard after the fall and spring fertilizations
revealed that organic and integrated soils emitted
larger quantities of an environmentally benign
gas called dinitrogen (N2) than soils treated with
conventional synthetic fertilizer. One explanation
for this disparity is that the organic and integrated
soils contained active concentrations of denitrifying
bacteria - naturally occurring microbes that
convert excess nitrates in the soil into N2 gas.
However, denitrifer microbial communities were
much smaller and far less active and effcient in
conventionally treated soils.
The research team also measured emissions of
nitrous oxide (N2O) - a potent greenhouse gas
that is 300 times more effective at heating the
atmosphere than carbon dioxide gas, the leading
cause of global warming. The results showed
that nitrous oxide emissions were similar among
the four treatments. We found that higher gas
emissions from organic and integrated soils do
not result in increased production of harmful
nitrous oxide but rather enhanced emission of non-
detrimental dinitrogen, Reganold says. These
results demonstrate that organic and integrated
fertilization practices support more active and
effcient denitrifer microbial communities, which
may shift some of the potential nitrate leaching
losses in the soil into harmless dinitrogen gas losses
in the atmosphere.
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DUNG BEETLES
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DIRT HOG:
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SMALL FARMS
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FOUNDATIONS
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production. In this single volume, the author details the
interconnections between soil chemistry, microbial life,
plants and livestock. He discusses the current problems
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#6854 $30.00
WEEDS CONTROL
WITHOUT POISONS
by Charles Walters. Low biological
activity is inherent in each weed
problem ... Each weed is keyed to
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its proliferation. So says Weeds
Control Without Poisons author
Charles Walters. Specifics on a hundred weeds, why
they grow, what soil conditions spur them on or stop
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control them without the obscene presence of poisons.
All cross-referenced by scientific and various common
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#4005 $25.00
TREATING DAIRY
COWS NATURALLY:
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Softcover, 432 pages.
#6672 $40.00
REBIRTH
OF THE SMALL
FAMILY FARM
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for starting a successful organic
farm based on the community-sup-
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middle-aged novices made a decent living on less than
two acres of land. The model explained in the book is an
updated version of the diverse market gardens/farms found
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details specific tools, techniques and how-to information.
Softcover, 64 pages.
#6288 $12.00
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Sustainable agriculture
Washington state produces more than half of the
nations apples. In 2004, the state crop was worth
about $963 million, with organically grown apples
representing between 5 and 10 percent of the total
value. But the results of the PNAS study may apply
to other high-value crops as well, according to the
authors. This study is an important contribution to
the debate surrounding the sustainability of organic
agriculture, one of the most contentious topics in
agricultural science worldwide, Reganold says.
Our fndings not only score another benefcial
point for organic agriculture but give credibility to
the middle-ground approach of integrated farming,
which uses both organic and conventional nitrogen
fertilizers and other practices. It is this middle-
ground approach that we may see more farmers
adopting than even the rapidly growing organic
approach.
Other co-authors of the PNAS study are
agroecologist Jerry D. Glover of the Land Institute
in Salina, Kan., and Brendan J. M. Bohannan,
associate professor of biological sciences at
Stanford. The study was funded by the U.S.
Department of Agriculture, the National Science
Foundation, the Land Institute and the Teresa Heinz
Environmental Science and Policy Fellowship
Program.
A backyard compost pile
Th e Na t u r a l Fa r me r
S p r i n g , 2 0 0 8 13
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Manure Handling Guide
Government of Saskatchewan
Composting is a biological process that involves the
aerobic decomposition of organic matter to produce
a humus-like product called compost. During the
composting process, heat, various gases and water
vapour are released, greatly reducing the volume
and mass of the pile.
The Composting Process
Composting is the aerobic (meaning it requires
oxygen) decomposition of organic matter that
begins with a diverse mixture of organic material.
During the composting process, micro-organisms
convert raw organic materials into a stable, humus-
like product called compost. Finished compost
generally varies from dark brown to black in colour,
and has a pleasant, earthy odour. The particles are
relatively uniform and soil-like in texture. The
proportion of humus (relatively stable, carbon-rich
Composting Solid Manure
residue) increases, and the C:N ratio decreases. The
pH (a measure of acidity or alkalinity) is close to
neutral and the cation exchange capacity (measure
of the nutrient-holding capacity) increases.
Composting generally results in a 50 to 70 per cent
reduction in volume, and a weight loss in the order
of 40 to 80 per cent. Some of the shrinkage and
weight loss is due to the transformation of loose,
bulky material into fnely textured compost and the
loss of CO2 and water to the atmosphere. During
the process, nitrogen is lost to the atmosphere
as ammonia (NH3). In addition, the greenhouse
gases carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and
nitrous oxide (N2O) are emitted. Despite some
losses, composting does retain most of the nutrients
provided by the raw material, and stores them as
stable organic compounds. While this results in
fewer nutrients being immediately available for
crop growth, composts real agronomic value lies
in the gradual release of nutrients that are slowly
converted from stable organic compounds into
available inorganic nutrients, and in its properties as
a soil amendment.
Animal Manures as Compost Material
Not all animal manures are created equal.
Differences in animal type, age, diet, bedding and
management will all affect the characteristics of
the manure. An appropriate C:N ratio and moisture
content are essential for successful composting.
Most of the research literature reports manure
characteristics as excreted, without allowing for
bedding, as there is a lot of variability in the type
and quantity of bedding. Producers should have
their manure and bedding mixtures analyzed
prior to composting to ensure that the mixtures
meet the criteria for good composting. Assuming
that bedding is present, cattle manure is a good
composting material, as it usually has suffcient
carbon and moisture content. Odour is not usually
signifcant if carbon is suffcient and the pile is
managed properly.
Poultry manure usually has a higher nitrogen
content than other animal manures, and is
moderately moist. Low C:N ratios may be an issue,
so it is important to have a laboratory check these
ratios. If carbon must be added, chopped straw,
sawdust and wood shavings are good sources.
Nitrogen loss and odour associated with ammonia
are sometimes problems when composting poultry
manure, due to the high nitrogen content and high
pH. Amendments may be needed to lower the pH.
On the other hand, poultry manure decomposes
quickly, and the high nitrogen content can result in
excellent compost with high nutrient value. Swine
manure from solid-based systems usually contains
straw and is nitrogen-rich and relatively moist.
Insuffcient bedding and a low C:N ratio will result
in odour, so it is important to ensure that the mixture
meets the criteria for good composting.
Horse manure is also a good composting material,
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and tends to be relatively dry with a high C:N ratio
due to the amount of bedding. It will compost well
and could be added to a wetter manure, like cattle
manure, if needed.
Composting Challenges
Time and Recipe
Composting is a biological process that takes time.
How much time will depend on a number of factors,
including the C:N ratio, moisture content, weather,
type of operation, management and the types of
waste being composted. The unprocessed manure
consists of livestock waste (feces and urine),
bedding material, water and feed waste. The C:N
ratio of manure depends largely on the amount and
type of bedding material in the manure. Straw and
wood shavings are usually rich in carbon and low
in nitrogen, compared to urine and feces. Producers
should have the manure and bedding analyzed for
C:N ratio, density and moisture content. Preferred
ranges are summarized in Table 1. In the event
that the C:N ratio needs to be adjusted, a recipe
(proportion of raw materials) can be calculated with
the help of a composting manual.
In general in the prairie climate, well-managed
windrows or static piles take an average of four
months to compost. More sophisticated in-vessel
systems (closed or open) may take as little as one to
four weeks to complete the composting operation.
With these systems, there is usually a one- to two-
month curing period that follows. Factors that slow
composting include a lack of moisture, high C:N
ratio, low temperatures, insuffcient aeration, large
particles and too many components that are too
resistant to decomposition.
The ultimate end-use of the compost will also
determine the length of the composting process.
If, for instance, the compost is going to be land-
applied, it can be effectively fnished and cured in
the feld following application. If the compost needs
to be very dry or stable to suit a particular market,
the composting period may have to be increased.
Temperature
Temperature is an indicator of the level of microbial
activity in the compost, and should be monitored
daily, if possible. Temperature probes can be
purchased, and should be long enough to penetrate
one-third of the way to the centre of the pile. The
compost pile starts out at ambient air temperature,
but, as micro-organisms start to multiply, the
temperature of the pile rises rapidly. The composting
process is divided into three phases: psychrophillic,
where temperatures are less than 10C; mesophillic,
where temperatures are between 10C and 40C; and
thermophillic, where temperatures exceed 60C.
Compost should be turned if the temperature in the
pile drops below 30C, which indicates that there
is little microbial activity, or if the temperature
rises above 60C, which may result in the death
of composting bacteria. A sustained temperature
of 55C for 14 days will result in the destruction
of most pathogens and weed seeds (laboratory
confrmation is recommended). However, failure
to achieve sustained high temperatures can result
in fy and odour problems. Compost temperatures
will generally decline if moisture or oxygen is
insuffcient or if the carbon source is exhausted.
Some average frequencies for turning are given in
Table 2, but the best approach is to monitor the piles
frequently to determine activity.
Moisture
Moisture is essential to nourish the composting
bacteria. Mixtures that are too dry will stop the
composting process. Piles that are too dense and
wet can quickly become smelly and fy-ridden.
Experience has shown that the composting process
slows when the moisture content drops below 40
per cent. Moisture levels above 65 per cent result
in water displacing much of the air in the pore
spaces in the compost pile. This condition limits
air movement and results in an anaerobic (lacking
oxygen) pile. Maintaining adequate moisture in the
preferred 50 to 60 per cent moisture range can be a
challenge. The high temperatures associated with
the mesophillic stage of composting often result in
signifcant moisture loss, and it may be necessary to
add water to the piles in order to maintain adequate
moisture. Alternatively, piles that are too wet may
require the addition of a dry amendment like straw
or wood shavings.
Moisture levels can also change throughout the
composting process as water is added in the form of
rain or snow, or evaporates from the pile. Generally,
the moisture content of the pile decreases during
composting, since more water evaporates from
the pile than is added. The pile should be kept
thoroughly damp without being waterlogged.
A hand test is perhaps the simplest method of
determining moisture. The material is too wet if
water can be squeezed out of a handful, and too
dry if the material does not feel moist to the touch.
Ideally, a handful of the material should be able
to be squeezed into a ball that will stick together
yet break apart easily. Note: If using this method,
the compost should be removed from the pile
mechanically, or with a shovel, as the compost pile
can be extremely hot. Moisture probes are also
available.
Oxygen and Aeration
Composting is an aerobic process, meaning it
requires air (a minimum of fve per cent oxygen is
necessary). When oxygen falls below this level, the
pile will become anaerobic. Anaerobic processes use
different bacteria, are slower than aerobic processes
and produce compounds that will cause odours.
Odour is a good indicator that it is time to turn or
aerate a compost pile. Turning or remixing the pile
will add oxygen. In more sophisticated systems,
such as aerated static piles or concrete in-vessel
systems, air is forced or sucked through the compost
mixture by a blower.
Particle Size, Porosity, Structure and Texture
Particle size, shape and consistency will affect
the composting process by infuencing aeration.
Essentially, composting will proceed more quickly
if you have larger, relatively uniform particles
to ensure that there are air spaces throughout the
pile. Usually, mixtures of manure and straw are
suffciently bulky to compost successfully. In some
cases where the compost materials are very dense,
a bulking agent or amendment might be required
to ensure that there is enough oxygen for proper
composting. Depending on the type of bulking
agent, it may have to be mixed or ground to the
appropriate size before being added to the compost
pile.
The structure of the compost pile is important: good
structure prevents the loss of porosity (air space)
in the pile. As the amount of surface area increases
with the decrease in particle size, the rate of aerobic
digestion also increases and decomposition proceeds
more quickly. However, if particles are too small or
lack structure, the process can be slowed. Particle
sizes of between 0.5 to 5.0 centimetres are usually
adequate for good composting. A pile that heats
successfully continues to compost after turning, and
is not overly smelly. This is usually indicative of
adequate food and oxygen for microbial activity.
Curing
In addition to the time required for composting,
the amount of time required for curing and
storage must also be considered. The pile is ready
for curing when turning no longer results in an
increase in temperature. Curing is the cool part
of the process, where fungi digest the carbons not
degraded during composting and further stabilize
the nutrients. This process takes time (one to two
months), so the piles should not be disturbed during
that period. Compost is considered fnished based
on a number of characteristics that are related to
its use and handling. These characteristics are
summarized in Table 7. Once cured, the compost
can be screened, if necessary, to remove any non-
degradable compounds, and should then be analyzed
to determine nutrient value. The compost may need
to be stored for a period of time, so storage space
should be considered when calculating the amount
of land required for a composting site.
Composting Methods
Manure is generally composted in machine-turned
windrows, in aerated windrows (called static piles)
or in in-vessel systems. The fnished compost is
usually cured outdoors in windrows. Regardless of
Th e Na t u r a l Fa r me r
S p r i n g , 2 0 0 8 16
the process, composting requires space. Some of the
more common methods for composting are:
Machine-Turned Windrow: This method involves
the arrangement of the compost mixture in long,
narrow piles or windrows that are periodically
turned to maintain aerobic conditions. The size
and shape of the windrow will depend on the
type of machinery used for turning and on the
characteristics of the pile. Typically, manure
windrows are one to two metres high, three to six
metres wide. In winter, larger piles will tend to lose
less heat, as they are better insulated.
Aerated Windrow or Static Piles: Aeration can
be either passive or active. In passively aerated
static piles, the material is usually aerated by a
system of perforated pipes placed in the windrow.
In actively aerated windrows, the material is
stacked on perforated plastic pipe or tubing through
which air is drawn. Actively aerated windrows will
compost more quickly. Although no turning of the
material is required in either system, occasional
turning is still recommended to redistribute moisture
and expose fresh material to microbial activity.
In-vessel: This process involves confning materials
in a building (often long concrete channels),
container or closed vessel. There is a variety of
in-vessel composting methods, most of which rely
on forced air and mechanical turning. Although
fast, this method can be quite costly, but when a
high quality of compost is required for a particular
market, the automated system allows for the greatest
control over the composting process.
Selecting a Composting Method
Selecting a composting method involves
determining what method will ft best with your
particular operation and needs. Consideration must
be given to the level of management that can be
applied, the availability of equipment and labour,
the space requirements for the material and access,
the quality of the compost required, and potential
issues due to climate and the cost.
Can You Sort-of Compost Manure?
Composting, as a process, is a science, and compost
is the result of the complete process. Simply placing
manure in a pile does not result in the conditions
necessary for active aerobic composting. Passive
composting is sometimes confused with stockpiling,
but it is generally used for materials like leaves
that have high porosity (air space). Proper passive
composting can be done with piles or windrows, and
involves occasional turning to increase aeration. The
process is very slow and may produce odours due to
poor aeration between turnings. There is, however,
an option for the producer who simply wants to do
something within his existing manure management
system to reduce manure volume and have a more
consistent product for feld application. If the
manure is in the pen, simply scraping and mounding
it in the pen will aerate the manure and result in
some decomposition. The end result will be less
volume and a more consistent product, especially if
this activity is repeated a few times before cleanout.
Turning a stockpile with a front-end loader a couple
of times before spreading will have a similar effect.
Comparing Compost to Manure
As a rule of thumb, composting may result in a
volume reduction of 50 per cent due to water loss
and particle size reduction. Also, nitrogen will be
lost during composting, but a similar amount of
dry matter will be lost, so the compost will still
have a similar concentration of nitrogen as when
you started. Unlike nitrogen, phosphorus is not lost
during the composting process, and increases in
concentration.
Predicting the fnal nutrient content of composted
manure is diffcult. Many factors - including the
type of livestock, the amount and type of bedding,
the diet and age of animals and the composting
process - will infuence the nutrient content of
the compost. Accurate nutrient values should
be obtained with a laboratory analysis. This is
important information for calculating compost
application rates.
Tables 4 and 5 and the accompanying diagram are
examples that illustrate the difference between
compost and unprocessed manure. Note the
reduction in volume, the concentration of nutrients
and the differences in transporting manure versus
compost.
Essentially, composting will reduce the number of
truckloads required to move a tonne of manure.


Site Selection
Good site selection is very important for the
success of a composting site. Producers will need
to consider soil type, topography, location of water
sources, access for handling and hauling, distance
from neighbours, wind direction and aesthetics.
Some sites may be suitable for composting with
only minimal development, whereas other sites may
require more engineering. Operators of facilities
that require year-round pen cleaning and stockpiling
have to ensure that the stockpile is contained or
covered, if necessary.
To minimize handling, the composting facility
should be located close to the manure source. Even
well-managed compost sites generate odour, at
least initially, so wind direction and proximity to
neighbours should be considered when locating the
compost site. Topography is also important. Avoid
locating compost sites on slopes where runoff may
be a problem or in depressions where the compost
may become saturated with runoff. Generally
speaking, the composting and curing sites should be
located on clay or till subsurface soils. The compost
site should be slightly sloped to allow drainage.
Runoff should remain on the property naturally or
retention berms can be constructed. In areas with
high rainfall, composting facilities may need to
be covered in order to prevent excessive runoff or
leaching. Proper siting and design will minimize
any impact from runoff or leachate on ground
and surface waters. Producers should contact the
appropriate government department to determine the
requirements for developing a compost site as part
of a manure management plan.
The type of composting method chosen will
infuence the amount of space required. The
windrow method requires the most land; aerated
windrows or static piles would follow, with in-
vessel systems requiring the least amount of space.
The pile dimensions will also affect the land
requirement. Large piles with low surface-area-to-
volume ratios require less land but are more diffcult
to manage, and will potentially require larger
and more specialized equipment. Allow space for
stockpiles, berms, runoff containment structures,
Th e Na t u r a l Fa r me r
S p r i n g , 2 0 0 8 17
curing and storage. Curing areas will generally
require half as much space as composting areas.
Storage requirements will depend on the length of
time that the compost will remain at the site. When
designing the site, remember to leave enough room
to operate equipment in and around the piles. Allow
for additional space if a buffer is desired for trees or
some other visual barrier.
Determining the Required Area and Layout of
the Composting Pad
Composting Pad: The area required for the
composting pad depends on the volume of material
handled, pile/windrow shape and length, and the
space needed to maneuver equipment.
Curing and Storage: The space requirement for
curing and storage is based upon the amount of
organic material composted, the pile height and
spacing, and the length of time the compost is cured
and stored. The volume of compost produced is
generally about half the original material being
composted. When calculating the area required
for curing, allow for the movement and loading of
vehicles.
How much space do you need for composting and
curing?
Table 6 gives some estimates of the area required for
composting and curing manure from various animal
species. The estimates assume the following:
windrows are 6 ft. (1.8 m) high and 12 ft. (3.7 m)
wide;
windrows are grouped in pairs side by side with 2
ft. (0.6 m) between them;
pairs of windrows are spaced 20 ft. (6 m) apart;
10 ft. (3 m) is allowed to maneuver around the
piles;
the curing area occupies of the space of the
composting area; and
a front-end loader turns and moves the compost.
These tables are examples. The actual area required
will depend on the volume of manure, frequency of
clean-out, frequency of aeration, height and width of
windrows, spacing of windrows, type of equipment,
height of the curing pile and lay-out of composting
and curing areas.
Compost Quality
Compost quality can be determined through
laboratory tests. Good compost is characterized
by a low moisture content, black to dark brown
colour, earthy odour, high tilth (due to texture and
particle size), and consistent and stable nutrient
concentrations. Age, storage conditions and raw
materials will also affect the fnal quality of the
product.
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, the
provincial and territorial governments - with the
assistance of the Canadian Council of Ministers
of the Environment (CCME)-and the Bureau
de Normalization du Quebec - on behalf of the
Standards Council of Canada - have developed a
set of compost quality standards. The standards
are based on four criteria: product safety and
quality, maturity, foreign matter, and trace elements
and pathogens. There is little variation between
standards, and they all adhere to the same standard
for product safety.
Saskatchewan follows the CCME guidelines as
outlined in Table 7.
Resources
Composting Council of Canada . 1999. Setting the
Standard: A Summary of Compost Standards in
Canada . Located at www.compost.org/standard.
html
Canadian Organic Growers Inc. 1992. Manure
Management and Composting : COG Organic Field
Crop Handbook . Ecological Agriculture Projects ,
McGill University (Macdonald Campus), Ste-Anne-
de-Bellevue, QC, H9X 3V9, Canada. Located at
http://eap.mcgill.ca/MagRack/COG/COGHandbook/
COGHandbook_1_4.htm
Fonstad, T.A, Leonard, Dr. J. 2001. Evaluation and
Demonstration of Deads Composting as an Option
for Dead Animal Management in Saskatchewan
. Department of Agricultural and Bioresource
Engineering, University of Saskatchewan ,
Saskatoon , Canada .
Larney, F.J., Freeze, B.S., Olson, A.F. and Heigh,
J.T. 1999. Transporting nutrients in manure and
compost. Abstract in Growing with Compost
Conference, Olds College , Olds, AB. April 7-9,
1999 .
Larney, F.J., Yanke, L. Jay, Miller, James J. and
McAllister, Tim A. Fate of Coliform Bacteria in
Composted Beef Cattle Feedlot Manure in Journal
of Environmental Quality: 32:1508-1515 (2003).
Krider, James N. (editor). 1992. Agricultural
Waste Management Field Handbook. U.S. Soil
Conservation Service. Washington , D.C.
Paul, Dr. J. 1996. Composting Agricultural Waste.
Proceedings Manure Management Symposium,
Winnipeg , Manitoba .
Rynk, R.(editor). 1992. On-Farm Composting
Handbook. NRAS-54. Northeast Regional
Agricultural Engineering Service. 152 Riley-Robb
Hall, Cooperative Extension, Ithaca , NY . 14853-
5701
Saskatchewan Agriculture and Food. 1997.
Guidelines for Establishing and Managing
Livestock Operations.
Tompkins, D. K., Chaw, D., and Abiola, A.T. 1998.
Effect of windrow composting on weed seed
germination and viability in Compost Science and
Utilization, Winter, Vol. 6, No. 1, pp 30-34.
Th e Na t u r a l Fa r me r
S p r i n g , 2 0 0 8 18
Germans are being forced to search everywhere for
new sources of powereven in their own pastures.
by Heinrich Hauser
Theres an old European proverb which says you
can measure the extent of a farmers prosperity by
the height of his manure pile. That saying is closer
to the truth today in Germany than it has ever been
before.
A German inventor named Harnisch has developed
a simple device which converts manure into fuel.
And this fuel is used to drive autos and tractors as
well as provide household power. The idea of using
manure as fuel is not a new one. Cow manure has
been used for this purpose for thousands of years in
India and Africa. As recently as 1912, many cities
were operating gas lanterns on sewage gas.
This new Bio-Gas Generator is essentially a septic
tank but with two additions.
One is a manure shredder through which the crude
manure passes. The second is a heater which
accelerates the fermentation of the manure. The
heater is powered by the gas but uses only about one
per cent of it.
The gas generated from the manure contains from
60 to 80 per cent methane, a fuel of higher caloric
value than gasoline. The remainder is carbon
dioxide which is fltered out in the processing. The
methane is piped directly into appliances like stoves.
Or, when used for tractors or autos, it is compressed
into steel fasks.
The generator delivers ready-to-use methane
within 12 hours after its charge. Manure of one
cow provides enough methane for average cooking
needstwo to three cubic yards.
Methane from two cows is enough to heat the
average farm house. With 20 head of cattle the
farmer can operate a tractor for 120 days!
The present German shortage of steel fasks has led
to the use of rubberized canvas bags. So, its not
a strange sight to see buses trailing huge gas bags
Auto Fuel From Cow Manure
behind them and cars which appear to be suspended
from blimps.
Cow-power research is still going on and gradually
the Germans are discovering that theres really
much more to cow manure than meets the eyeor
the nose!
This article appeared in Mechanix Illustrated,
September, 1949,
Th e Na t u r a l Fa r me r
S p r i n g , 2 0 0 8 19
by Mahdi Ebrahimi
Antibiotic resistance is a growing human health
concern. Researchers around the globe have
found antibiotics and other pharmaceuticals to be
present in surface waters and sediments, municipal
wastewater, animal manure lagoons, and underlying
groundwater. Researchers at Colorado State
University (CSU) describe a study to fnd out if
animal waste contributes to the spread of antibiotics
and antibiotic resistance genes (ARG), and if they
can be reduced by appropriate manure management
practices.
In the study researchers investigated the effects of
manure management on the levels of antibiotics and
ARG in manures. The study was conducted at two
scales. In the pilot-scale experiment, horse manure
was spiked with the antibiotics chlortetracycline,
tylosin, and monensin and compared to horse
manure that was not spiked with antibiotics to
determine the response of ARG in unacclimated
manures. In the large-scale experiment, dairy
manure and beef feedlot manure, which were
already acclimated to antibiotics, were monitored
over time.
The manures were subjected to high-intensity
management (HIM-amending with leaves and
alfalfa, watering, and turning) and low-intensity
management (LIM-no amending, watering, and
turning) for six months. During this time, the
levels of antibiotics were monitored using high-
performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)
and tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS). In
addition, two types of ARG that confer resistance
to tetracycline, tet(W) and tet(O), were monitored
using quantitative polymerase chain reaction (Q-
PCR).
In the pilot study, chlortetracycline, tylosin, and
monensin all dissipated more rapidly in the HIM-
manure than in the LIM-manure. In the large-
scale study, feedlot manure initially had higher
concentrations of the several tetracycline antibiotics
than the dairy manure. After four months of
treatment, tet(W) and tet(O) decreased signifcantly
in dairy manure, but two more months of treatment
were necessary for similar reductions of ARG in the
feedlot manures.
The results showed that HIM was more effective
than LIM at increasing the rate of antibiotic
dissipation, but it was not a signifcant factor
in reducing the levels of ARG. The length of
treatment time was the main factor in reducing the
levels of both antibiotics and ARG. For manures
with initially high levels of antibiotics, treatment
times of at least six months may be necessary for
a signifcant reduction in levels of antibiotics and
ARG. The results also provided evidence that ARG
may be present for extended time periods even after
antibiotics have fully dissipated.
Scientists at Colorado State University are
continuing research in this area by examining full-
scale local on-farm waste management practices.
Together this research will lead to a better
understanding of possible ARG mitigation strategies
so that best management practices can be developed
to reduce the effects that animal waste may have on
the spread of ARG.
This research was published in the November-
December issue of Journal of Environmental
Quality. Funding was provided by the USDA
Agricultural Experiment Station at CSU and the
National Science Foundation (NSF).
Manure Management Reduces
Levels Of Antibiotics And
Antibiotic Resistance Genes
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R
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E
Th e Na t u r a l Fa r me r
S p r i n g , 2 0 0 8 20
by David G. Patriquin
Biology Department, Dalhousie University, Halifax,
N.S.
E. coli 0157 is a bacterial pathogen of the human
intestinal tract which is carried in certain species
of livestock and wildlife without ill-effect. Such
organisms are termed zoonotics. Various types of
Campylobacter and Salmonella are other major
causes of food borne illness that like E. coli 0157,
are zoonotic in livestock and appear to have been
on the increase in recent decades. E.coli 0157 is
particularly hazardous because of the very low
number of organisms required to cause infection
and because of serious complications that can result
from infection, especially in infants and the elderly.
As well as from contaminated food, E. coli 0157 can
be acquired through casual contact with manure and
with fecal contaminated surfaces and water. Thus
farm residents and workers should be aware of the
nature of E. coli 0157 and of personal measures they
can take to reduce the risk of infection. Reducing
the levels of zoonotics in farm animals is seen as
a key component of strategies to reduce the occur-
rence of food borne infections generally. A number
of the existing practices of organic farming could
be expected to discriminate against E. coli 0157.
However, none can ensure its absence and the routes
by which 0157 moves into farms apply to organic
farms, for example via birds that have been feeding
on a farm with a high level of E. coli 0157. Some
provisional guidelines for reducing levels of E. coli
0157 on organic farms and the risk to farm workers
and residents are offered. They are pertinent also to
gardeners who use manure or buy bulk compost.
Introduction
The occurrence of human pathogens in livestock
and livestock manure is a concern to livestock
farmers, to stockless farmers who use manure as
a soil amendment, and to all of us as consumers.
Of increasing notoriety is a nasty bug known as
Escherichia coli 0157:H7, which I will call 0157
for short. Dennis Avery, the perennial critic of or-
ganic farming contends that organic produce is more
likely than conventional produce to carry this and
other harmful bugs because of the use of manure on
organic produce (1). Aside from failing to present
any comparative data to support his argument, he
chooses to overlook some key facets of organic pro-
duction - such as the requirement to compost or age
manure - that could be expected to make it much
less susceptible to carrying pathogens than systems
that do not have such requirements. Regardless, it
is an issue that the organic community must take
seriously, both to battle the perception that organic
could be more susceptible to food poisoning, and to
ensure that is not the case. One big factor we have
going for us is that as a result of certifcation, or-
ganic is a well defned system and a structure is in
place for disseminating information and, as neces-
sary, ensuring that prescribed practices are followed.
This article examines some of what is known or
suspected about the occurrence and survival of 0157
on farms and in produce and its relevance to organic
farming. Research into the epidemiology and pre-
vention of 0157 on the farm is just beginning, thus
mostly what can be offered in the way of prevention
are guidelines that apply to prevention of spread of
food borne zoonotics generally. Zoonotics are or-
ganisms that exist naturally and usually without ill
effect in animals and can be transmitted to humans
under natural conditions, causing disease. Various
types of Campylobacter and Salmonella are other
major causes of food borne illness that are also zoo-
notics in farm animals, and like 0157 have been on
the rise in the last 20 years (2).
What is E.coli 0157?
E. coli is a normal inhabitant in the intestine of
humans and animals. The number of E. coli in a
sample of water is a commonly used indicator of
Reducing Risks from E.coli 0157
on the Organic Farm
fecal contamination. A minority of the strains are
pathogenic including 0157, which produces a vero
or Shiga toxin which breaks down the lining of
our intestines and can damage kidneys. Symptoms
are bloody diarrhea and abdominal cramps (or
sometimes non-bloody diarrhea or no symptoms
at all). Usually little or no fever is present, and the
illness dissipates in 5 to 10 days. A more serious
complication called hemolytic-uremic syndrome
(HUS) can lead to kidney failure and death; it oc-
curs mostly in children under 5 and the elderly. The
Center for Disease Control in the U.S. suggests that
anyone having sudden diarrhea with blood should
get his or her stool tested for O157. It is estimated to
affect 73,000 people and cause 61 deaths each year
in the U.S. (3). In many regions of Canada, 0157 is
the second most common bacterial pathogen in stool
specimens submitted to clinical laboratories (frst
is Campylobacter), moving into frst place during
warmer months. 75-90 episodes of HUS occur in
Canada each year, most of them between April and
September (4).
Most 0157 infections have been associated with
eating undercooked ground beef that was contami-
nated through contact with feces in slaughterhouses.
However, infections have also resulted from ingest-
ing 0157 in water and other foods, (3, 5).
Contamination of non ruminant food sources is
usually attributed to contact with ruminant manure
at some stage (6). Tests have shown that once in-
troduced to lettuce and other vegetables, survival
and growth under permissive temperatures is highly
likely. E coli 0157 is unusually acid tolerant and so
can grow in low pH juices (7).
An exceptionally low dose of 0157 - 2 to 2000 cells
- can cause infection (5) (versus 10,000 to millions
for most salmonellas (2,8)), which makes handling
of contaminated materials particularly hazardous.
Once introduced into a family or closed group, it
can be spread by person-to-person transmission,
especially by children who are not toilet trained.
Young children shed 0157 in their feces for 1-2
weeks after their illness resolves; older children
rarely carry 0157 without symptoms (3). Increased
attention to handwashing, and particular care han-
dling diapers (and undergarments from anyone with
diarrhea) are important once infection is identifed
within a group (4).
Food handling: consumers frst line of defense
Precautions that apply to reducing contamination
of food generally apply to 0157 (2,4,5). Storage of
food at room temperature and preparing food too
long before consuming allow organisms such as
Salmonella to multiply and reach critical levels,
and are the most common cause of food poisoning
(2). Temperatures of 8C and higher are conducive
to growth of 0157 and may increase infection po-
tential, however, storage at 5C (standard refrigera-
tor temperature) on its own offers little protection
against 0157 because of the low dose required
for infection (9). There seems to be considerable
potential for use of natural food additives such
as garlic, cinnamon, oregano, sage and cloves to
suppress 0157 in some foods (10). New strains of
Lactobacillus acidophilus effective against 0157 are
being developed (11).
E.coli 0157 on the farm
Industrialized farming practices are considered to
be a factor contributing to increased levels of food
borne illness associated with zoonotics (2, 12).
Regardless, it is safest to assume that most of these
organisms, including 0157 are everywhere includ-
ing organic farms. According to Dr. Dale Hancock
of Washington State University, E. coli 0157 is
widespread in nature, occurring naturally and spo-
radically in the gastrointestinal fora of humans,
cattle, deer, sheep, dogs, horses, birds, and perhaps
other species. (13) The specifc routes by which
0157 arrives on a farm are not known, although
birds, deer, other wild animals and livestock brought
in from other farms are suspected (14). Ruminants
appear to be the primary reservoir. For example,
a study in the UK found 0157 in 15.7% of cattle
(dairy and beef), 2.2% of sheep, 0.4% of pigs and
none in chickens (1000 of each examined) (15). The
strains in pigs were non-toxigenic. Other studies
have also revealed low incidence in pigs and poul-
try, compared to ruminants, but they have included
toxigenic strains; thus while less important than
cattle in the epidemiology of 0157, pigs and fowl
cannot be assumed to be free of toxigenic 0157 (16).
Improved detection methods indicate very high in-
cidence of 0157 in cattle; for example, a 1999 study
in the midwest US revealed 0157 in 27% of fecal
samples from cattle brought to slaughterhouses dur-
ing summer; 72% of the 29 lots (individual farms
Th e Na t u r a l Fa r me r
S p r i n g , 2 0 0 8 21
or feedlots) represented in samples included at least
one animal positive for 0157 (17). Post-processing
frequency was 2%.
Single strains (isolates with the same molecular fn-
gerprint) often dominate a herd at one time suggest-
ing a common source (e.g. drinking water), but can
change over time indicating import of new strains
(e.g. via birds) (6, 14). Over the course of a year,
weaned calves and cattle may intermittently carry
and not carry 0157. Immature cattle carry higher
levels of 0157 than mature cattle. Shedding of 0157
in feces from an infected animal occurs over periods
of weeks to months (18). Studies have usually dem-
onstrated a strong seasonal infuence on occurrence
of 0157 in cattle feces (14, 18). For example, over a
year long study in England, O157 was isolated from
the feces of 38% of cattle presented for slaughter
in the spring, but only 4.8% during the winter (15).
Reported incidents of 0157 poisoning are corre-
spondingly seasonal (3, 4).
Although the prevalence of 0157 may seem alarm-
ing, food borne pathogens are something we have
always lived with and different cultures have
evolved a wide variety of practices to reduce the
chances of food poisoning (2). If there is a single
factor underlying what seems to be increasing inci-
dents of food related bacterial diseases, it is a kind
of globalization of impatience with the procurement
and preparation of food (2,12). We want everything
there is from everywhere, and we want it now and
we want it cheap, which means cutting corners on
the production side.
Reducing Occurrence and Risks of E. coli 0157
on the Organic Farm
Research into the life history and prevention of
E. coli on the farm is just beginning, and for now,
mostly what can be offered are guidelines that ap-
ply to zoonotic pathogens generally. What we do
know about E. coli 0157 - notably its high toxicity
for children and the elderly, its low infection dose,
and its common association with healthy ruminants
behoove a highly precautionary approach.
Handling and processing manure
Fresh manure, particularly during summer months,
has a high probability of carrying 0157 and other
pathogens. Thus special precautions should be fol-
lowed in handling fresh manure, such as wearing
protective clothing, avoiding hand contact with the
mouth, eyes and nose, and washing after handling
livestock and manure. Activities of small children in
the vicinity of livestock and manure should be care-
fully monitored and directed (if allowed at all: in
Sweden and the UK it has been recommended that
children under 5 do not visit livestock farms (19));
farm families need also to be aware that farm com-
panion animals can transmit 0157 to humans (18).
Hides are readily contaminated by fecal materials,
and can be a source of 0157 in slaughterhouses (17),
thus livestock should be as clean as possible before
being sent to the abattoir.
Composting, a key component of organic farming,
is a pathogen reduction process. Under experimental
conditions, most bacterial pathogens are killed by
exposure to temperatures of 55-60C for a few hours
or less (8). Such temperatures are achieved and last
for days to weeks in the thermophilic stage of com-
posting. Canadian commercial compost standards
require that under windrow composting a tempera-
ture of 55C or greater is maintained for at least 15
days during the composting period and that during
this period, the compost is turned at least fve times
(20). For industrial composting systems in which the
composting process is conducted indoors, is closely
monitored and controlled, and for which different
sets of equipment are used at earlier and later stages
of processing to avoid reintroduction of pathogens,
a high degree of consistency in the elimination of
pathogens can be achieved.
With many or most farm composting systems,
there is less control over the process and it is more
diffcult to ensure uniform exposure to high tem-
peratures without overheating. This increases the
importance of other factors in the destruction of
pathogens. Colueke (21) cites four:
antibiosis (suppressive effects of other microbes)
physical and chemical changes e.g. in pH
competition for nutrients with the normal com-
post fora and destruction of the pathogens origi-
nal nutrient supply
time
How well the pathogens get exposed to these agents
is a function of the method of management, which
he discusses in some detail for windrow, static piles
and mechanically mixed compost. Regardless, he
says that even when all pathogens are assumed to
have been killed, prudence dictates a certain amount
of caution. If pathogens do survive, their survival
under feld conditions becomes another factor. He
says that if sewage sludge or other forms of body
wastes are composted, then complete destruction of
pathogens is essential before the compost product
can be safely used for row crop and leafy vegetable
production, that is if the vegetables are destined to
be eaten raw. He goes on to say Unless a span of
at least a year is involved, such compost should be
pasteurized. He emphasizes in several places the
importance of time to allow lethal factors and mech-
anisms to exert their full effects. Our work and
that of others demonstrate that time can substitute
for frequency [of turning].
Thus the usually applied organic standard that un-
treated manure must be aged before application
to food crops is consistent with this principle, and
should be strictly adhered to. Allowing time for
proper maturation (curing) of compost is also im-
portant. Two to four month curing times have been
suggested for backyard composts to rid them of
0157 (22).
It is very important not to reintroduce pathogens
into matured compost by mixing it with uncompos-
ted or immature compost.
Aeration, independent of heating, appears to sup-
press 0157 in manure. Kudva et al. (6) found 0157
after more than one year in a non-aerated ovine ma-
nure pile, however in experimentally aerated ovine
and bovine manure, it was not found after 4 months
and 47 days respectively. The aerated piles were
small, and the authors speculated that drying cycles
were responsible for pathogen reduction; they re-
marked that E. coli O157:H7 was never recovered
from the dry top layer of any manure pile.
In the discussion section of their paper, Kudva et
al. (6) attribute some of the increase in food borne
pathogens to the increased density of animals on
farms and the development of quick methods for
disposal of wastes, notably use of slurries versus
traditional methods employing bedding and com-
posting. They remark that Farm effuents should be
contained in holding tanks with proper aeration for
appropriate lengths of time (1 to 3 months or as re-
quired) before being used as fertilizers... Improperly
incubated and/or stored slurry can serve as a vehicle
for environmental spread and propagation of patho-
gens that may include E. coli O157:H7.
Composting and curing, aging of uncomposted ma-
nure and aeration of slurries are obviously important
for use on food crops, but may be important even
for forage crops in order to reduce levels of 0157
in livestock. E. coli 0157 survives much longer in
manure products than in the live animals, and thus
manure contaminated materials are suspected to be
a reservoir of 0157 for reinfection of livestock (6).
Contradicting this expectation, one study found that
application of manure to forage crops was not as-
sociated with prevalence of E coli 0157, nor was
feeding on pasture versus feeding on dry lots (23).
Nevertheless, until there is much more conclusive
evidence on this score, a highly precautionary ap-
proach seems advisable.
Feed and Water
Drinking water for livestock has been clearly
demonstrated as a conduit and possibly the main
conduit for transmission of 0157 from one animal
to another, and it appears that water can be contami-
nated by oral contact alone (24). Dale Hancock at
Washington State University, who has conducted
extensive research into the occurrence of 0157 on
farms is convinced that survival and multiplication
in feed and water troughs are major factors affecting
levels on the farm. He is cited (13) as offering these
two top tips:
E. coli 0157 grows in wet feeds, but growth can be
stopped by using mixed rations containing silage
with high levels of certain acids;
Frequent cleaning and appropriate sanitation of
water troughs can potentially prevent replication
and/or long term maintenance of E. coli 0157 in
sediments.
Also, there is some evidence to suggest that use of
small water reservoirs with frequent reflling is less
conducive to 0157 than use of large reservoirs (24).
The signifcance of feeding regime for control
0157 is currently quite controversial. For example,
Hancock and others dispute (25) a highly publi-
cized study suggesting that feeding hay to cattle
before slaughter could reduce incidents of 0157 in
slaughterhouses. Thus for now, it appears that more
reliance should be put on sanitation than on feeding
regime as a primary line of defense.
Minimal use of antibiotics
In a study of a cohort of 15 heifers on each of 4
Wisconsin dairy farms differing in management,
0157 was not observed in once weekly sampling
over a 14 month study period on the two farms that
used antimicrobials only occasionally and made
no use of sulfonamides, while cohorts tested posi-
tive on the 2 farms where antimicrobials were used.
There were other differences between the manage-
ment systems, notably in the regimes for providing
water, which could account for lack of 0157 on the
two farms, but the authors remarked that antimicro-
bial use could be a risk factor for 0157 shedding in
cattle, and that further research is required. Of the
two farms on which 0157 was found, the highest
level of antibiotic resistance in 0157 was found on
the farm with highest use of antibiotics (24).
Probiotics
Probiotics are infusions of benefcial bacteria that
can survive the stomach acids and become estab-
lished in the intestine where they counteract, in
some way, harmful bacteria, or have other benef-
cial effects. They are frequently used to establish
desirable organisms in young animals (we are all
born without intestinal bacteria), and after antibi-
otic treatments have eliminated desirable as well as
undesirable organisms. A scientifc study found one
commercial product to be effective in reducing cae-
cal colonization of chicks by both a poultry patho-
genic E.coli, and by E.coli 0157 (26). Probiotics are
more diffcult to use this way with older ruminants
because of the high levels of native bacteria, howev-
er, effective products may be available within a few
years (27, 28). Commercial strains of Lactobacillus
acidophillus specifcally antagonistic to E coli 0157
are being developed (11).
Survival in soil
In general, survival of pathogens in soil is strongly
reduced in non-sterile compared to sterilized soils,
in soils that undergo periodic drying compared to
constantly wet soils, and at higher temperatures
compared to lower temperatures (8).
A special role for earthworms?
J. L. Spencer (29) reviewed studies including his
own on effects of vermicomposting on pathogens.
Worms feed on microbes, and enhance the microbial
activity. Resistance of chicks to intestinal coloniza-
tion by Salmonella enteritidis and Salmonella ty-
phimurium was greatly increased if they were fed a
small quantity of vermicompost produced by earth-
worms fed chicken feces. Spencer also notes studies
indicating that earthworm activity contributes to the
elimination of Salmonella and other pathogens in
soil.
Treating liquid effuents
Liquid effuents containing fecal materials can con-
taminate downstream surface waters, posing hazards
to the public or other farms; if recycled on the farm
for irrigation, washing, fushing or use as a water
source for livestock, they may contribute to main-
Th e Na t u r a l Fa r me r
S p r i n g , 2 0 0 8 22
tenance of high levels of 0157 and other pathogens.
Lagoon treatment systems combined with con-
structed wetlands are highly effective in removal of
pathogens; presence of vegetation enhances removal
compared to systems without vegetation, and ef-
fciency of removal increases with species diversity
of the wetland vegetation (30). There appear to have
been few studies specifcally on removal of 0157.
Based on survival of E. coli 0157 and Salmonella
inoculated into water samples from a lagoon-wet-
land system, McCaskey et al. (31) suggest that
wastewater stored in lagoons and/or treated in the
wetlands for a combined period of 20 days is safe
for irrigation and cleaning purposes.
Conclusion
From what we know about 0157, there is no reason
to suspect that organic produce is more likely to
carry 0157 than conventional produce, and there is
even some basis for hypothesizing that 0157 could
be less common in organic than in conventional
livestock systems. Several of the core practices and
principles of organic farming - notably the aging
and composting of manure, the general desire to
operate systems as nearly as closed as possible and
to market locally, the infrequent use of antibiot-
ics, the emphasis on probiotics and maintenance of
healthy microfora in livestock (and people) and of
high levels of microbial activity in soils - could be
expected to reduce the levels of 0157 on organic
farms. Unfortunately, none can ensure its absence,
and there appear to be no data on occurrence of
0157 on organic farms. The routes by which 0157
moves into farms apply almost equally to organic
farms (e.g. via birds that have been feeding on a
farm with a high level of 0157). Thus there is no ba-
sis for complacency and special precautions are still
very necessary.
What worked in the past may not work today. As
much as it may run counter to what were once valid
notions of healthy food, children and persons with
weakened immune systems should not consume
raw milk. Good sanitation practices for livestock,
harvest containers and contact surfaces, and posthar-
vest washing are very important. Farmers and their
certifying organizations should encourage improve-
ments in composting systems to achieve uniform
exposure to high temperatures. Curing of com-
post for 4 months, aging of uncomposted manure
for a year, and aeration or composting of slurries
(32) should be encouraged; it also produces better
amendments. More specifc and stringent regula-
tions than currently specifed in certifcation codes
may be appropriate, at least until we have a much
better understanding of 0157, and how it is affected
by organic practices. Intensive testing is required
to establish that 0157 is not present on a farm, thus
organic organizations might consider collaborative
projects and seeking assistance to investigate 0157
on organic farms.
Some provisional guidelines for reducing E. coli
0157 on the organic farm
Ensure that farm residents, workers and visitors
are aware of the nature of the E.coli 0157 prob-
lem, and of personal preventative measures they
should take to reduce risk. *
Prohibit or carefully supervise activities of small
children in areas where they might be exposed to
fresh manure. *
Follow good sanitation practices for livestock,
harvest containers and contact surfaces, and wash
vegetable produce free of soil.
Flush water troughs with fresh water frequently
and clean them regularly.
Consider whether imported manure is highly
likely to contain E.coli 0157 (e.g. fresh ruminant
manure from a feedlot). *
Take care to prevent cross contamination of old or
composted manure with fresh manure. *
Make improvements to the composting system to
ensure thorough mixing of compost during the
high temperature phase. *
Allow compost to cure for 2-4 months (or longer)
after the heating phase. *
Aerate slurries for 1-3 months, or compost them,
e.g. with straw
Age uncomposted manure for at least one year
before use. *
Clean hides of livestock before taking them to the
abattoir.
Process liquid effuents from the farm in holding
ponds/wetlands for 20 days or more.
*Asterisked items apply also to gardeners making
use of manure
Sources
1. American Broadcasting Corporation 20/20, Feb.
4, 2000 How Good is Organic Food?
2. Heritage, J., Evans, E.G. V. and Kilington,
R.A.1999. Microbiology in Action. Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge.
3. CDC Divison of Bacterial and Mycotic Diseases:
Escherichia coli O157:H7.
4. Infectious Diseases and Immunization
Committee, Canadian Pediatric Society (Position
Paper). 1995. E. coli 0157:H7, other verotoxin-
producing Escherichia coli, and hemolytic-ure-
mic syndrome in childhood. Canadian Journal of
Pediatrics 2: 347-352.
5. Chalasani, S and Medeiros, L. What You Should
Know About Escherichia Coli 0157:H7. Ohio
State University Fact Sheet HYG-5561-98.
6. Kudva, I.T., Blanch, K. and Hovde, C.J. 1998
Analysis of Escherichia coli O157:H7 survival
in ovine or bovine manure and manure slurry.
Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 64:3166-
3174.
7. Feng, P. Escherichia coli Serotype O157:H7:
Novel vehicles of infection and emergence of
phenotypic variants. Emerging Infectious Diseases
Vol. 1 No. 2, April-June 1995.
8. Epstein, E. 1997. The Science of Composting.
Technomic Publishing Co., Lancaster- Basel.
9. Palumbo SA, Pickard A, and Call J.E. 1997.
Population changes and verotoxin production of
enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli strains inoc-
ulated in milk and ground beef held at low tem-
peratures. Journal of Food Protection 60: 746-750.
10. Researchers fnd spices that kill E. coli. News
Report in eCollegian (Kansas State University)Vol.
103, No. 006 1998.
11. Excite News Report, May 8 2000 Nutraceutix
Announces New E. coli O157:H7 inhibiting bac-
teria.
12. S.F. Altekruse, S.F., Cohen, M.L. and
Swerdlow,D.L. 1997. Perspective. Emerging
foodborne diseases. Emerging Infectious Diseases
(CDC, Atlanta, Geogia) Vol 3.
13. Hancock, D; Besser, 1998. What weve learned
about E coli 0157:H7. Hoards Dairyman 143
(16): 651; see also Dr Dale Hancock at the 1998
Snowdon Lecture, Thursday 14 May at CSIRO
Australian Animal Health Laboratory, Geelong: E.
coli: can we control it on farm?
14. Gansheroff, L.J. and OBrien, A.D. 2000
Escherichia coli O157:H7 in beef cattle presented
for slaughter in the U.S: Higher prevalence rates
than previously estimated. Proceedings of the
National. Academy of Science USA, Vol. 97: 2959-
2961.
15. Chapman P.A., Siddons C.A., Gerdan Malo A.T.,
Harkin M.A. 1997. A 1-year study of Escherichia
coli O157 in cattle, sheep, pigs and poultry.
Epidemiol Infect 119:245-50.
16. Heuvelink A.E., Zwartkruis-Nahuis J.T.M., van
den Biggelaar F.L.A.M., van Leeuwen W.J., de Boer
E. 1999. Isolation and characterization of vero-
cytotoxin-producing Escherichia coli O157 from
slaughter pigs and poultry. International Journal
of Food Microbiology 52: 67-75.
17. Elder, R.O., Keen J.E., Siragusa, G.R., Barkocy-
Gallagher G.A., Koohmaraie M., Laegreid,
W.W. 2000. Correlation of enterohemorrhagic
Escherichia coli O157 prevalence in feces, hides,
and carcasses of beef cattle during processing.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Science
USA 97: 2999-3003.
18. Heuvelink, A.E. et al. 1998. Occurrence
of verocytotoxin-producing Escherichia coli
O157 on Dutch dairy farms. Journal of Clinical
Microbiology 36: 3480-3487.
19. E. coli infections in visitors to farms. Posted
by Pig Disease Information Centre Ltd., 2000 at:
http://www.pighealth.com/ecoli.htm
20. Setting the Standard: A Summary of
Compost Standards in Canada. Compost Council
of Canada. Posted at: http://www.compost.org/stan-
dard.html
21. Colueke, C.G. 1991. When is compost safe?.
In: The Biocycle Guide to the Art and Science of
Composting. Edited by Staff of BioCycle. JG Press,
Emmaus Pa, Ch 49, pp. 220-229.
22. Carl Wilson (Colorado State University
Cooperative Extension horticulturist) cited in news
item of ENN (Environmental news Network), June
3, 1997 Food gardeners urged to avoid fresh
manure
23. Hancock D.D., Rice D.H., Herriott D. E., Besser
T.E., Ebel E.D,, Carpenter L.V. 1997.Effects of
farm manure-handling practices on Escherichia
coli O157 prevalence in cattle. Journal of Food
Protection 60:363-366.
24. Shere, J.A.,Bartlett, K. J., Kaspar1, C. W. 1998.
Longitudinal study of Escherichia coli O157:H7
dissemination on four dairy farms in Wisconsin.
Applied and Environmental Microbiology 64: 1390-
1399.
25. Hancock, D.D., Besser, T.E., Gill, C., Bohach,
C.H. 1999. Cattle, hay and E. coli. Science 284:
561-52. A response by J.B. Riussell and F. Diez-
Gonzalez, ibid, pp 52-53. See also: Hovde, C.J.,
Austin P.R., Cloud K.A., Williams C.J., Hunt
C.W. 1999. Effect of Cattle Diet on Escherichia
coli O157:H7 Acid Resistance. Applied and
Environmental Microbiology 65: 3233-3235.
26. Hakkinen M., Schneitz C. 1996. Effcacy of
a commercial competitive exclusion product
against a chicken pathogenic Escherichia coli and
E.coli 0157:H7. Veterinary Record 139: 139-141.
27. Microbiologists Battle E. Coli. 1998 News
report by Mary Esch. Posted at: http://healthanden-
ergy.com/e_coli.htm
28. Zhao T., Doyle M.P., Harmon B.G., Brown
C.A., Mueller E., Parks A.H. 1998 Reduction of
carriage of enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli
O157:H7 in cattle by inoculation with probiotic
bacteria. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 36: 641-
647.
29. J.L . Spencer. 1995. Animal pathogens. In:
A Program to Assess the Impacts of Composted
Source-Separated Solid Wastes (CSSSW) Applied to
Agricutural Lands: National Agricultural Compost
Trial, Edited by S.D. Nelson H. Dinel and T.
Goodyear. Ag Canada Technical Bulletin 1885-9E,
1995, pp 33-35.
30 . Cole, S. 1998. The Emergence of Treatment
Wetlands. Environmental Science and Technology
32 (9): pp. A-218- A-223.
31. McCaskeyT.A., Gurung N.K., Lino S.P.,
Panangola S.V., Witherow A.K., Shadell T.L. 1998.
Constructed wetlands controlling E. coli 0157:
H7 and Salmonella on the farm. Highlights
of Agricultural research (Alabama Agricultural
Experiment Station 45(1).
32. Lampkin, N. 1990. Organic Farming. Farming
Press Books, Ipswich, U.K.
David Patriquin is a Professor of Biology at
Dalhousie University in Halifax, Nova Scotia,
Canada. He conducted his graduate work in ma-
rine icthyology, botany and microbiology. Since the
mid-70s, he has conducted research on systems and
methods of organic management in collaboration
with farmers and landscapers. He has been a 3rd
Party certifcation agent for organic organizations
in eastern Canada and Maine. He has published
50+ papers in the refereed scientifc literature.
Th e Na t u r a l Fa r me r
S p r i n g , 2 0 0 8 23
by Jack Kittredge
In the northwest corner of Connecticut, not far from
where the Nutmeg, Empire and Bay States meet, lies
a fertile valley along a tributary of the Housatonic
River that has been home to productive dairy farms
for generations. One of these, now owned by brothers
Matt and Ben Freund, still has the original 200 year-
old barn, although it has been expanded and new
buildings added since the place was bought by their
father in 1949.
My brother Ben and I are second generation
farmers, says Matt. Weve been in the commercial
dairy business all our lives. My father went to
Cornell and then got called away to Korea. When he
got back he did a summer stint on a farm near here
and ended up marrying the farmers daughter! So on
my mothers side were actually third generation.
Under the familys management the farm has grown
as much as it can without encroaching on waterways.
Counting dry stock the brothers milk 250 cows. Their
heifers are farmed out in Pennsylvania. The farm is
composed of 400 acres, of which 200 are tillable,
and the Freunds rent another 400 acres so theyre
cropping a total of 600 acres. The cows are primarily
fed corn, but are on pasture fve and a half months
each year. They calve throughout the year at about
twelve and a half month intervals, with more births in
the spring.
In order to get the cows out of the sun at the hottest
part of the day, they are milked at noon and midnight
in the double ten, rapid exit milking parlor. One
worker starts at about 11:00 or 11:30 and lets ten
cows come in on one side. He preps them, attaches
them to the milking machine, and lets another ten in
on the other side. By the time he is fnished prepping
and attaching them, the frst side is done milking and
ready to leave. Two employees, one for each milking,
do it all.
The brothers are Agri-Mark members and sell all
their milk through the co-op.
This valley is virtually all Agri-Mark, Matt says.
Theres a DFA member (Dairy Farmers of America)
just over the line in Massachusetts. Thats a huge
cooperative theyre the big gorilla. Milk marketing,
you dont want to try to understand it unless you
have to. Its incredibly complicated. Whats going
on in the industry has gotten very, very political.
Agri-Mark has been struggling with marketing issues
lately. Theres a lot of back and forth about going
organic or not, using rBST (bovine Somatotropin)
or not. How can you pick up three different kinds of
milk and keep them segregated during shipping and
processing?
The Freund farm is not organic, although the brothers
have considered that option and think they might
ultimately end up there. They have even used bST for
their cows, although do so no longer.
In reality, rBST made us some pretty good money!
Matt explains. It enhanced production a good 10%
and the cost isnt that much. Now were done doing
that because theres no market for it. Agri-Mark is
running through some real struggles on this stuff and
I cant tell you where were going to end up. rBST
is getting to be a huge issue for them. The board of
directors has to get that resolved. rBST is a proft-
maker from the dairys point of view. But marketing
is marketing and if people dont want it, thats fne.
I dont disagree with that. If the market isnt there,
then we shouldnt produce it!
Going organic for an operation of their size, however,
is diffcult. Its not a matter of access to markets or
shipping the milk. Theres an organic dairy a mile
and a half from the Freunds that ships to Oak Ridge.
Cow Pies to Cow Pots:
Adding Value to Manure
Matt worries about what he calls the risky period
when you have to be organic, but youre not
guaranteed a market.
The last I heard it took a year, he says, but
another guy said it was two years. So youre
producing at organic prices but selling at
conventional. Practically, you have to do the whole
herd at once. Its all or nothing. Theyre pretty
strict.
We were looking at organic two years ago, when
the price of milk was in the gutter. We saw the
hurdles we would have to jump, and said: We just
cant do this right now. It would have been very
diffcult economically.
In 1976, when the nation was just becoming aware
of environmental concerns and alternative energy
options, the brothers built their frst methane-
producing manure digester. It was in a 55 gallon
drum, and they showed it as a part of the Farm
Bureaus Farm to City Exchange. It sat idle for 20
years. Then, in 1996, they again started thinking
about ways to improve their system from an
environmental point of view. It took them a couple
of years to get on-line with grant monies from the
Department of Ag, but in 1998 they put in a whole-
farm digester, separator, and lined their lagoon all in
one fell swoop.
The digester cycle takes 22 days from raw to
digested, Matt explains. The composting depends
on how much manure is coming through. It could be
a 6 day cycle, it could be 20 days. When the cows
are on pasture there isnt that much manure.
The whole process takes raw manure and digests it,
then separates the liquid from the solids. The liquid,
which is 90% of the mass, goes into the lagoon.
The solids are piled for further use. In the process,
you are enabling different microbes to process the
manure.
You go from anaerobic (without oxygen) to aerobic
(with oxygen present) systems, Matt says, which
involve whole different classifcations of bugs. Its
a carbon-based system. Youre going from a plant
which you put in a cows stomach, then into an
anaerobic digester, then into an aeration system, and
then back into the ground. All that takes carbon.
The digester is of a plug fow design. The Freunds
drive manure up to one end and feed it in, where it
photo by Jack Kittredge
Matt Freund holds a package of his pots made of processed manure.
Th e Na t u r a l Fa r me r
S p r i n g , 2 0 0 8 24
pushes an equal amount through and out the other
end. It has an insulated cover on top to keep the
heat in, which is brought to 100 degrees, the body
temperature of a cow. It is essentially a heated
sewer tank. Many bacteria exist in the manure,
but in an anaerobic digester the aerobic ones soon
die off. Then acid-producing bacteria break down
the complex fats, proteins and starches. Finally
other bacteria become active and break down the
resultant mix into water, methane, and other gases.
In the process unpleasant things like weed seeds
which have passed through the cows system also
disappear.
The methane is collected and piped to a boiler
where it is burned to heat water. That water, in turn,
is in part used to heat the digester, with the rest
being used on the farm and in the house for heat and
hot water.
Once the manure gets to the other end of the
digester it is pumped up to a building where the
solids are separated from the liquids. The liquids are
piped out into the lagoon, and the solids are piled.
The nutrients go with the mass, stresses Matt. If
you put 90% of your mass into the lagoon, thats
where 90% of your nutrients are, too. When the
lagoon is full thats 800,000 gallons -- we spread
the liquid on the felds. We pump it under the road
and I have a drag system which lets me incorporate
it onto all of our corn land. A drag system is a big
hose with a manifold at the end with a 12-foot
implement that injects the liquid into the ground.
You drag the twelve or fourteen hundred foot hose
along the ground, back and forth, with a tractor.
The lagoon is sized for the Freunds operation. It
holds up to four months worth of liquid collected
during the months the cows are confned, which
enables them to spread it at the end of November,
again in the spring, and then not until November
again because the cows are on pasture for so much
of the growing season. This system keeps them from
having to spread it on frozen ground or on a crop
that isnt actively growing.
In order to dispose of the solids, a lot of dairy farms
these days make compost and sell it. But they
usually add carbon to stabilize the compost. The
Freunds, however, do not add carbon.
Compost is dead and cool and doesnt smell and
has a nice black color, says Matt. It kills the weed
seeds, kills E. coli. Its a safer product and people
like it. There are a lot of good reasons to compost,
and it makes a nice product. But thats not what we
do.
The Freunds had an idea for a different product.
When a cow eats grass and corn, they are eating
plants that have naturally strong fbers as part of
their makeup. Many of these fbers survive the
digestive process and even make it through the
methane digester. Normal composting will destroy
these fbers, but the brothers have developed a way
to make use of them.
The Freunds put them into a tank which turns like a
cement mixer to aerate and heat them. The material
coming out the other end can be sold to make
topsoil, can be used to bed cows, and because it
still retains fbers that have integrity and strength
can be formed into a paper-like substance that can,
like felt, be molded to almost any shape.
One of the shapes the Freunds have chosen to make
from their manure paper is that of a planting pot.
The basic problem is to make a pot that wont
smell, Matt admits. Drying alone isnt enough. As
soon as you plant something in it and water it in the
greenhouse, you would have the smell. I dont want
to be too specifc about what Im doing as there are
about a hundred people who would be willing to do
it too. But basically we are getting rid of ammonia
that is the strong smell of manure. And there is also
hydrogen sulfde that is a putrid smell that people
dont like.
You have two kinds of producers, he continues,
methane producers and sulfur producers. Thats
true for human beings as well as cows some farts
stink and some dont. You can have a methane fart
which nobody smells, or a sulfur fart which stinks to
high heaven. It depends on what you ate. If you are
composting, you have the same issues. If you have
a wet compost, it can become very putrid. Thats a
strong hydrogen sulfde smell. You have to run it
all back to biology and what the bugs are doing and
whos working that pile. You have to encourage the
right bugs to get the job done. You can make slime,
compost, or manure pots. It all depends on the
biology of what you are trying to work with.
That is the reason that the frst thing the Freunds do
to their manure is encourage methane producers,
to get the gas from an anaerobic process and make
energy from it. Then they go into the composting
mode to get the guys who are going to release
ammonia. For that the manure has to be a little
drier and has to be aerated -- you are going from
an anaerobic to an aerobic process. But you want
to keep the strong fbrous nature of the manure to
make a pot.
Besides getting rid of the odor, the other problem
the Freunds faced was to make a pot which is strong
enough to withstand regular watering and root
penetration in the greenhouse, but that will degrade
rapidly when fnally put into the soil. The process
Matt developed has accomplished that.
It gives it plenty of strength to hold up in the
greenhouse, he says. But once it is in the ground
it degrades quickly. Thats the difference between
us and peat pots. They just dont break down very
fast. Were selling them retail as empty pots, and
wholesale to folks who want to sell plants in them.
Were also going into bigger pots later, and there is
a variety of styles we can make.
The essential process is something Matt is close-
lipped about, but it involves putting solids back into
suspension, where they separate the fbers out and
bring them back together in a mat. Its very much
like making paper.
The pot formation involves forming the paper-like
substance around a pot-shaped aluminum mold, and
then drying it.
photo by Jack Kittredge
This picture shows the digester to the left, the red building where liquids and solids are
separated, the lined lagoon in the foreground, the piled solids in the background,
and behind them the composting turner.
photo by Jack Kittredge
Here is Matt Freund at the pot-making operation he has engineered. The dried, composted
manure is put back in suspension in the tank to the lower right, treated and brought up to
the press in the center of the picture, where it is formed into a pot shape, and dried in the
chamber on the left.
Th e Na t u r a l Fa r me r
S p r i n g , 2 0 0 8 25
Right now this is still a prototype, Matt says,
because we are trying to work all the automation
issues out. In the long run we can make as many
of these as you want. The variety of cow doesnt
matter. You can do this with manure from beef
cattle. You get into a different matter when you talk
about llamas, however, and pigs and chickens arent
appropriate for it because they dont eat fbrous
matter. A ruminant is what it works for. It may work
fne with horse manure, I dont know.
Another product the Freunds can make from their
cow manure is a thick, biodegradable paper. Its on
the back burner right now because the equipment
used to make it is incredibly expensive. But imagine
it as a mulch for weeds. There are 73 million acres
covered annually with plastic mulch, Matt states,
and this product could replace the plastic without a
need for labor to pick it back up. The mulch will last
about 6 weeks so a crop can be up and running. For
squash, curcurbits, tomatoes, or anything that casts
shade, this stuff works excellently, he says. Theyve
had very good results with this product in research
trials at Beltsville. Even basil worked fne.
This manure paper has a lot of potential in other
ways, too. You can make it in as wide a roll as you
want.
It can be a landscaping fabric, or you can embed
seeds in it, roll it out and have a fower bed. It can
hold a bank while the grass is getting started, or can
be flled with grass seed.
Other products suggest themselves, says Matt, and
they have tinkered around with biodegradable golf
tees and targets for skeet shooting (which might be
renamed shooting the shit, he laughs).
The Freunds have had a tremendous amount of
exposure for their cow pots. If you visit their
website at www.FreundsFarmMarket.com you can
see a sample of the press and media attention they
have received, including appearances on Larry
King, CNN, NBC, and the Today show. Especially
helpful was a 25 minute segment on the poo pot
maker on the Discovery Channels Dirty Jobs
show. One can order a DVD with the segment at
<http://shopping.discovery.com/product-65164.
html?jzid=40588004-59-0>.
Weve only been out in the market one year, says
Matt. We are getting good reorders and some very
large growers are interested in marketing plants in
these pots with a green label. The bugs are out of
the product and we are scaling up now to be able to
fll all the orders we hope to get. Im in the middle
of an excavation project for the building we need to
produce the pots right now.
Weve solved the odor issue, he continues, and
the denitrifcation issue, which were necessary
to make this work. We tweaked it just right. We
were lucky. There is a patent pending on the
process. Franchising is a possibility. Licensing is a
possibility. But I dont see 300 little farms trying to
make this stuff. The equipment is pretty expensive.
You could have a regional plant using manure from
a number of farms. Right now were working with a
900 cow dairy plus ourselves. In 5 years we plan to
use up all the manure fber in this little valley.
In addition Clearview Energy, a private company, is
working with the Canaan Valley Agricultural Co-op,
running the bureaucratic hurdles to get approvals to
turn the regions manure into 3 megawatts of power,
which could be sold to utilities in the state as green
power. By the time this article appears Matt says
he hopes they will have a digester designed and
ready to be installed. The state of Connecticut, as
well as local Congresspeople, are supportive. Its a
matter of how hard does Matt want to push to get it
all this done.
Getting the money isnt as much a problem as
taking the risk, he muses. Were getting bank
loans and a mortgage to build the building. Thats
a risk. But whatever I do, it ultimately rides on the
cows back. The dairy industry hasnt been good.
Everybody has already gone who didnt have really
tight management. Nobody is going on vacations,
everybody is working 365 days a year. But we have
been able to weather the storm and in good years try
to catch up. Dairy farmers are putting in more hours
and more risk for less return than almost anybody in
our society. But we have a life style that we love.
This project has taken so long, he continues,
because we dont have the excess money to risk on
the cows back. It wont produce any revenue for a
few years. Ive been at this for 8 years and have a
lot of time in it, fguring out how to make it work.
Id love to have organic farmers use these products.
Theyre safe, theyre effective. We have to jump
a higher hurdle to get approval for use on organic
farms, but I think it is important to go that route,
and we will. It is just that everything takes time and
energy!
photo by Jack Kittredge
Matt holds a pot that has been planted in the greenhouse for about 16 weeks. It has serious
root penetration, but still holds together. Put it in the ground, however, and it will biodegrade
in a few days.
photo by Jack Kittredge
Cow Pots, The Pots You Plant. Made with
composted cow manure Reads the label on
the Freund brothers product.
photo by Jack Kittredge
This display at the Freunds Farm Market offers the pots for sale.
Th e Na t u r a l Fa r me r
S p r i n g , 2 0 0 8 26
Th e Na t u r a l Fa r me r
S p r i n g , 2 0 0 8 27
Carl J. Rosen and Peter M. Bierman
Department of Soil, Water, and Climate
University of Minnesota
Manure is a valuable fertilizer for any farming op-
eration and has been used for centuries to supply
needed nutrients for crop growth. The use of manure
has generally declined on many farms over the past
50 years due to: 1) Farm specialization with increas-
ing separation of crop and livestock production, 2)
Cost of transporting manure, which is a bulky, rela-
tively low analysis nutrient source, and 3) Increased
availability of high analysis synthetic fertilizers that
usually provide a cheaper source per unit of nutrient
than manure. Despite these limitations, manure (and
other organic nutrient sources) produced on or near
a vegetable farm provide many benefts and should
be benefcially utilized whenever possible.
Manure and compost not only supply many nutri-
ents for crop production, including micronutrients,
but they are also valuable sources of organic matter.
Increasing soil organic matter improves soil struc-
ture or tilth, increases the water-holding capacity of
coarse-textured sandy soils, improves drainage in
fne-textured clay soils, provides a source of slow
release nutrients, reduces wind and water erosion,
and promotes growth of earthworms and other ben-
efcial soil organisms. Most vegetable crops return
small amounts of crop residue to the soil, so ma-
nure, compost, and other organic amendments help
maintain soil organic matter levels.
Proper use of manure and compost is essential from
both a production and environmental standpoint.
Applying rates that are too low can lead to nutrient
defciency and low yields. On the other hand, too
high a rate can lead to nitrate leaching, phosphorus
runoff, accelerated eutrophication of lakes, and
Using Manure and Compost as
Nutrient Sources for Vegetable Crops
excessive vegetative growth of some crops. Thus,
understanding how to manage manure is important
for any farming operation with livestock that relies
on manure as a major source of nutrients, as well
as for vegetable producers who have access to an
economical supply of manure, compost, or other or-
ganic nutrient sources.
This discussion addresses differences between
the composition of fresh and composted manure,
nutrient availability from manure/compost, and
calculation of how much manure/compost to apply.
Although focused on manure or composted manure,
much of the discussion and the methods for calcu-
lating rates are generally applicable to effective use
of different types of compost, biosolids, and similar
organic nutrient sources.
Nutrient Composition of Manure and Compost
Many different types of manure are available for
crop production. For this discussion, it is assumed
that most vegetable growers will be using solid ma-
nure with or without bedding. Similar principles will
apply to the use of liquid manures. The nutrient con-
tent of manures varies with animal, bedding, stor-
age, and processing. The approximate nutrient com-
position of various solid manures, including some
composted manures, is presented in Table 1. While
this table provides a general analysis of manure or
compost nutrient content, it is strongly recommend-
ed that if routine applications are made for crop
production the specifc manure being used should be
tested by a laboratory for moisture and nutrient con-
tent. Nutrient analysis should include: total nitrogen
(N), ammonium-N, phosphate (P2O5), and potash
(K2O). Accurate manure or compost analysis re-
quires that a representative sample be submitted; so
several subsamples should be collected and compos-
ited to make up the sample. If manure or compost
is being purchased, request a nutrient analysis from
the seller for N, P2O5, and K2O content.
Fresh vs. composted manure. Fresh, non-compos-
ted manure will generally have a higher N content
than composted manure (Table 1). However, the
use of composted manure will contribute more to
the organic matter content of the soil. Fresh manure
is high in soluble forms of N, which can lead to
salt build-up and leaching losses if over applied.
Fresh manure may contain high amounts of viable
weed seeds, which can lead to weed problems. In
addition, various pathogens such as E. coli may
be present in fresh manure and can cause illness
to individuals eating fresh produce unless proper
precautions are taken. Apply and incorporate raw
manure in felds where crops are intended for hu-
man consumption at least three months before the
crop will be harvested. Allow four months between
application and harvest of root and leaf crops that
come in contact with the soil. Do not surface apply
raw manure under orchard trees where fallen fruit
will be harvested.
Heat generated during the composting process will
kill most weed seeds and pathogens, provided tem-
peratures are maintained at or above 131F for 15
days or more (and the compost is turned so that all
material is exposed to this temperature for a mini-
mum of 3 days). The microbially mediated com-
posting process will lower the amount of soluble
N forms by stabilizing the N in larger organic,
humus-like compounds. A disadvantage of compost-
ing is that some of the ammonia-N will be lost as a
gas. Compost alone also may not be able to supply
adequate available nutrients, particularly N, during
rapid growth phases of crops with high nutrient de-
mands. Composted manure is usually more expen-
sive than fresh or partially aged manure.
Heat-dried manure/compost. Drying manure or
compost to low moisture content reduces its volume
and weight, which lowers transportation costs, but
it also requires energy inputs. Dried products can be
easier to handle and apply uniformly to felds, es-
pecially those that have been processed into pellets.
Heat drying also reduces pathogens if temperatures
exceed 150 to 175F for at least one hour and water
content is reduced to 10 to 12% or less. The signif-
cant energy costs to heat-dry manure or compost at
high temperatures are in contrast to the self-heating
generated by microbial respiration during the com-
posting process. Heat-dried composts vary widely
in the degree to which they are composted before
drying. Many are only partially composted and have
higher amounts of soluble (inorganic) N forms than
mature, stable compost.
This readily available N gives these products some
characteristics that are similar to soluble N fertil-
izers, such as ammonium nitrate. Heat drying of ma-
nure and immature compost may increase volatiliza-
tion of ammonia-N and reduce the total N content of
the fnished product. In addition, composted or par-
tially composted material that is dried at high tem-
perature rather than going through a curing phase at
ambient temperatures is not as biologically active as
mature compost. The disease suppressive properties
of some composts depends upon recolonization of
the compost by disease suppressing organisms dur-
ing the curing phase.
Nutrient Availability from Manure and Compost
The analysis of manure or compost provides total
nutrient content, but availability of the nutrients for
plant growth will depend on their breakdown and
release from the organic components. Generally, 70
to 80% of the phosphorus (P) and 80 to 90% of the
potassium (K) will be available from manure the
frst year after application. Numbers from a table
or from an analysis report should be multiplied by
these factors to obtain the amount of P2O5 and K2O
available to crops from a manure or compost appli-
cation.
Calculating N availability is more complex than
determining P and K availability. Most of the N in
manure is in the organic form and essentially all of
the N in compost is organic. Organic N is unavail-
able for uptake until microorganisms degrade the or-
ganic compounds that contain it. A smaller fraction
of the N in manure is in the ammonium/ammonia or
inorganic form. The ammonium-N form is a readily
available fraction. Other inorganic forms such as
nitrate and nitrite can also exist, but their quantities
are usually very low. Estimated levels of ammo-
nium-N and total N in fresh and composted manure
are shown in Table 1.
When applied to soil, manure, compost, and other
organic amendments undergo microbial transfor-
mations that release plant-available N over time.
Volatilization, denitrifcation, and leaching result in
N losses from the soil that reduce the amount of N
that can be used by crops.
Th e Na t u r a l Fa r me r
S p r i n g , 2 0 0 8 28
Table 2 provides estimates of N availability from
manure the frst growing season after application.
The actual amount available is dependent on manure
type, bedding, and whether the manure has been
composted. Usually 25 to 50% of the organic-N in
fresh manure is available the frst year. In addition to
the organic fraction, N availability from manure also
has to take into account the amount of ammonium-N
present. This form of N is readily available for plant
uptake, but is prone to losses as ammonia if not in-
corporated within 12 hours after application.
Assuming direct manure incorporation after appli-
cation, 45 to 75% of the total N (organic-N + am-
monium-N) is available the frst year. Note that for
composted manure, the percentage of the organic
N available in the frst year following application
is much lower than it is for fresh manure. Because
there is very little ammonium-N in composted ma-
nure, the organic N fraction is basically the same as
the total N fraction.
Bedding or litter will usually decrease nutrient
content by dilution. If materials high in carbon (C)
like straw or wood shavings are used as bedding, N
availability may be reduced by the larger C/N ratio
of the product. High C relative to N will lead to a
tie-up of N, potentially causing N defciency in the
crop. A C/N ratio of 25/1 or greater will lead to N
tie-up in the soil. A C/N ratio of less than 25/1 will
release N to the crop. The C/N ratio is also an im-
portant consideration in the use of various composts,
as well as a controlling factor in the composting
process itself.
Manure and Compost Application
As discussed above, some of the N in fresh manure
will be lost to the atmosphere during application
in the form of ammonia gas. The higher the am-
monium-N fraction is in manure, the more prone
it is to ammonia volatilization. Manure should be
incorporated within 12 hours of application to avoid
excessive ammonia losses. Unincorporated manure
will supply the organic N fraction and at most 20%
of the ammonium-N fraction. Incorporation of
composted manure is not as critical, because the N
is stabilized in organic compounds with little free
ammonium present. However, in order to obtain
full beneft from compost, incorporation is recom-
mended whenever possible. Manure and compost
are often high in soluble salts, so to avoid salt injury
seeding operations should take place about 3 to 4
weeks after application.
Residual Nutrients in Soil from Manure and
Compost Application
The residual effects of the manure and compost
are important. Some beneft will be obtained in the
second and third years following application. When
manure and compost are used to fertilize crops, soil
organic matter will increase over time and subse-
quent rates of application can generally be reduced
because of increased nutrient cycling. Continuous
use of manure or compost can lead to high levels of
residual N, P, and other nutrients, which can poten-
tially be transported to lakes and streams in runoff
or leach and pollute the groundwater. Taking into
account residual release of N in subsequent years
should help to avoid excessive applications.
General rules of thumb for N are that organic N
released during the second and third cropping years
after initial application will be 50% and 25%, re-
spectively, of that mineralized during the frst crop-
ping season. Remember that some manures and
composts contain high levels of P, so if organic nu-
trient sources are regularly applied at rates to meet
crop N demands, the amount of P in the soil can
build up to excessively high levels. Use of soil tests,
plant tissue tests, and monitoring of crop growth
will help in determining the amount of residual N
and other nutrients in the soil and the need for fur-
ther applications.
Calculating the Amount of Manure
or Compost to Apply
Methods for calculating the amount of manure or
compost to apply have been adapted and summa-
rized from Livestock Waste Facilities Handbook,
2nd ed., 1985, Midwest Plan Service. Composts can
be thought of as similar to manure, but with little or
no ammonium-N present. The amount of compost
required to meet crop nutrient demands can be very
large. For these situations, more readily available
nutrients from other sources may be required to
supplement compost additions, especially early in
the growing season.
Use the following steps to determine the manure or
compost rate needed for a particular crop:
Step 1. Determine the nutrient needs of the crop
Base nutrient needs on soil test recommendations.
Step 2. Determine the total nutrient content of the
manure or compost Chemical analysis of the ac-
tual product is strongly recommended; a general
estimate can be obtained from Table 1 above.
Step 3. Determine the available nutrient content
Use 80% availability for P2O5 and 90% avail-
ability for K2O. Calculate N availability using the
following equation:
Available N = (Organic N x Km) + Ammonium-N*
Where:
Organic N = Total N Ammonium-N (lb/ton)
(from manure or compost analysis or Table 1)
Km = Fraction of organic N released (% avail-
able/100, from Table 2)
Ammonium-N* = Ammonium-N in lb/ton (from
manure analysis or Table 1)
* Note: if manure is not incorporated within 12
hours after application, reduce the value for am-
monium-N using Table 3 to account for volatiliza-
tion losses; reduce ammonium-N in the Available N
equation, but use the full value in the equation for
Organic N
Th e Na t u r a l Fa r me r
S p r i n g , 2 0 0 8 29
Step 4. Calculate the rates of application needed
to supply the recommended amounts of N, P2O5,
and K2O Divide the recommended nutrient needs
from Step 1 by the pounds of available nutrients per
ton of manure or compost determined in Step 3.
Step 5. Select the rate of manure or compost to ap-
ply Frequently, manure and compost application
rates are based on the N need of the crop. If manure
or compost is applied on a regular basis, you may
need to base rates on P to avoid excessive buildup of
P in the soil, and supplement with other N sources
to meet the total crop N requirement. For legumes,
either P2O5 or K2O can be used as a basis for rates,
depending on crop needs and soil test levels.
Step 6. Determine the amount of available nutrients
applied with the manure or compost multiply the
application rate of manure or compost determined in
Step 5 (in tons/A) times the estimated available nu-
trients (in lb/ton) determined in Step 3. The amounts
calculated can be compared with crop needs (from
Step 1) to determine if supplemental nutrients are
needed (next Step).
Step 7. Determine whether application of addi-
tional nutrients is needed Subtract the amount of
nutrients needed by the crop (based on the soil test
in Step 1) from the amounts of available nutrients
applied with the manure or compost (calculated in
Step 6). If the number obtained for a nutrient is zero
or negative, then no further application is necessary.
A positive number indicates the amount of that nu-
trient (in lb/A) that needs to be applied from another
nutrient source to meet crop demands.
Example Calculation
The following steps provide an example manure rate
calculation for the following situation:
Crop sweet corn
Nutrient source turkey manure with litter
Soil test results
pH = 6.3
Organic matter = 4.8%
Available P (Bray-P1) = 8 ppm
Available K = 70 ppm
Step 1 Determine the nutrient needs of the crop
Yield goal = 9 tons/acre
Previous crop = pumpkin
NPK soil test recommendations
120 lb N/A
60 lb P2O5/A
100 lb K2O/A
For the basis of these recommendations, refer to
the University of Minnesota Extension bulletin
Nutrient Management for Commercial Fruit &
Vegetable Crops in Minnesota (BU-5886)
Step 2 Determine the total nutrient content of the
manure
Chemical analysis of the manure is strongly recom-
mended for effcient nutrient use
For this example, we will use the general estimates
in Table 1 (all values on a wet weight basis)
Ammonium-N 13 lb/ton
Total N 20 lb/ton
P2O5 16 lb/ton
K2O 13 lb/ton
Step 3 Determine the available nutrient content
We will calculate available N frst
The equation is: Available N = (Organic N x Km) +
Ammonium-N
Organic N = Total N Ammonium-N, so Organic
N = 20 13 = 7 lb/ton
Km = Fraction of organic N released the frst sea-
son after application; get the percentage available
from Table 2 and then convert to a decimal frac-
tion, so Km = % available/100 = 0.45
Substituting into the original equation: Available N
= (Organic N x Km) + Ammonium-N, so Available
N = (7 x 0.45) + 13* = 16.2 lb/ton
* Note: we are assuming the manure is incorporated
within 12 hours after application; if it is more than
12 hours before incorporation, reduce the value for
ammonium-N using Table 3; reduce ammonium-N
in the Available N equation, but use the full value
in the equation for Organic N
Next we can calculate available P2O5
Using the 80% availability factor (from Step 3
above) the equation is: Available P2O5 = 0.80 x
Total P2O5
Available P2O5 = 0.80 x 16 = 12.8 lb/ton
Finally, we can calculate available K2O
Using the 90% availability factor (from Step 3
above) the equation is: Available K2O = 0.90 x
Total K2O
Available K2O = 0.90 x 13 = 11.7 lb/ton
Step 4 Calculate the rates of application needed to
supply the recommended amounts of N,
P2O5, and K2O
Divide the nutrient recommendations (from Step 1)
by the pounds of available nutrient per ton of ma-
nure (calculated in Step 3)
To meet the N requirement
120 lb N/A divided by 16.2 lb available N/ton = 7.4
tons/A
To meet the P2O5 requirement
60 lb P2O5/A divided by 12.8 lb available P2O5/
ton = 4.7 tons/A
To meet the K2O requirement
100 lb K2O/A divided by 11.7 lb available K2O/
ton = 8.5 tons/A
Step 5 Select the rate of manure to apply
Decide whether to base the application rate on the
N, P2O5, or K2O requirement
For this example, we will use the N requirement
The application rate will be 7.4 tons of manure/A
Step 6 Determine the amount of available nutri-
ents applied with the manure
Multiply the application rate of manure (selected
in Step 5) times the amounts of available nutrients
(calculated in Step 3)
We decided to meet the N requirement and are ap-
plying 120 lb N/A
P2O5 application rate
7.4 tons of manure/A x 12.8 lb available P2O5/ton
= 94.7 lb P2O5/A
K2O application rate
7.4 tons of manure/A x 11.7 lb available K2O/ton
= 86.6 lb K2O /A
Step 7 Determine whether application of addition-
al nutrients is needed
Subtract the amounts of nutrients needed by
the crop (based on soil test in Step 1) from the
amounts of available nutrients applied with the
manure (calculated in Step 6)
The N requirement is met
P2O5 requirement
60 94.7 = 34.7
Excess of 34.7 lb P2O5/A
This feld has a medium soil test P level (8 ppm
Bray-P1), so a single application of excess P
should not cause a problem; however, continued
manure applications based on crop N require-
ments will build up soil test P to levels that even-
tually could cause water quality problems
K2O requirement
100 86.6 = 13.4
Shortage of 13.4 lb K2O/A
Supplemental K2O could be applied in starter fer-
tilizer
Th e Na t u r a l Fa r me r
S p r i n g , 2 0 0 8 30
by Philip D. Lusk
Growth and concentration of the livestock industry
require proper disposal of the large quantities of
manures generated at dairy, swine, and poultry
farms. Pollutants from unmanaged livestock wastes
can degrade the environment, and methane emitted
from decomposing manure may contribute to global
climate change.
One management system not only provides pollution
prevention but also can convert a manure problem
into a new proft center. Economic evaluations and
case studies of operating systems indicate that the
anaerobic digestion (AD) of livestock manures is a
commercially available bioconversion technology
with considerable potential for providing proftable
co-products, including a cost-effective renewable
fuel for livestock production operations.
U.S. livestock operations currently employ four
types of anaerobic digester technology: slurry,
plug-fow, complete-mix, and covered lagoon.
An introduction to the engineering economies of
these technologies is provided, and possible end-
use applications for the methane gas generated by
the digestion process are discussed. The economic
evaluations are based on engineering studies of
digesters that generate electricity from the recovered
methane.
More than two decades of research has provided
much information about how manure can be
converted to an energy source; however, the
American farmer has not been motivated to adopt
new practices. More cost-effective and easily
managed manure management techniques are still
needed to encourage farmers to use animal manure
for conversion into energy and nutrients, especially
for smaller farms.
Surveyed farmers who have installed and continue
to operate digesters are generally satisfed with
their investment decisions. Some chose to install
digesters for non-economic reasons, primarily
to control odor or contain excess nutrient runoff.
Farmers have found that the returns provided from
electricity and co-product sales from the digester,
however limited, are preferred to the sunk-cost of
conventional disposal that provides zero return on
investment. Moreover, without the environmental
benefts provided by AD technology, some might
have been forced out of livestock production. AD is
sometimes the only technology that allows growth
in the livestock production business. Turning a
waste liability into a proft center that generates
annual revenues can moderate the impacts of
declining commodity prices and diversify farm
income.
Introduction to Anaerobic Digestion
Biogas is formed solely through the activity of
bacteria, unlike composting in which fungi and
lower creatures are also involved in the degradation
process. Microbial growth and biogas production
are very slow at ambient temperatures. They tend
to occur naturally wherever high concentrations of
wet organic matter accumulate in the absence of
dissolved oxygen, most commonly in the bottom
sediments of lakes and ponds, in swamps, peat bogs,
intestines of animals, and in the anaerobic interiors
of landfll sites.
The overall process of AD occurs through the
symbiotic action of a complex consortium of
bacteria, as shown by Figure 2.1. Hydrolytic
microorganisms, including common food spoilage
bacteria, break down complex organic wastes. These
subunits are then fermented into short-chain fatty
acids, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen gases.
Methane Recovery from
Animal Manures
Syntrophic microorganisms then convert the
complex mixture of short-chain fatty acids to acetic
acid with the release of more carbon dioxide, and
hydrogen gases. Finally, methanogenesis produces
biogas from the acetic acid, hydrogen and carbon
dioxide. Biogas is a mixture of methane, carbon
dioxide, and numerous trace elements. According to
some, the two key biological issues are determining
the most favorable conditions for each process stage
and how non-optimal circumstances affect each
process stage as a whole, and the governing role of
hydrogen generation and consumption.
Sulfate-reducing bacteria, which reduce sulfates and
other sulfur compounds to hydrogen sulfde, are also
present during the process. Most of the hydrogen
sulfde reacts with iron and other heavy metal salts
to form insoluble sulfdes, but there will always be
some hydrogen sulfde in the biogas.
The widespread natural occurrence of methane
bacteria demonstrates that AD can take place over
a wide temperature range from 40F to more than
212F and at a variety of moisture contents from
around 60% to more than 99%. This distinguishes
the methane bacteria favorably from most aerobic
microorganisms involved in the composting process.
AD occurs in the psychrophilic temperature range
(less than 68F), and is routinely observed in marsh
gas and in the ambient temperature lagoons used
for livestock. Conventional anaerobic digesters, as
will be explained in greater detail, are commonly
designed to operate in either the mesophilic
temperature range (95-105F) or thermophilic
temperature range (125-135F).
There are usually two reasons why the mesophilic
and thermophilic temperatures are preferred. First,
a higher loading rate of organic materials can be
processed and, because a shorter hydraulic retention
time (HRT) is associated with higher temperatures,
increased outputs for a given digester capacity
result. Second, higher temperatures increase the
destruction of pathogens present in raw manure.
A Short History of Anaerobic Digestion
Anecdotal evidence indicates that biogas was used
for heating bath water in Assyria during the 10th
century BC and in Persia during the 16th century.
Jan Baptita Van Helmont frst determined in the 17th
century that fammable gases could evolve from
decaying organic matter. Count Alessandro Volta
concluded in 1776 that there was a direct correlation
between the amount of decaying organic matter and
the amount of fammable gas produced. In 1808,
Sir Humphry Davy determined that methane was
present in the gases produced during the AD of
cattle manure.
The frst digestion plant was built at a leper colony
in Bombay, India in 1859. AD reached England in
1895 when biogas was recovered from a carefully
designed sewage treatment facility and used to
fuel street lamps in Exeter. The development of
microbiology as a science led to research by A.
M. Buswell and others in the 1930s to identify
anaerobic bacteria and the conditions that promote
methane production.
In the world of AD technology, farm-based facilities
are perhaps the most common. Six to eight million
family-sized, low-technology digesters are used to
provide biogas for cooking and lighting fuels with
varying degrees of success. In China and India there
is a trend toward using larger, more sophisticated
systems with better process control that generate
electricity.
In Europe, AD facilities generally have had a good
record in treating the spectrum of suitable farm,
industrial, and municipal wastes. The process was
used quite extensively when energy supplies were
reduced during and after World War II. Some AD
facilities in Europe have been in operation for more
than 20 years. More than 600 farm-based digesters
operate in Europe, where the key factor found in
the successful facilities is their design simplicity.
Around 250 of these systems have been installed in
Germany alone in the past 5 years.
Th e Na t u r a l Fa r me r
S p r i n g , 2 0 0 8 31
Other factors infuencing success have been local environmental regulations
and other policies governing land use and waste disposal. Because of these
environmental pressures, many nations have implemented or are considering
methods to reduce the environmental impacts of waste disposal. Processes
such as AD and composting offer the only biological route for recycling
matter and nutrients from the organic fraction of Municipal Solid Waste
(MSW). Composting is an energy-consuming process, requiring 50-75 kWh
of electricity per ton of waste input. Composting technology for MSW is
commercially available and in use, but its further application is limited
mainly by environmental aspects and process economics. AD is a net energy-
producing process, with around 75-150 kWh of electricity created per ton of
MSW input. MSW digestion technology is now being demonstrated and fully
commercialized.
Farm-Based Anaerobic Digestion Practices in the United States
Although some effort has focused on the AD of caged layer poultry manures,
the manures from dairy and swine operations tend to be more suitable for farm-
based energy conversion. This is because dairy and swine manure management
systems are often liquid or slurry based, which simplifes the necessary manure
movement. Also, poultry manures contain a higher concentration of fne solids
that can quickly fall out of suspension unless continuously agitated. If not kept
in suspension, these solids can quickly reduce reactor volume and its ability to
produce biogas.
The nations frst farm-based digester was initiated as a result of a now familiar
problem--urban encroachment. The McCabe Farm built most of its hog
production facilities between 1951-1953 on a rural site outside of the town of
Mt. Pleasant, Iowa. By 1970, the town had expanded to the farms border, and
the McCabe family had to develop an odor-free system of managing swine
manure. Initially, the McCabes converted their anaerobic lagoon into an aerobic
system by adding an aerator. However, the buildup of organic matter over the
winter took 6-8 weeks to stabilize in the spring, during which time a signifcant
odor problem developed. Chemicals were added to the aerobic lagoon in early
spring one year, and it helped control odors but did not eliminate them.
A new system was needed that would deodorize the manure all year and allow
it to be spread according to the farms schedule during good weather. With
the assistance of the County Extension Service and others, Harold Wiz
McCabe found what appeared to be a satisfactory solution in a theoretical
article describing the AD of swine manure. The process promised to provide
a gas that could be easily disposed of and would produce a stabilized sludge
that could be spread anywhere. Wiz was an innovator and master mechanic,
and he took a crash course in the design and construction of a complete-mix
anaerobic digester. It took 2 years to locate and install the reactor, fabricate
heat exchangers from old dairy equipment, convert an old dairy 10-horsepower
upright boiler to operate on both biogas and propane, install the necessary
control and safety equipment, and put all the pieces together. In early May
1972, the digester was seeded with 6,000 gallons of sludge from the towns
municipal waste digester and two hours of manure fow from the swine facility.
Over the next few days, digester seeding continued on a planned schedule. On
10 May, the ffth day after digester inoculation, excess biogas tripped a relief
valve and the frst farm-based digester in the United States came to life.
During the energy crises of the mid- and late 1970s, the search for alternative
energy resources led to investigation of small- and medium-scale anaerobic
digesters developed in India and China to determine whether these technologies
were directly transferable to farms in the United States. Unfortunately, although
these technologies are useful in providing fuel for cooking and lighting in
developing economies, most are much too small to be useful to most American
farmers. For example, the typical small-scale digester daily produces about the
same amount of energy as contained in 1 gal of propane.
The greater energy requirements of the larger American livestock operations
led to the design and installation of several demonstration projects that
transferred state-of-the-art sewage treatment plant technology to the farm.
Although complete-mix digesters can operate in the thermophilic temperature
range, the demonstration projects at facilities such as the Washington State
Dairy Farm in Monroe operated only in the mesophilic temperature range. At
the Monroe project the digester was sized for the manure volume produced by
a milking herd of 180-200 Holstein cows.
Although these frst-generation complete-mix digesters generally produced
biogas at the target design rate, they suffered from high capital costs and
signifcant operating & maintenance requirements. In practical application
on the farm, solids settling, scum formation, and grit removal often presented
major problems.
Todays complete-mix digesters can handle manures with TS concentrations
of 3%-10%, and generally can handle substantial manure volumes. The reactor
is a large, vertical, poured concrete or steel circular container. The manure is
collected in a mixing pit by either a gravity-fow or pump system. If needed,
the TS concentration can be diluted, and the manure can be preheated before it
is introduced to the digester reactor. The manure is deliberately mixed within
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S p r i n g , 2 0 0 8 32
the digester reactor. The mixing process creates a
homogeneous substrate that prevents the formation
of a surface crust and keeps solids in suspension.
Mixing and heating improve digester effciency.
Complete-mix digesters operate at either the
mesophilic or thermophilic temperatures range. with
a HRT as brief as 10-20 days.
A fxed cover is placed over the complete-mix
digester to maintain anaerobic conditions and to
trap the methane-rich biogas that is produced. The
methane is removed from the digester, processed,
and transported to the site of end-use application.
The most common application for methane
produced by the digestion process is electricity
generation using a modifed internal combustion
engine. Both the digester and the mixing pit are
heated with waste heat from the engine cooling
system. Complete-mix digester volumes range
considerably from about 3,500-70,000 cubic feet
(ft3). This represents daily capacities of about
25,000-500,000 gal of manure/digester. Larger
volumes are usually handled by multiple digesters.
By the late-1970s researchers at Cornell University
were able to reduce the capital costs and the
operational complexities associated with the early
complete-mix digesters by using a simple extension
of Asian AD technology.
These plug-fow digesters were adopted with
some success in the cooler climate of the Northeast,
where dairy farms primarily use scraping systems
for manure removal. The 1979 project at the Mason
Dixon Dairy Farms in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania,
was the frst plug-fow digester operated on a
commercial farm. At the Mason Dixon project, the
plug-fow digester was originally sized for a manure
volume produced by a milking herd of 600 Holstein
cows.
The basic plug-fow digester design is a long linear
trough, often built below ground level, with an air-
tight expandable cover. Manure is collected daily
and added to one end of the trough. Each day a new
plug of manure is added, slowly pushing the other
manure down the trough. The size of the plug-fow
system is determined by the size of the daily plug.
As the manure progresses through the trough, it
decomposes and produces methane that is trapped in
the expandable cover. To protect the fexible cover
and maintain optimal temperatures, some plug-
fow digesters are enclosed in simple greenhouses
or insulated with a fberglass blanket. Plug-
fow digesters usually operate at the mesophilic
temperature range, with a HRT from 20-30 days.
An often vital component of a plug-fow digester is
the mixing pit, which allows the TS concentration
of the manure to be adjusted to a range of 11%-
13% by dilution with water. Many systems use a
mixing pit with a capacity roughly equal to 1 days
manure output to store manure before adding it to
the digester.
The complete-mix and plug-fow digestion
technologies are not suited for use on farms that
use hydraulic fushing systems to remove manure
and anaerobic lagoons to treat waste. Hydraulic
fushing substantially dilutes the manure, with TS
concentrations often far less than 3%. An anaerobic
lagoon is a popular method used to treat and store
manure. A properly designed and operated anaerobic
lagoon system, in which the HRT exceeds 60 days,
may produce signifcant quantities of methane.
In the early 1980s, the concept of using a foating
cover to collect biogas as it escapes from the
surface of an anaerobic lagoon was transferred from
industry to the farm. The North Carolina Energy
Division and North Carolina State University
constructed the frst full-scale covered anaerobic
lagoon digester on the east coast at the Randleigh
Dairy in 1988. The digester processed the manure
from 150 dairy cows.
The methane produced in an anaerobic lagoon is
captured by placing a foating, impermeable cover
over the lagoon. The cover is constructed of an
industrial fabric that rests on solid foats laid on
the surface of the lagoon. The cover can be placed
over the entire lagoon or over the part that produces
the most methane. Once the cover is installed, the
methane produced under the covered area of the
lagoon is trapped. The biogas is harvested using
a collection manifold, such as a long perforated
pipe, that is placed under the cover along the sealed
edge of the lagoon. Methane is removed by the pull
of a slight vacuum on the collection manifold (by
connecting a suction blower to the end of the pipe)
that draws the collected biogas out from under the
cover and on to the end-use application.
The cover is held in position with ropes and
anchored by a concrete footing along the edge of the
lagoon. Where the cover attaches to the edge of the
lagoon, an air-tight seal is constructed by placing a
sheet of the cover material over the lagoon bank and
down several feet into the lagoon, and clamping the
cover (with the footing) onto the sealed bank. Seals
are formed on the remaining edges with a weighted
curtain of material that hangs vertically from the
edge of the foating cover into the lagoon.
The covered lagoon digester operation and
manintenance is simple and straightforward
compared to complete-mix and plug-fow digesters.
Also, the capital costs for this type of digester can
be less than those required for the complete-mix and
plug-fow types of conventional digesters.
Covering an anaerobic lagoon and harvesting the
biogas can be a simplifed technology; however, the
approach raises at least three signifcant concerns.
A key issue is that digestion rate is dependent on
temperature; therefore, biogas production varies
seasonally if the lagoon is not externally heated.
This means that methane production is greatest
in the warm, summer months and lowest during
the cooler, winter months. At the Randleigh
Dairy, daily biogas production during the summer
averaged 35% more than during the winter. This
may make end-use applications more problematic
than they are with conventional digesters, which
have less signifcant seasonal variations in methane
production. A second concern is that it can take an
anaerobic lagoon as long as 1-2 years to achieve
its steady-state biogas production potential. It is
best to start a project of this type in late spring or
early summer to take advantage of warm weather.
Digesters that are started during cool months are
subject to upset from overfeeding. Moreover, any
anaerobic lagoon (covered or not) is impractical
in areas with a high water table because of the
potential for groundwater contamination. Lagoons
built into highly permeable soils must be adequately
lined to prevent groundwater contamination.
The complete-mix, plug-fow for dairy, and the
covered anaerobic lagoon are the only ones now
recognized by the USDAs Natural Resource
Conservation Service (NRCS) in the form of
National Guidance provided to States. Other
types of AD systems may have the technical and
economic potential to process animal manures.
One digester type that might be considered by
some to be a variant of the plug-fow digester is
referenced in this report as a slurry-based system.
Unlike plug-fow systems that are used only on dairy
farms and that require manure TS concentrations of
11-13%, slurry-based digestion systems can operate
with much lower solids concentrations and can be
used to treat a variety of animal manures. Slurry
systems require no mechanical mixing and are
often found as silo-type reactors or in a loop or
Th e Na t u r a l Fa r me r
S p r i n g , 2 0 0 8 33
horseshoe confguration. Several operators believe
the slurry design can enable greater convective
currents in the digester, thereby helping to avoid the
solids crusting problem commonly associated with
the plug-fow design when TS concentrations fall
below design parameters.
Energy and Anaerobic Digestion
The theoretical methane yield can be shown to be
5.6 ft
3
/pound (lb) of chemical oxygen demand
converted, but the exact recoverable yield depends
on a number of environmental conditions. The
ultimate yield of biogas depends on the composition
and biodegradability of the organic feedstock, but
its production rate will depend on the population
of microorganisms, their growth conditions, and
fermentation temperature.
Methane produced by the AD process is quite
similar to natural gas that is extracted from the
wellhead. However, natural gas contains a variety
of hydrocarbons other than methane, such as ethane,
propane, and butane. As a result, natural gas will
always have a higher calorifc value than pure
methane. Depending on the digestion process, the
methane content of biogas is generally between
55%-80%. The remaining composition is primarily
carbon dioxide, with trace quantities (0-15,000 ppm)
of corrosive hydrogen sulfde and water.
The average expected energy content of pure
methane is 896-1069 Btu/ft3; natural gas has an
energy content about 10% higher because of added
gas liquids like butane. However, the particular
characteristics of methane, the simplest of the
hydrocarbons, make it an excellent fuel for certain
uses. With some equipment modifcations to account
for its lower energy content and other constituent
components, biogas can be used in all energy-
consuming applications designed for natural gas.
Today, it is commonly burned in an internal
combustion engine to generate electricity. Practical
experience with small-scale internal combustion
engines with a rated capacity of less than 200 kW
indicate an electrical conversion effciency of
less than 25%. Larger engines can have a greater
conversion effciency. One engine supplier claims
to have an engine with an electrical conversion
effciency that averages 38% for engines in the 600-
1000 kW range.
When biogas is used to produce electricity, there
is the added potential for harvesting hot water
and steam from the engines exhaust and cooling
systems. Combining hot water and steam recovery
with electricity generation may provide an overall
conversion effciency of 80% or more. Biogas is
also burned in boilers to produce hot water and
steam used for heating and sanitary washing.
Environment and Anaerobic Digestion
Growth and concentration of the livestock industry
in the United States create opportunities for the
proper disposal of the large quantities of manures
generated at dairy, swine, and poultry farms. The
potential pollutants from decomposing livestock
manures are biochemical oxygen demand,
pathogens, nutrients, methane, and ammonia
emissions. The major pollution problems associated
with these wastes are surface and groundwater
contamination and surface air pollution caused by
odors, dust, and ammonia. There is also concern
about the contribution of methane emissions to
global climate change. Consequently, manure
management systems that enable pollution
prevention and produce energy are becoming
increasingly attractive.
According to a U.S. Senate study, there are no
national standards for dealing with animal manures.
The study also reported that the amount of animal
manure produced in the United States is 130 times
greater than the amount of human waste. Using one
example, a single 50,000-acre hog farm being built
in Utah could produce more residues than the city
of Los Angeles. As animals become increasingly
concentrated...and on larger operations, there is not
always enough crop land to use all of the manure as
fertilizer. These increasing concentrations of manure
mean that the risk of water pollution from waste
spills, runoff from felds, and leakage from storage
facilities is also increasing.
The study also indicated the nations agricultural
offcials consider 60% of rivers and streams
impaired, with agricultural runoff the largest
contributor to that pollution. In one year alone,
more than 40 animal manure spills killed 670,000
fsh in Iowa, Minnesota, and Missouri, the study
revealed. The report also noted that the rise of large-
scale livestock operations, a growing trend among
meat producers, has greatly increased the risk of
manure spills, because the large farms produce more
manure than can be spread over nearby cropland.
For example, over the past 25 years, the number of
hog farms nationally has dropped to 65,000 from
about 600,000, but the overall output of hogs has
increased substantially.
NOFA Videos
0701 Growing & Using Herbs Kathy Morris
0702 Perennial Vegetables Eric Toensmeier
0703 Keynote Talk Bill McKibben
0704 Getting the Most from a Woodlot Bill MacKentley
0705 Grass-Fed Beef Carolyn & John Wheeler
0706 Intro to Hay & Haying Dominic Palumbo
0707 Growing Root Crops Liz Henderson
0708 Organic Beekeeping Ross Conrad
0709 Small Scale Grain Raising Bi-sek Hsiao
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Th e Na t u r a l Fa r me r
S p r i n g , 2 0 0 8 34
by Jack Kittredge
To those of us acclimated to the scale of southern
New England, the vastness of central New York
is spectacular. The thousands of square miles of
farmland, rolling away farther than the eye can see,
give witness to the tremendous productive capacity
of the Northeast. Yet the small towns and cities
dotted throughout the landscape are still vibrant
because the farming economy remains at a family
scale, rather than the depopulated industrial scale
that has become so widespread farther out in the
Midwest.
In one of these towns, Dryden, half way between
Syracuse and Binghamton, Vaughn and Sue
Sherman farm 1600 acres they call Jerry Dell Farm,
a certifed organic dairy. Vaughn grew up there.
When he was 17 he got to see a little of the world,
going to Europe and traveling through almost
a dozen countries. He tended to spend his time,
however, observing dairy farms. He came home and,
in his time, took the farm over -- which he expects
some of his sons and nephews to do in theirs.
For most of its years the farm was modestly
successful. The Shermans were the kind of farmers
who stayed up with the times, adopting the latest
advances. At one point it boasted 5 Harvestore silos,
the trademark blue fberglass-over-steel devices that,
in their time, introduced a better way to preserve
feed and began popping up in the 1950s at the more
affuent dairies.
Managing Manure:
Returning it to the Land
The Shermans also were early converts to recombi-
nant Bovine Somatotrophin (rBST), the genetically
engineered growth hormone which is administered to
lactating cows to increase their milk output by 10 or
15%. Their cows, although stressed and often exhib-
iting health problems, were producing a lot of milk.
Now, however, the Shermans run their farm
differently. Gone are the Harvestores, not necessary
when your cows are getting most of their nutrition
from grazing. Gone is the rBST, along with most
of the animals health problems, now that they are
outdoors and eating grass. From farm economics to
herd health to manure management to farmer job
satisfaction, Vaughn and Sues conversion to organic
dairying in 2000 was a godsend.
I had had a couple of bad years, Vaughn relates.
My health had gotten bad. The doctors gave me a
drug that I was allergic to. They couldnt fgure it out
and it darn near killed me. So nobody was watching
the farm, and everything was happening bad. We
were total confnement, using rBST, milking three
times per day. We were up to a hundred pounds per
cow per day and they were just stressed out. We were
always dragging them out and treating them, talking
about adding on to our hospital area because it wasnt
big enough to hold all our sick cows.
When Vaughn realized that he was losing money
on the farm because of the health problems and the
high costs of confnement management, he decided
something had to change.
That was a big slap in the face that I needed to look
at something different, he says. I never wanted
total confnement so I said Okay, the cows are going
back outside. We quit growing corn so we quit using
herbicides. After a couple of years I discovered we
were kind of organic. So I fell into it by accident
(laughs). Which is a good thing. The best thing that
happened to me was when we had the bad year. It
kind of wakes you up. I converted to organic because
I was going broke.
Originally the Shermans were going to ship their
milk with Horizon, but the company reneged.
(Which is what Horizon does best! Vaughn
remarks.) So they fell into Organic Valley. (Which
is a good thing, he laughs. Everything I do is kind
of by accident.)
photo by Jack Kittredge
The Organic Valley milk truck making a pick-up at the Shermans milking parlor.
photo by Jack Kittredge
Vaughn stands by his compost piles.
Th e Na t u r a l Fa r me r
S p r i n g , 2 0 0 8 35
There are some other dairy farmers around moving
into organic production, Vaughn says, but not a lot.
The organic milk price has been high and steady,
he says. But right now, in the fall of 2007, the
conventional price is very high. I dont understand
the milk price swings in conventional. Thats one
reason I got out of it. Youre happy for six months
and then stressed out for 2 years! Going organic is
the best thing we ever did.
When they converted to organic their milk
production dropped from a hundred pounds per
cow per day down to about 50. Now its up at about
60, and Vaughn is pretty happy with that range. He
says he is not sure where the line is where you start
trading health for production.
Its probably different on different farms,
he muses, because there are other things that
contribute to the stress of a cow. I know Kathy
Arnold gets closer to 70 pounds. I dont know about
her herd health. But for us, now we hardly use
the hospital area at all. Its amazing what getting
outdoors, getting some exercise and eating some
grass will do for you! Even people! Theyre not too
healthy sitting at a desk. We all need to get out and
move around.
Jerry Dell dairy currently has 350 cows producing
milk and another 350 young stock. Vaughn feels that
its too hard on young ones when theyre under a
year to be outside all the time, so they are inside a
lot. He needs so much young stock because he culls
heavily.
We have pretty much eliminated our disease
problems, he explains. If a cow comes up positive
we pretty much eliminate them right away. We test
for Staph. aureus thats a kind of mastitis bug.
Most people dont even know they have it. If you
tested every dairy farm for it, 90% would turn up
positive. If they get that here, we get rid of them.
Our somatic cell count is down to around 180,000
now. Wed like to get it down to 100,000 to 150,000.
We cull heavy because we want to put out a really
good product. Even though some of our animals do
last longer we have cows that are 10 or12 years
old now we still turn over about 30% in a year.
Thirty percent of 350 cows is 110 a year. It takes
two years to grow a calf, so well need the young
stock we have.
Despite such a cull rate, the Shermans have not
made any effort to sell their animals for organic
meat. Vaughn just sells the culls to a conventional
slaughterhouse.
Before his illness, Vaughn and Sue owned about
1200 acres, and they didnt really use all of it
because the cows were confned. But they had to sell
half of it during their bad years. They have about
600 acres now, need it all and rent another thousand.
When there is adequate rain, Sherman says, they
have enough land. But when it is dry there is just
not enough land to support adequate production of
feed for the cows. He is looking around for land to
buy now, but hasnt found the right piece. It goes
for about $2000 an acre, if you can fnd someone to
sell. There is some development pressure in Dryden,
which is slowly making felds harder to fnd.
We grow almost all our own grain, Vaughn
explains, and would like to expand. Were trying to
grow about 300 acres of corn for grain, and another
200 acres of triticale (a cross between wheat and
rye) and spelt. With that we make high moisture
corn snaplage, which is the ear of corn ground up.
The snaplage runs about 30% to 35% moisture.
Well also make high moisture triticale and spelt
because we dont have enough dry storage. We
put this in a bunker with a cover and some organic
preservative. We combine it when it is at a moisture
level in the teens, and then put a little water with it.
It comes out a little above 20%. We feed all that as
TMR a total mixed ration. When the cows come
in morning and night theyll have a couple of hours
to eat.
In the spring, when the fush is in, he continues,
they will get about 25% or their nutrients from the
TMR, so 75% will be from grass. In September it is
probably more like 50% from each. I hate to get less
than 50% from grass, though. I really think the more
TMR you give them, the more health problems you
have. We dont have many health problems now.
We got rid of 90% of our health problems by going
organic and putting them out on grass.
The pastures are mostly high quality clover and
alfalfa. Vaughn thinks baleage or Harvestores are
the best way to preserve feed. Baglage is also really
good, whereas bunkers are just okay. But that is
what they can do with the equipment they have. For
hay they do round bales. Vaughn likes to have dry
hay available to help the cows get more fber.
The Jerry Dell soils test high on most nutrients
except zinc and boron. The Shermans feel soil
nutrition is key to a successful operation and try to
supplement with fsh emulsion or other products to
bring those numbers up.
The farm also supports an extensive fencing
network to make paddocks for intensive grazing
on the 240 acres of pasture. They have some locust
posts and have hired a professional company to
come with high tensile wire. That frm uses treated
posts, says Vaughn -- treated ones which have been
approved for use in organic production areas.
Some of our fencing is solar powered, he adds.
This one across the road goes way up and there
are a lot of weeds touching it, plus a lot of cross
paddocks. It covers 50 acres and thats a little much.
We have problems with it sometimes. But the ones
we have 20 acres on and weeds touch are fne. On
10 or 15 acres its really hot!
It takes about 5 hours to milk 350 cows. The
milking is done in a highly automated 20-stall parlor
which one or two people can run. It starts at 3 in the
morning and again 3 in the afternoon. Altogether
about 10 people work at the farm. Vaughn and
Sue, plus 2 of their four sons (one of the others
grows produce locally and the other works for an
accounting frm in Ithaca) and 2 nephews make
6 from the family. They have one herdsman who
Vaughn just pulled in, and three Mexicans who are
all fulltime, year round. Then when theyre really
busy with summer haying they hire a couple of extra
people part time.
The Mexicans here, Vaughn explains, always
have friends. So most of the time were able to
get part time Mexican help. We pay $7.00 plus
housing. I fgure that comes out to about $10.00.
One guy has his wife and two kids with him. Hes
photo by Jack Kittredge
Vaughn and Sues farm sign
photo by Jack Kittredge
The cows graze for 12 hours in a paddock, then are moved to a different one.
They are supplied with water via the moveable blue water wagon.
Th e Na t u r a l Fa r me r
S p r i n g , 2 0 0 8 36
been with us four years. He has papers they all
do. But I sometimes wonder if theyre perfectly
legal. Sometimes youll get a notice from the Social
Security saying the number is wrong. Sometimes
theyll just change it I really dont follow it. The
Mexicans are awesome people, anyway!
Vaughn is not totally happy with the way they
manage their manure, but believes strongly in
getting it back on the land to build soil health. There
are three ways they manage this.
Most of the manure is spread by the cows, he
says. That part is simple. But they only graze from
May to November. Theyre indoors November
through the frst of May. Of course they go out
during the days. We let them out on frozen snow.
The only time we dont let them out is if it is muddy,
or if it is windy and blowing snow.
For the winter accumulation from the 350 cows,
the farm has a large slurry tank. They pump manure
from the barn into the tank, and then spread it in
the spreader. Vaughn likes to spread it as it is being
plowed down for instance before a rain -- so it is
incorporated into the soil. Given the 350 cows the
farm is currently milking, the tank can hold about
three months worth of manure. That isnt always
quite enough to get through a long winter.
We dont like to spread on snow, says Vaughn.
Its pretty rare but there are always situations. We
do spread in the winter if we have to.
We do a lot of composting, he continues.
Especially at the heifer barn. There is a lot of pen-
pack up there. Down here at the cow barn well
compost for a couple of months and then when it
gets really cold and nasty thats when well fll the
slurry. Our bedding is gypsum, which most people
dont use. Gypsum is very dense, so it is hard to
spread. But if you put lime in with it, it fuffs it up.
We put it in with our spreader, and also put some
kiln-dried sawdust in, mixing it in with the gypsum.
That makes a good bedding. Then, when you put it
on your felds, its good for the soil, too!
Vaughn is not interested in selling their compost,
feeling strongly that it should go back onto the farm.
One exception is they let their son use some in his
vegetable cropping business. But mostly they use it
on the felds.
photo by Jack Kittredge
The Shermans slurry tank takes the manure generated during the winter by the milkers in
the barn. It holds about three months accumulation.
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Many Hands Organic Farm
Julie Rawson & Jack Kittredge (978) 355-2853
Barre, MA, www.mhof.net, farm@mhof.net
Produce, Fruit & Flower farm shares
May 1 to December 7
Organic & Free-range
Poultry & Pork, Organic Lard
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Th e Na t u r a l Fa r me r
S p r i n g , 2 0 0 8 37
Were in the infancy of making compost, he
admits. Were going to do more this year, because
we kind of like it. We spread all we had in the
spring, with a manure spreader in the felds. This
is almost like dirt. It has a dirt smell to it, not a
manure smell. We accumulated most of this during
the summer from the calf pens, put it in a windrow
and try to turn it every two or three weeks. We dont
have a turner. You can turn it with a tractor, but
thats not as effcient and takes a lot of time. Were
getting a compost turner this fall that can straddle
photo by Jack Kittredge
Vaughns compost piles are formed from pen scrapings mixed with crop residue and
whatever carbon sources he can get like leaves and bark chips from the town.
the windrow and turn it as you drive down the pile.
The thing with compost is, he continues, it
cant be liquid manure. That wont compost. It has
to have a lot of straw or other carbon in it. Were
trying to get bark chips from the town, or leaves.
Sometimes you can get food waste from restaurants,
if they separate out the paper and other materials.
We havent really developed that yet. We grow
almost all our own grain. So we need the nutrients.
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AGRICULTURE IN SERVICE OF THE EARTH AND HUMANITY
WINTER 2008 | #263
BIODYNAMIC AGRICULTURE PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE
70TH ANNIVERSARY OF THE ASSOCIATION
Natural Farmer ad-spring08-BDFGA:Natural Farmer ad - spring08 - BDFGA 1/30/08 1:06 PM Page 1
$15 for a US address, or
$20 for a foreign address
Th e Na t u r a l Fa r me r
S p r i n g , 2 0 0 8 38
Stefan Lovgren
National Geographic News
Crude oil and gasoline prices are near an all-time
high. But dont despair. One scientist has found an
alternative source of energy: pig manure.
Yuanhui Zhang, an agricultural engineering
professor at the University of Illinois in Urbana-
Champaign, has succeeded in turning small batches
of hog waste into oil.
The process, called thermochemical conversion,
uses heat and pressure to break down carbohydrate
materials and turn waste into liquid. The project is
still in its infancy.
For now, each half-gallon (two-liter) batch of
manure converts to only about 9 ounces (0.26 liter)
of oil.
But Zhang believes the conversion process could
eventually solve the problem of pollution and odor
at modern hog farms, where farmers pay big money
to get rid of the waste. And, he says, pig oil could
also offer an alternative to petroleum oil.
If 50 percent of U.S. swine farms adopted this
technology, we could see a 1.5-billion-dollar reduc-
tion in crude oil imports every year, Zhang said.
Swine producers could see a 10 percent increase in
their incomeabout $10 to $15 per hog.
Oil Crisis
During the oil crisis in the 1970s, U.S. researchers
attempted to turn wood sludge and coal into oil. But
it proved too costly. When oil prices later fell, the
whole idea of turning waste into fuel became less
attractive. The science is not new, but it has failed
because of economics, Zhang said. If you can
buy crude oil at $20 a barrel, why bother with pig
oil? Its too expensive. But with crude oil prices
much higher now, pig oil once again seems like an
attractive fuel alternative.
Zhangs research team developed a small-scale
thermochemical conversion reactor that applies heat
and pressure to swine manure. The process breaks
the manures long hydrocarbon chains down into
shorter ones. Methane, carbon dioxide, water, and
oil are produced as by-products.
The process we have developed is quite different
from most conventional thermochemical conversion
processes, said Zhang. There is no need for the
addition of a catalyst, and our process does not
require pre-drying of the manure. Each conversion
takes about 15 minutes, and the process has a strong
energy return. For every one portion of energy in,
you get three portions of energy out, Zhang said.
Negative Cost
The researchers converted as much as 70 percent
of swine manure volatile solids into oil. About 20
percent of the manure is considered solid; the rest is
largely water. Some 90 percent of that solid manure
is volatile, or organic. Those volatile solids are the
part of the manure that can be converted to oil.
The manure excreted by one pig during its life
span on an average hog farm could produce up to
21 gallons (80 liters) of crude oil. A swine farm
producing 10,000 market hogs per year could
produce 5,000 barrels, or 210,000 gallons (795,000
liters), of crude oil per year. Simply getting rid
of manure is a big business. Its a negative-cost
material to us, Zhang said. People are willing to
pay for you to use it.
Manure has advantages over raw materials, like
wood sludge, because the pig has already done most
of the work. Its a very nice material that is easy
to process, because its already been biologically
processed by the pigs, Zhang said.
Pig Manure Converted to Crude Oil
The process could also work with manure from
chickens or cows, though it would have to modifed.
Human waste, which is similar to that of pigs,
would, in theory, work well in Zhangs system with
little or no modifcation.
After the conversion, the researchers took the crude
oil and further processed it, obtaining refned oil
that Zhang says has a heating value similar to that of
diesel fuel.
Environmental Benefts
As a renewable energy, pig oil has great
environmental benefts. Minerals are preserved
in the treatment system, odor is reduced, and the
biological oxygen demand of manure is reduced by
70 percent. Biological oxygen demand refers to
the fact that, as manure breaks down, the process
sucks oxygen from its environment. When manure
leeches into a water supply, say due to runoff,
it harms aquatic life by decreasing the oxygen
available to fsh, water plants, and other organisms.
Also, unlike petroleum oil, pig oil uses no additives.
For me, its primarily an environmental thing,
Zhang said. We have to look to renewable or
alternative energy. We know that eventually we
cant keep digging up petroleum oil.
The next step for Zhangs research team is to
develop the batch process into what he calls a
continuous-mode process at a pilot plant. Then,
the heat generated from the process can be recycled
more effciently, reducing the operating costs,
Zhang said. Reactor volume can be reduced for
the same capacity, which reduces the investment
costs. And automated controls can be adapted more
readily, which reduces the labor costs.
So should oil companies be worried about Zhang?
Maybe, he said. I have no support from the oil
companies, thats for sure.
An Endless Harvest
Preserving and Using Fruits, Vegetables and
Herbs
by Betty Levine
published by Manorville Publishing, 235 Manorville
Rd., Saugerties, NY 12477
www.anendlessharvest.com
paperback, $15.95, 116 pages, numerous line
drawings of vegetables by Emanuel Schongut
bulk discount: 10 or more @ $15, 20 or more @
$13, 30 or more @ $10, postpaid
review by Jack Kittredge
Levine grew up on a small farm in North Carolina
during the Depression and her sensibility about the
Book Reviews
importance of having good food securely at hand
pervades this book. Primarily written out of her
10 years experience managing Hudson Valleys
Threshold Farm CSA, the book does an excellent
job of answering the two most common CSA
questions: What is this? and What do I do with
it?
After a short introduction explaining the idea of
a CSA, the book is broken into six chapters. The
frst talks about the vegetables available in June
and July, from Asparagus to Summer Squash;
the next in August, September and early October,
from Cabbages to Potatoes; the third in October,
November and December, from Brussels sprouts
to Winter squash. Each vegetable is introduced
with a few paragraphs on its history, botany,
nutritional benefts, and handling qualities. This is
accompanied with a nice line drawing and then a
few recipes based on the vegetable.
The fourth chapter gives over three dozen recipes
based on numerous fresh vegetables soups,
salads, stir fries, stews and numerous other
delicious-sounding dishes. The ffth and sixth
chapters treat herbs and fruits, respectively, the way
individual vegetables were treated in the frst three
introduction, drawing, uses and recipes. The book
ends with some useful information on handy kitchen
tools and canning instructions, a short bibliography,
and a detailed 4-page index that the busy reader can
use to look up a particular item or dish.
Th e Na t u r a l Fa r me r
S p r i n g , 2 0 0 8 39
Were it not for the strictures of copyright law, the
way the book is laid out -- on an 8 by 11 inch
basis with each vegetable, fruit or herb taking
exactly one, two, three or more pages -- would make
it ideal for CSA managers tired of answering those
common two questions. Just photocopy the few
pages dealing with the new and unfamiliar addition
to the produce mix and stick them in the bag! But
perhaps it would be better to just buy a copy for
each CSA member, or organize a joint purchase by
interested share-holders.
The Flower Farmer
An Organic Growers Guide to Raising and
Selling Cut Flowers
by Lynn Byczynski
published by Chelsea Green
www.chelseagreen.com
paperback, $35.00, 234 pages, color illustrations
throughout
includes a CD of the entire book for those who
prefer to read it on their laptops
review by Jack Kittredge
Lynn Byczynski is the editor of Growing for
Market, that handy and practical magazine for
small farmers and market gardeners. She is an
experienced guide through all the many steps
necessary to turn a novice with a back yard into an
experienced grower with a thriving business. Here
(in a revised and expanded version of her original
1997 book) she turns her energy to the task of doing
this with a fower operation.
She of course starts with the basics asking what
are your goals regarding scale, giving a discussion
of plant names and the distinctions among annuals,
perennials, and bulbs, considering the use of dried
fowers, herbs, grasses, vegetables and other foliage
in bouquets, and the importance of seasonality and
regionality. This all, mind you, is in just the frst
chapter!
Subsequent chapters cover Site and Soil, Buying
and Starting Plants, Growing in the Field, Season
Extension, Dried Flowers, Woody Ornamentals,
Harvest and Post-Harvest, Arranging Flowers, and
Selling and Marketing them. An appendix discusses
97 recommended cut fower varieties, from
Ageratums to Zinnias, giving a description, growing
zones, mature size, starting and growing tips and
often specialized information from Lynns 2 decades
of raising fowers for market in Kansas.
The book is replete with sidebars containing
interesting information: charts and tables, tips
on useful tools and materials, stories about other
growers around the country, advice on making
bouquets and arrangements. To read it is much like
listening to a friend who happens to be an expert at
something you want to do well. For years we have
raised cut fowers for weddings, for resale at stores,
and for sale at farmers markets. We also offer them
in our CSA as a separate share. But we are excited
to see this compendium of useful information all
in one place. While $35 may seem like a lot for a
book, given the color illustrations throughout, the
CD you can use once the pages are dog-eared with
use, and the trove of valuable information within, it
strikes me as a bargain!
In Defense of Food
An Eaters Manifesto
by Michael Pollan
published by the Penguin Group, 375 Hudson St.,
New York, NY 10014
www.penguin.com
$21.95, hardcover, 244 pages
review by Jack Kittredge
Michael Pollan needs no introduction in these pages.
The author of The Omnivores Dilemma and
The Botany of Desire is one of the most read and
discussed writers in the organic movement. In this
new volume he draws a clear distinction between
food and what he terms edible foodlike substances
those processed products of the food industry
created by taking real foods, breaking them down to
various parts, combining some of those parts with
chemicals, and packaging the product for sale as a
food.
Pollan suggests that we are in the age of
nutritionism. Experts have analyzed foods for
the nutrients they contain, and tell us that as long
as we get suffcient nutrients, no matter in what
form, we will be healthy. Yet we get sicker and more
obese the farther along that path we go. Instead, he
urges, we should return to what our ancestors would
have recognized as food. Eat food, not too much,
mostly plants is his succinct advice.
In the process he takes on nutrition science. It is
inherently fawed, he argues, because science works
by isolating variables and studying them outside the
context of their environment. But even a simple real
food is a complex system of many interacting parts
that may well be more than the sum of its parts. And
certainly the human who eats that food is a complex
organism with a far different biochemistry than the
fellow next to him at the lunch counter. We all have
different metabolism rates, heritages that give us (or
withhold from us) certain digestive enzymes, unique
populations of fora and fauna in our guts, and many
other variables that mean we will react differently to
the same nutrient.
He is conversant with, even interviewing many of,
the top nutrition scientists in the country. But he
convincingly takes apart major nutrition studies
(among them the gold standard Nurses Health
Study and the Womens Health Initiative) as based
on serious faws inadequate distinctions among
nutrients being studied, the tendency of people
to lie about what they eat, the fact that when you
remove something from a diet it will be replaced
by something else, and the placebo effect, among
others.
Part of my fascination with Pollans writing
comes from his sense of curiosity and his eye
for interesting facts. At one point he notes that
the average number of calories Americans report
consuming is 2000 per day. Yet the number of food
calories marketed to Americans comes to 3900
per day. Are we wasting that much, or waisting it?
In another paragraph he points out that a human
digestive tract has roughly the same number of
neurons as a spinal column. What in the world are
they doing there? The spinal column is (we think)
constantly sending complex messages of pleasure,
pain, pressure, heat, and other sensations to the
brain, and returning instructions to respond and
move in often extremely subtle ways. Is there a
similar information fow going back and forth to our
digestive organs when we consume food? If so, we
know virtually nothing about it yet.
Once Pollan has taken apart nutrition science and
demonstrated that it is more ideology than science,
he launches into something that will not surprise
many readers of this journal an indictment of
the whole Western diet. He cites the observations
of Weston A. Price, his medical colleagues Albert
Schweitzer, Denis Burkitt, Robert McCarrison, and
Samuel Hutton, and anthropologist Ales Hrdlicka
early in the 20
th
century. They all traveled among
native populations in parts of the globe that had not
yet been reached by Western culture and remarked
upon the almost total absence of obesity, diabetes,
heart disease, strokes, cancer, ulcers, hemorrhoids,
malformed dental arches and tooth decay. Many
were there to witness the frst appearance of
Western diseases (so-named by Burkitt who
worked in Africa during World War II) in those
isolated populations among (as Schweitzer put it)
natives living more and more after the manner of
the whites. Obesity would come frst, then type 2
diabetes, followed by hypertension, then strokes,
then heart disease. Refned four and sugar, and
other store food often seemed the culprit.
In talking about the creation of the Western diet,
he focuses on 5 changes which industrialization
has caused in our food system. Refning removes
the most nutritious parts of many foods fber,
proteins, oils and vitamins and leaves pure
carbohydrate, which is metabolized into glucose for
bodily energy. Simplifcation from providing only
N, P, and K for plant growth to getting over two-
thirds of our calories from only four crops (corn,
soy, wheat and rice) means that we lack many
of the micro-nutrients and complex compounds
we have evolved with in our food. Our focus on
food quantity instead of quality (through chemical
agriculture and breeding for higher yields) has
resulted in crops with signifcantly lower levels of
nutrients than they contained 50 years ago -- we end
up eating more calories but remain undernourished.
The shift from eating leaves (which tend to be high
in certain nutrients such as Omega-3 fatty acids)
to eating seeds (which tend to be higher in other
nutrients such as Omega-6 fatty acids) has been
a fundamental shift in our diets (Americans now
consume Omega-6 and Omega-3 in a ratio of 10 to
1, whereas before the introduction of seed oils in the
early part of the 20
th
century the ratio was more like
3 to 1.) The last change Pollan identifes is that of
who we authorize to tell us what to eat. Rules about
eating have evolved in traditional cultures because
they make sense for good health. In fact they are
often given religious authority. But the Western
diet is ignoring such traditional ways in favor of
industrial foods, which are clearly associated with
high levels of poor health.
So is there hope at the end of this tome? Of course.
The last third of In Defense of Food is devoted
to Pollans prescription to help people avoid the
Western diet his 7 word motto: Eat Food, Not too
Much, Mostly Plants.
By eating food, he means real food. He gives
several ways to recognize it: Would your great
grandmother recognize it? Then it is food. Does it
have ingredients you dont recognize as food? Then
it is not. Does it make health claims? Then it is not.
Is it on the periphery of the supermarket? Then it
likely is food. (But try to stay out of the supermarket
altogether.)
By mostly plants, he means more than the seeds.
The leaves are high in complex compounds which
we need, including vitamin C -- which is necessary
as an antioxidant in the leaves to control the
damage which would otherwise be caused by the
pure oxygen produced from photosynthesis. (Isnt
this guy interesting?) He fnds no fault with meat
nutritionally (unless it is raised in a feedlot, as so
much American meat is) but feels we dont need to
be eating anywhere near the volume we currently
consume (200 pounds a year each).
By not too much, he means smaller portions, eaten
in meals at tables instead of snacks on the go, with
other people, slowly, and until you are 80% full.
No one should be surprised, but Pollan has again
produced a thoughtful, convincing book about the
American food system. That this one is geared
to individuals concerned about this system and
wanting to know how to survive it is a good sign.
More and more people are waking up to these
concerns. Most readers of this journal will not fnd
much advice here they dont already follow, but
they will fnd a frm foundation in the history, the
science, and the reasoning behind that advice. This
would make an excellent gift for anyone who is
trying to change his or her diet.
Th e Na t u r a l Fa r me r
S p r i n g , 2 0 0 8 40
by Elizabeth Ferry
While presidential candidates were running
through New Hampshire like cows on the loose,
the Department of Agriculture did something both
thoughtful and radical. For the frst time in 25 years,
it swore in a new Commissioner of Agriculture;
and for the frst time ever, the new commissioner,
Lorraine Stuart Merrill, is a woman.
Throughout New England and New York, farmers
are simultaneously facing stiff challenges. Merrill,
a life-long farmer and a writer, educator, and
spokesperson for agricultural and environmental
stewardship, brings valuable experience to her role
as commissioner.
Why does it matter to NOFA farmers and consumers
who is the leading government offcial in New
Hampshire? It matters a lot.
Its all about inclusiveness, Merrill says. We
cant be isolated in our respective silos. Its critical
that New England and the Northeast work together.
We have a lot in commonour land use patterns,
population issues, and we always get the short end
of the stick with the Farm Bill. We need to do more
to strengthen regional connections and cooperation.
Seven percent of New Hampshires landmass is
farmland, and of that, even less is prime and
important soils. Merrills attitude is we dont have
any to spare.
Many farms in the seacoast region and the
Merrimack River Valley have, she notes, sprouted
their fnal crophousing complexes and strip
development. But she speaks with enthusiasm, for
example, about the Saco River valley in the northern
part of the state. Those soils are incredible and they
go on for miles! We have wonderful farms there
and, in fact, there are farms throughout the state
with the exception of the White Mountain National
Forrest. They all are worth fghting for.
Merrill knows frst hand about fghting for farmland.
She spent her early childhood on her familys farm
in Littleton, Massachusetts, and recalls the joy of
exploring its felds, woods, and wetlands. Her life
was radically changed by a cloverleaf in the farm
not a green cloverleaf, but the asphalt kindwhen a
highway interchange was built on the best hayfelds.
I was transformed from an amateur naturalist into
an environmentalist even before I knew the word,
Merrill says.
Her extended family relocated the Stuart Farm to
the seacoast town of Stratham, New Hampshire
in 1961 and made the decision to specialize in
dairy. She refects on the familys experience as
a microcosm of trends in agriculture. The same
development pressures that changed the Stuart
Farm in Massachusetts, arrived, in time, to the
seacoast of New Hampshire. Determined that not
to let it happen again, the Merrill family placed a
conservation easement on the farm in 1981.
The themes of conservation and stewardship appear
repeatedly in Merrills life. The Stuart Farm has
won numerous awards, including the American
Farmland Trust Steward of the Year Award and the
New Hampshire Conservation Farm of the Year.
As a writer, educator, and public speaker, Merrill
addresses topics such as smart growth, preserving
rural character, and preventing non-source pollution.
No doubt the conviction borne in her private life
will play a role in her public offce.
The Stuart Farm is one of 130 dairy farms in
the state. Merrill describes dairy farmers as
progressive and well educated and notes recent
product innovations such as farmstead cheeses, ice
cream, and the direct marketing of raw milk. But
while dairy farming is number one in agricultural
land use, ornamental horticulture is the largest in
terms of revenue.
Although to some, ornamental horticulture is
agriculture that you cant eat, Merrill notes that
Every Farm is Worth Fighting For:
New Hampshires New Commissioner of Agriculture,
Lorraine Stuart Merrill
photo courtesy Lorraine Stuart Merrill
Lorraine Stuart Merrill, New Hampshires frst woman
Commissioner of Agriculture, on her farm.
it fourishes in an urbanizing environment in which
land values skyrocket and, simultaneously, interest
in landscaping increases.
That said, Merrill speaks of the sea change of
public awareness of local agriculture and real
food and the power that has for crop and livestock
farmers. People are starting to say, Maybe its
worth a little more because it does taste better and
does contribute back to our community and state.
She is also encouraged by the number of people
who are entering farming as a career change or
part-time venture, citing a whole range of people,
motivations, and economic backgrounds. What they
all have in common is an attraction to working the
land, to growing things, and the rootedness that
represents.
Our conversation turns specifcally to organic.
Merrill notes that a lot of the new farmers chose
organic methods, but these things cant be
oversimplifed. She advocates for the wisest,
best use the resources on a particular farm. Its not
a one size fts all situation. I would hate to see
polarization. We have much more in common than
what separates us.
The National Organic Standards for livestock, she
notes, are more stringent in the United States than
in Europe. She hypothesizes that New Hampshire
might have more organic livestock if the European
standards applied, for example. Or, in the case
of apple growing, its just reality that integrated
pest management (IPM) is more practical in New
England.
These practices represent different things to
different people, she observes. And in the future,
we will probably see more labeling, as there is now
in Europe: a range of choices because different
consumers have different priorities.
These are very interesting times, Merrill
concludes. Thats no over simplifcation; it shows
how deeply she understands whats at stake in New
Hampshire, in bordering states, and for all of us.
Elizabeth Ferry is a freelance writer and
photographer. She grows organic vegetables, small
fruits, and medicinal herbs near South Royalton in
the Upper Valley region of Vermont.
Th e Na t u r a l Fa r me r
S p r i n g , 2 0 0 8 41
: :| || || | 1 1 h h? ?? ?H H
I Ia a d dc cr ra a t te ed d I Ie er rJ Ja aI I u uo oa a u u
b b a at tu ur ra aI I J Jo od dy y c ca ar re e
| | www.uIeeyoouoau.co
30--

Potting Soil
Growing Mix
Delivery Available
603.924.5050
Since 1988
Peterborough, NH
www.idealcompost.com
info@idealcompost.com
by Mark Fulford

In addition to the degradation of human and
environmental health resultant from excessive
chemical sprays and synthesized fertilizers, the
price of perfect fruit also includes the wasteful act
of blemished fruit disposal, both prior to and post
super market shelf life. The challenge to improve
the ecosystem for the health of the tree and the
eater of its fruit is complex and intriguing, requiring
insightful observation and cooperation with natural
systems and the shared experiences of many
growers. Farmers who patiently hand down the
successes and failures of seasons past greatly assist
those who are working towards this common goal of
plant and ecosystem health.

The nutritional balance attained in the fruit
corresponds to the soil health. This nutritionally
balanced fruit is more disease and pest resistant.
In this process of natural selection, Nature, in
the form of insects and disease, selects for the
continuation of high quality food for us by eating
the lower quality foods, which they are tuned to
consume as their niche in the cycle of life. While
some unblemished fruit may appear on the surface
to be of superior quality, is it due to rigorous spray
programs of pesticides and fungicides or is it a tree
of natural resistance and well balanced soil?

In any agricultural system, a farms true wealth
can be measured by the degree to which it has
developed a highly functional, living soil system.
Getting a handle on stable and productive farming
practices that encourage diverse and benefcial soil
life requires looking past the symptoms that drain
away farm wealth. Sustaining farm proft is best
achieved without expending the natural systems that
contribute to soil and crop health; life, minerals and
humus.

How Nature Builds A Plant
Where are plants getting most of their mass? The
bulk of all crops is composed of atmospheric
elements, those being hydrogen and oxygen in the
form of water, and then nitrogen which is freely
available to most crops by mycorrhizal association,
nitrifying bacteria and the decay cycle. Carbon
dioxide is photosynthesized in the leaf to become
carbohydrates, (sugars, cellulose, lignins, and other
carbon compounds.) The remainder and smaller
percentage of a crops makeup are of course the
major and minor soil elements with many of them
Propagation, Soil Building, and Organic
Orchard Care for New England
in the trace ranges of only a few parts per million.
These are no less signifcant to the balance of the
whole. The ability of a plant to reach its full genetic
potential rests on the effectiveness of the soils
living interaction and delivery system, stocked
with the full compliment of soil elements in correct
ratios, throughout the entire growing season. Thus,
Th e Na t u r a l Fa r me r
S p r i n g , 2 0 0 8 42
it is essential to focus our efforts on improving the
soil on several levels.

Elements that make up the plant must be in balance
in the soil for the plant to be made up properly. The
role of micronutrients and trace elements is also
underestimated. As science catches up with Nature
it has become evident that well over 60 elements are
key players in soil and crop nutrition. At the heart
of soil nutrition is soil biology, (the cooks in the
kitchen). One thing about these chefs is that they
love to eat. A mix of fast and slow microbial foods
is ideal for generating high populations of diverse
soil aerobes. This would mean simple and complex
microbial foods such as fsh and seaweed products,
alfalfa meal, blood meal, feather meal, or any other
sources of volatile bypass products that bacteria
can utilize as a complex energy source along with
molasses, humates or humic acids, which are
sometimes used as carbohydrate binders to pelletize,
(prill), some rock powders. Any volatile source of
fertilizer that has nitrate nitrogen (NN) or ammonia
nitrogen (AN) in it is a more effective microbial
food and plant nutrient when a carbon source is
added to stabilize it. This begins the formation of
peptides and amino acids that ultimately become
proteins. Carbon sources that act as barrier reefs
for almost all benefcial microbes can be found in
humates or good quality fnished composts. In fact
all inert or mineral amendments are more effectively
activated and delivered if combined with humus, a
microbial workforce with a diverse food supply.
Mark Fulford is a well known, independent farm
consultant, researcher and educator from Monroe,
Maine. Mark will be teaching a two-day workshop
on Organic Orchard Care & Composting at D
Acres Organic Farm and Educational Homestead in
Dorchester, NH on May 10 & 11th 2008. Check the
Calendar for more information.
WORKINGINHARMONYWITHNATURE
E
A
R
THCARE FAR
M
Compost
& Seedlings
Certified Organic Farm Mike Merner & Jayne Merner Senecal
Rhode Islands Oldest Operating Farm Composter
Qual i ty Made Compost i s the Heal thi est Way to Nouri sh Pl ants
www.earthcarefarm.com 401.364.9930
Certined Organic
Vegetable-Herb
Ldible Ilowering Plants
Gorgeous 8 Unusual
Annuals-Perennials
Ilowering Shrubs
Gins tor Gardeners
M
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.. Tl. C..J Tlg C
.

1800 Scituate Ave. Cranston, RI

401-826-3130
...!....|........!............
Close to 1,000 farmers, gardeners, food activists,
educators and just plain eaters of organic, packed
the Saratoga Conference Center in Saratoga Springs,
New York on January 25 - 27 for the 26
th
annual
Winter Conference of the Northeast Organic Farming
Association of New York (NOFA-NY). It was the
largest gathering devoted to organic agriculture ever
held in New York State.

This years Conference theme Organic Solutions!
How Farmers, Gardeners and Communities
Nurture Our Environment attracted environmental
advocates, home gardeners, urban farmers and social
justice reformers as well as the traditional audience
of organic farmers to attend and participate in the
workshop jammed 3-day event.

New York State Commissioner of Agriculture and
Markets Patrick Hooker extended his greetings
and repeated the commitment of the Spitzer
administrations support for organic agriculture at
the opening Friday night reception on January 25.
For the frst time, the Department of Agriculture
and Markets took its place among the Patrons of
Organics along with the Watershed Agricultural
Council for the Conference.

Opening with 11 half and full-day intensive
sessions on Friday, and 76 workshops on Saturday
and Sunday, the conference provided a variety of
educational experiences for all involved. In addition,
an outdoor session of farming with draft animals was
held in nearby Ballston Spa at the 4-H horse pavilion.
Children and teenagers enjoyed workshops specially
designed for them at the Youth Conference held
simultaneously with the adult workshops.

The intensive sessions highlighted organic gardening,
community supported agriculture, dairy herd
nutrition to transition to organic milk production,
medicinal herbs, permaculture, the use of legumes,
weed management and an introduction to organic
certifcation. Dedicated conference workshop
tracks covered feld crops, organic dairying and
livestock, vegetables and fruit, homesteading, and an
assortment of topics on agricultural policy, local fair
trade, cooking with organic food, and the latest on
genetically modifed organisms, drying herbs, urban
farming, and mushroom growing.

Conference keynote speakers shared inspirational
experiences from their lives as organizers and
farmers. Terry Wollen, DVM, told the story of the
Heifer International program which has been working
for over 60 years to reduce poverty worldwide
by providing families with livestock, seeds and
training. Brahm Ahmadi recounted the successes
of the Peoples Grocery in bringing locally grown
organic food to West Oakland, California, one of the
bleakest inner city neighborhoods in the country, and
discussed the challenge of achieving genuine food
security linking urban and rural communities. From
Vermont Valley Community Farm, Barbara and David
Perkins brought their story of starting and growing a
CSA farm in Wisconsin that provides a solid income
for the farm while providing shares of vegetables for
over 1400 families. They also told how the Madison
Area Community Supported Agriculture (MACSAC)
network promotes local farms and raises funds to
enable low-income families to beneft from organic
food.
At the NOFA-NY Annual Meeting, President Scott
Chaskey announced the selection of Greg Swartz
as Executive Director of the organization. The
assembled members voted for the NOFA-NY Board,
and applauded the recipients of the annual Golden
Carrot Awards. Honored this year were farmer
Karma Glos, retiring Board member Maria Grimaldi,
and long serving Certifcation Management committee
member Mary Jo Long. The members passed policy
resolutions calling for the implementation of local fair
trade, and three resolutions aimed at improving the
integrity of the National Organic Program in relation
to grower groups, a procedures manual and fairness
in accreditation. (The full text of the resolutions is
on the NOFA-NY website: www.nofany.org.) The
meeting also launched a new pledge for organic
citizens, paralleling the contents of the Farmers
Pledge.
NOFA-NY
Hosts
Record
Breaking
Organic
Conference
Th e Na t u r a l Fa r me r
S p r i n g , 2 0 0 8 43
by Kathy Litchfeld
The NOFA Organic Land Care Program topped its
highest-ever attendance records in January, with 166
professionals attending the 7
th
annual Accreditation
Courses in Organic Land Care in Massachusetts and
Connecticut. The frst-ever Narragansett, RI, fve-
day accreditation course will take place Feb. 27,
28, 29, March 3 and 4 and already has 30 students
registered.
CT NOFA Executive Director Bill Duesing, one
of the programs founders, attributes the courses
popularity to their six-year history and success
in educating over 500 professionals previously,
as well as a general increase in awareness of
environmental/green issues in our society today.
The trend for organic landscaping services is
increasing at a rapid rate, driven by consumer
concerns and regulatory pressures, including recent
CT legislation banning the use of pesticides on
school grounds and resolutions by towns prohibiting
or discouraging the use of pesticides.
The education offered in the course is especially
important today as more people become aware of
the hazards of synthetic pesticides on biodiversity,
water quality and ecosystems, said Duesing, adding
that increased understanding of the damages that
synthetic fertilizers cause to soil, water and the
climate also encourages organic solutions.
In Leominster, MA, a total of 76 land care
professionals attended the intensive fve-day course,
while in New Haven, CT the following week, a total
of 90 students turned out.
We couldnt be happier with the number of
students coming out to learn the basics and the latest
trends in organic land care. Thanks to our dedicated
teachers -- scientists and skilled professionals -- we
are able to offer one-of-a-kind education that land
care professionals can integrate directly into their
businesses to best meet the needs of their clients
seeking organic land care, said Kathy Litchfeld,
NOFA/Mass OLC Program Coordinator.
Record-Setting Attendance
Demonstrates Ever-Increasing
Demand for Organic Land Care
Course students this year included landscape
designers, landscapers, state and municipal
employees, school groundskeepers, garden and
nursery center owners and staff, professors,
entrepreneurs and students. They ranged in age from
their early 20s to their mid-70s and hailed from
Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Connecticut, New
York, New Jersey, Maryland, Pennsylvania and even
Michigan, Georgia, Virginia and Oregon.
The third largest land care company in the
country (the Brickman Group, with a presence in
over 20 states) sent two people to the CT course,
attracted by the faculty being a mix of land care
professionals and scientists, they said.
NOFAs unique Accreditation Program offers
networking, marketing and speaking opportunities
for students who pass the accreditation exam on the
last day of the course. NOFA Accredited Organic
Land Care Professionals (AOLCPs) are advertised
on the programs website, www.organiclandcare.
net, and in the annually published NOFA Guide to
Organic Land Care. With its new graduates, the
program now has almost 500 AOLCPs practicing in
14 states.
Newly accredited students from outside New
England hope to be among the frst offering organic
land care services in their regions. They often report
that the Northeast is way ahead of the rest of the
country in organic interest and knowledge.
Jaime Deehan, owner of Deehan Landscaping in
Merrifeld, Va., said hes grateful to NOFA for
providing such an informative course. Thanks
again for all youve done . . . were glad to be a part
of it all. Were looking forward to big changes in the
local lawn and landscape industry. Hopefully well
serve as the catalyst to get things going.
Daniel Ballard, of Atlanta, Ga. had similar thoughts.
I was excited to come; Im even more excited
that I came. In transitioning to organic land care
in the South, I was very, very pleased with the
transferability of (organic) principles and basic
practices. Thank you!
Based on the NOFA Standards for Organic Land
Care, the fve-day NOFA Organic Land Care Course
is held annually each winter, now in three states
MA, CT and RI.
The main goal of the course is to present the
organic way of thinking about land care, said
Duesing. Many students (especially ones who
have training in conventional land care) report that
it is a completely different approach to their work.
Do no harm, put the right plant in the right place
and plant health starts with soil health are key
principles upon which the course is based.
Each course runs from 8:30 a.m. to 5 p.m. each of
the fve days and covers organic land care topics
in depth including Principles & Procedures, Site
Analysis, Design and Maintenance, Rain Gardens/
Stormwater Infltration, Soil Health, Soil Biology
& Ecology, Fertilizer and Soil Amendments,
Composting, Lawns, Lawn Alternatives, Planting
and Plant Care, Wetlands, Pest Management (Turf
Insects, Perennials, Trees and Shrubs, Ticks and
Lyme Disease), Wildlife Management, Disease
Control, Weeds, Mulches, Invasive Plants and
Running a Business. Daily case studies give
students a chance to practice what theyre learned
in a group setting, and a Client Relations Panel on
the ffth day offers an interactive environment for
questions and answers.
Special thanks to all of the NOFA Organic Land
Care Course speakers; the volunteer NOFA
Organic Land Care Committee that works behind
the scenes to ensure a thorough, streamlined and
professional course; the caterers, the donors and the
many volunteers who help to make the courses run
smoothly; and to our enthusiastic students!
For more information about the NOFA Organic
Land Care Program, including its upcoming NOFA
Organic Lawn & Turf Courses this August, visit
www.organiclandcare.net or call OLC Program
Manager Ashley Kremser at CT NOFA, at (203)
888-5146 or akremser@ctnofa.org. In MA call
NOFA/Mass OLC Program Coordinator Kathy
Litchfeld at (978) 724-0108.
photo by Kathy Litchfeld
Organic Land Care Accreditation Course students in Leominster, MA work on the Pest Management Case Study in small groups.
Th e Na t u r a l Fa r me r
S p r i n g , 2 0 0 8 44
by Ashley Loehr
As November turned to December and a Wisconsin
blizzard came to call, the Domestic Fair Trade
Association met this December to build a food sys-
tem that does not sacrifce environmental or social
stewardship to meet marketplace demands. At the
table were representatives from fve different identi-
fed sectors of the food system: farmers, farm work-
ers, processor/marketers, retailers, and civil society/
NGO members.

The Domestic Fair Trade Association is work-
ing to unite all the stakeholders to create mutually
supportive solutions. In North America, with the
national demand for cheap food, there are count-
less interactions where people and natural resources
are exploited. This is no news; the Domestic Fair
Trade Association is building on the successes of
farm workers movements, Community Supported
Agriculture, Co-ops, Organic Agriculture, and
International Fair Trade, and simultaneously reex-
amining and challenging imbalanced power dynam-
ics and co-optation within them.
Meetings in Lafarge
The frst meeting of the Domestic Fair Trade
Association were held when members of the
Agricultural Justice Project began a formal dia-
logue about the overlapping interests of Farmers,
Farm workers, Fair Trade Organizations, and
Consumers. Rural Advancement Foundation
International (RAFI-USA) extended an invitation
to a number of organizations to pursue the conver-
sation in August 2005. The group met and elected a
steering committee that drafted working documents
for the association. In December, 2007, after many
more meetings, drafts and edits, a much larger
group this time offcially called the Domestic Fair
Trade Association met again in Wisconsin.
There are 33 charter members of the DFTA and
nearly every organization was able to send a rep-
resentative. This years meeting was two days
long. Charter members that were accepted last year
through the DFTA application process attended the
The Domestic Fair Trade Association
Report Back From the Meeting in Lafarge
and the Context of Our Work
CATA Comite de Apoyo a los Trabajadores
Agricolas (Farm Workers Support Committee)
is an organization that was founded in 1979 by mi-
grant farm workers in Southern New Jersey. Their
mission is to empower and educate farm work-
ers through leadership development and capacity
building, to actively engage farm workers in the
process of social change. CATA worked with Centro
Campesino, and the Local Fair Trade Network of
the Upper Midwest to plan the frst Farm Worker
Conference on Domestic Fair Trade in Owatonna,
Minnesota last April.
www.cata-farmworkers.org/
Community to Community Development is a
women-led, place based, grassroots organization
working for a just society and healthy communities
in Bellingham, Washington. They work to empower
under-represented peoples to have an equal voice in
decision-making processes, develop cross-cultural
awareness, restore justice to our food, land, and cul-
tural practices, and to promote community relation-
ships toward self-reliance.
http://foodjustice.org/wp/
The Agricultural Justice Project has been in the
works since 1999 as a non-proft initiative to create
fairness and equity in our food system through the
development of social justice standards for organic
frst day. Steve Gilman, Elizabeth Henderson and I
attended as representatives of NOFA.
The steering committee up to this point has drafted
working documents and planted seeds for the larger
group. With all of the charter members present,
we reviewed the objectives documents, and pro-
posed amendments and changes. We recognized
the need to explicitly defne Fair Trade, the scope
of Domestic, and use strong language that in-
tentionally includes farm workers and identifes
racial and cultural inclusiveness as priorities. We
also elected representatives to six committees with
equal gender and stakeholder representation: the
member services committee whose role is to facili-
tate communication among members, the member-
ship committee who will review applications and
recommend members, the leadership committee
who will fundraise and strategize next steps, the
draft committee who will produce organizational
documents in Spanish and English, the endorse-
ment and criteria committee who will develop clear
criteria for Domestic Fair Trade claims, and fnally
a marketing committee who will develop a public
awareness plan.
On the frst of December, the group nearly doubled
as more interested folks arrived. With new perspec-
tives and motivations in the room we solidifed our
commitment to engage in a deeper dialogue about
the inadequacies of the food system before backing
any label or seal that may not legitimately repre-
sent the interests of farmers and farm workers.

The meeting was facilitated on consensus basis,
and each persons comments had power to alter
the language, direction, and thoughts of the group.
Operating on consensus was of course tedious at
times but also allowed space for everyone to speak.
On both days, the meeting was simultaneously
translated into Spanish.
Principles of the Association
The Domestic Fair Trade Association is a group of
organizations and individuals united by principles,
not market-driven standards. It currently is not a
certifer, an accreditor of certifers, nor an owner of
Social Justice labels. In other words it is not analo-
gous to the USDA National Organic Program or
to the FLO, the Fair-trade Labeling Organization.
Members apply to the association by completing
a series of questions and a self-audit to determine
whether their principles and work line up with the
DFTAs guiding notions.
The steering committee reviews each application
and makes a recommendation to the overall com-
mittee. Every two years, each member is required
to reapply to demonstrate progress in implement-
ing the principles of Domestic Fair Trade. We are
sculpting a peer review process by which members
can both learn from one another and be account-
able to other community and DFTA members.
and sustainable agriculture. In July of 2007 they
launched their frst pilot with four farms and two
coops in the upper Midwest, to test the response
to selling produce that met the standards of the
Agricultural Justice Project.
www.agriculturaljusticeproject.org
Swanton Berry Farm was the frst farm in
California to unionize; they signed a contract with
the UFW in 1998. Farm workers at the farm have
guaranteed collective bargaining power, full benefts
and health care, subsidized housing and make living
wage. Their labor costs are 15% more than that of
other farms in their area, a price that they are willing
to pay.
www.swantonberryfarm.com
White Earth Land Recovery Project while not yet
a member of the DFTA, joined the meeting on Sat-
urday to share their work. Based in Callaway, MN
White Earth Land Recovery Project is an organiza-
tion of the Anishinaabeg people. They are working
to preserve wild rice, the only grain indigenous to
North America, as well as provide food to 170 el-
derly and diabetic individuals in their community.
Their work also focuses on youth leadership educa-
tion and small-scale food production for sustenance
and sales.
http://nativeharvest.com
Work of the DFTAs Charter Members
Some exciting work of a few charter member organizations
Discussing the mission statement
Th e Na t u r a l Fa r me r
S p r i n g , 2 0 0 8 45
- Northeast Organic Farming Association
- Rural Advancement Foundation International
- Swanton Berry Farm
- Coop Fund NE
- Wedge
- Pesticide Action Network North America
- Family Farm Defenders
- Centro Campesino
- Florida Organic Growers
- Community to Community
- Just Harvest
- CDI
- Equal Exchange
- Food for Thought
- El Comit de Apoyo a Los Trabajadores Agrcolas
- Bludd Country Coop
- Institute for Agriculture and Trade Policy
- Farm Worker Association of Florida
- Farmer Direct
- Organic Valley
- Berkshire Coop
- Dr. Bronners
- Green Fields Food Coop
- Peace Coffee
- Organic Consumers Association
- Wholesome Harvest
- Red Tomato
- California Institute for Rural Studies
- Federation of Southern Coops
- Association of Family Farmers
- Local Fair Trade Network
- Olympia Coop
Our commitments to Health, Justice, and
Sustainability are illuminated by the following guid-
ing principles in our working principles document:
Family Scale Farming. Fair Trade focuses on
reinforcing the position of small and family-scale
producers that have been marginalized by the
mainstream marketplace as a means of preserv-
ing the culture of farming and rural community,
promoting economic democracy and diversity, and
ensuring a more healthy and sustainable planet.
Capacity Building for Producers. Fair Trade is a
means of developing the producers independence,
strengthening their ability to engage directly with
the marketplace, and gaining more control over
their futures. Resources from trading relation-
ships are directed toward this purpose in a par-
ticipatory manner by those who will beneft from
them.
Democratic & Participatory Ownership &
Control. Fair Trade emphasizes co-operative
organization as a means of empowering produc-
ers, workers and consumers to gain more control
over their economic and social lives. In situations
where such organization is absent, mechanisms
will be created to ensure the democratic participa-
tion of producers and workers, and the equitable
distribution of the fruits of trade.
Rights of Labor. Fair Trade means a safe and
healthy working environment for producers. The
participation of children (if any) does not adverse-
ly affect their well-being, security, educational
requirements and need for play and conforms to
the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child as
well as the law and norms of the local situation.
Fair Trade ensures that there are mechanisms in
place through which hired labor has an indepen-
dent voice and is included in the benefts of trade.
Programs of apprenticeship are promoted to de-
velop the skills of the next generation of farmer,
artisans and workers.
Equality and Opportunity. Fair Trade emphasiz-
es the empowerment of women, minorities, indig-
enous peoples and other marginalized members of
society to represent their own interests, participate
directly in trade and to share in its economic ben-
efts.
Direct Trade. Where possible, Fair Trade at-
tempts to reduce the intermediaries between the
primary producer and the consumer, delivering
more of the benefts of such trade to the producer
and connecting the consumer more directly with
the source of their food and other products, and
the people who produced them.
Fair & Stable Pricing. A fair price is one that has
been agreed upon through dialogue and participa-
tion. It covers not only the costs of production
but enables production, which is socially just and
environmentally sound. It provides fair pay to the
producers and takes into account the principle of
equal pay for equal work by women and men. Fair
Traders ensure prompt payment and stable pricing
that enables producers to plan for the future.
Shared Risk & Affordable Credit. Farmers of-
ten bear the greatest risks of agriculture and an
unstable marketplace. Fair Traders work to share
these risks among producers, processors, market-
ers and consumers through more equitable trade
partnerships, fair and prompt payment, transparent
relationships and affordable credit. In situations
where access to credit is diffcult, or the terms of
credit are not benefcial to producers, Fair Traders
provide or facilitate access to such credit, or assist
producers in creating their own mechanisms for
providing credit.
Long-Term Trade Relationships. Fair Trade
fosters long-term trade partnerships at all levels
within the production, processing and marketing
chain that provides producers with stability and
opportunities to develop marketing, production
and quality skills, as well as access to new mar-
kets for their products.
Sustainable Agriculture. Fair Trade emphasizes
a holistic approach to agriculture, supporting sus-
tainable agricultural strategies such as Organic,
Biodynamic, Integrated Pest Management, farm
diversifcation and small-scale farming that pro-
tect the environment, sustains farming communi-
ties, and provides consumers with quality, healthy
food. Fair Trade emphasizes the biodiversity of
traditional agriculture, supports the rights of farm-
ers over their seed, and preserves cultural diver-
sity.
Transparency & Accountability. The Fair Trade
system depends on transparency of costs, pricing,
and structure at all levels of the trading system.
Fair Traders are accountable to each other and the
wider community by openly sharing such infor-
mation.
Education & Advocacy. Fair Trade emphasizes
education at all levels of the agricultural chain,
engaging farmers, workers, traders and consum-
ers in advocating for a more equitable, democratic
and sustainable economy. Fair Traders in particu-
lar educate consumers about the inequities of the
trading system and the need for alternatives, while
sharing information with producers about the mar-
ketplace. Education strengthens the Fair Trade
movement and empowers its stakeholders in creat-
ing a better world for everyone.
Our work within the broader food system
In LaFarge farm workers reminded us that Organic
and International Fair Trade movements are teeming
with labor issues that we need to continually ex-
amine. Folks from the White Earth Land Recovery
Project reminded us that we cannot assume access
to technology and literacy in our communications.
Representatives from Community to Community
Development reminded us that anti-discrimination
is not the same as anti-racism, that building social
change requires a dismantling of existing race dy-
namics. We remembered the need to be explicit
about the context from which we are working.
As a NOFA delegate coming from the perspective
of a small organic farmer whose customer base has
a tendency to support organic and international fair
trade labels, it is vital to acknowledge the limita-
tions of those labels and where they have fallen
short in supporting equity for farm workers.

The potential for co-optation is abundant in a new
fair trade movement. Substituting a label for a good
relationship between farmer and consumer, em-
ployee and employer, or farmer and farm worker
has limited potential to make long-term change.
We have witnessed both organic and international
fair trade standards turn to comfortable ovals of ap-
proval in the marketplace:
On large organic farms, farm workers often do not
have rights of collective bargaining or make a min-
imum wage and on small farms underpaid appren-
tices are often the piece that makes the labor puzzle
work. While these farm workers are not exposed to
toxic pesticides their livelihood is hardly more eq-
uitable than a farm worker on a conventional farm.
Basic human needs are not met even on many or-
ganic farms.
Consolidation of the organic market is an over-
whelming trend that magnifes the cost price
squeeze. M&M owns Seeds of Change, Kellogg
owns Morningstar Farms, and Kraft owns those
Boca burgers in every co-op and health food store
(Howard). Over 50% of revenue generated by food
retailing is accounted for by just 10 corporations.
As the organic sector is swallowed up into larger
companies through market consolidation, the ideals
of sustainability that were once the foundation of
organic agriculture are becoming blurry.
International Fair Trade has also been watered
down in the mainstream market place; Starbucks
has now become the largest fair trade coffee seller
in the world, even though only 2% of its sales are
fair trade. Other transnational fair trade organiza-
tions enforce their own standards on communities
and charge hefty fees for certifcations resembling
a new colonial imposition.
Talking and Listening, the second day of the meeting
Charter Members of the
Domestic Fair Trade Association
Th e Na t u r a l Fa r me r
S p r i n g , 2 0 0 8 46
Connecticut
CT NOFA Offce: P O Box 164, Stevenson, CT
06491, phone (203) 888-5146, FAX (203) 888-
9280, Email: ctnofa@ctnofa.org, website: www.
ctnofa.org
Executive Director: Bill Duesing, Box 164,
Stevenson, CT 06491, 203-888-5146, 203 888-
9280 (fax), bill@ctnofa.org
Offce Manager/Webmaster: Deb Legge, PO
Box 164, Stevenson, CT 06491, deb@ctnofa.
org, 203-888-5146
President: James Roby, P.O Box 191, 1667
Orchard Road, Berlin, CT 06037, 860-828-
5548, 860-881-8031 (C), robysorganic@yahoo.
com
Vice President: Elizabeth Fleming,54 Four Mil
Road, West Hartford, CT 06107-2709, 860-561-
4907, elstrfeming@yahoo.com
Treasurer: Lynn Caley, 593 Old Post
Road, Tolland, CT 06084, 860-613-0325,
momocaley@yahoo.com
Secretary: Chris Killheffer, 112 Bishop Street,
New Haven, CT 06511-7307, 203-787-0072,
Christopher.killheffer@yale.edu
Farmers Pledge Program: Contact the offce.
Conference Coordinator: Leanne Davis, 93
Osborn Ave., New Haven, CT 06511, 203-773-
1162, leanne@ctnofa.org
Organic Land Care Manager: Ashley Kremser,
PO Box 164, Stevenson, CT 06491, akremser@
ctnofa.org, 203-888-5146
Massachusetts
President: Frank Albani Jr., 17 Vinal Avenue,
Plymouth, MA 02360, (508) 224-3088, email:
plymouthrockmusic@msn.com
Vice President: Sharon Gensler, 87 Bullard
Pasture Rd. Wendell, MA 01379, (978) 544-
6347, email: wildbrowse@yahoo.com
Secretary: Mary Blake, P.O. Box 52, Charlton
Depot, MA 01509, (508) 248-5496, Email:
blakem_2001@msn.com
Treasurer and Executive Director: Julie
Rawson, 411 Sheldon Rd., Barre, MA 01005
(978) 355-2853, Fax: (978) 355-4046, Email:
Julie@nofamass.org
Administrative Coordinator: Kathleen Geary,
411 Sheldon Rd, Barre, MA 01005 (Mondays
& Thursdays, 8:00 am - 5:00 pm), email: info@
nofamass.org
Webmaster: David Pontius: 26 School Street,
Northfeld, MA 01360, (413) 498-2721, Email:
webmaster@nofamass.org
Baystate Organic Certifers Administrator:
Don Franczyk, 683 River St., Winchendon,
MA 01475, (978) 297- 4171, Email:
baystateorganic@earthlink.net, website: www.
baystateorganic.org
Press and Winter Conference Coordinator: Jassy
Bratko, 28 High St., Hubbardston, MA 01452,
(978) 928-5646, jassyhighmeadow@yahoo.com
Newsletter Editor: Jonathan von Ranson, 6
Lockes Village Rd., Wendell, MA 01379, (978)
544-3758, Email: Commonfarm@crocker.com
Website: www.nofamass.org Email: nofa@
nofamass.org
NOFA Contact People
New Hampshire
President: Jack Mastrianni, 277 Holden Hill
Road, Langdon, NH 03602, (603) 835-6488,
jamastrianni@yahoo.com
Vice President: Joan OConnor, PO Box
387, Henniker, NH 03242, (603) 428-3530,
joconnornh@yahoo.com
Treasurer: Paul Mercier, Jr., 39 Cambridge
Drive, Canterbury, NH 03224, (603) 783-0036,
pjm@mercier-group.com
Program & Membership Coordinator: Elizabeth
Obelenus, NOFA/NH Offce, 4 Park St., Suite
208, Concord, NH 03301, (603) 224-5022,
info@nofanh.org
Newsletter Editor: Karen Booker, 44 Prospect
St., Contoocook, NH 03229, (603) 746-3656,
pottedplant@juno.com
Organic Certifcation: Vickie Smith, NHDA
Bureau of Markets, Caller Box 2042, Concord,
NH 03301 (603) 271-3685, vsmith@agr.state.
nh.us
Website: www.nofanh.org,
New Jersey
Executive Director: Marc Bouvier, PO Box 886,
60 S. Main St., Pennington, NJ 08534, (609)
737-6848, fax: (609) 737-2366, me_bouvier@
yahoo.com
President: Donna Drewes, 26 Samuel Dr.,
Flemington, NJ 08822, 908-782-2443,
drewes@tcnj.edu
Vice President: Stephanie Harris, 163
Hopewell-Wertsville Rd., Hopewell, NJ 08525,
(609) 466-0194, r.harris58@verizon.net
Treasurer: William D. Bridgers, c/o Zon
Partners, 5 Vaughn Dr., Suite 104, Princeton,
NJ 08540, (609) 452-1653, billbridgers@
zoncapital.com
Secretary: Emily Brown Rosen, 25
Independence Way, Titusville, NJ 08560, 609-
737-8630
Newsletter Editor & Outreach Coordinator:
Mikey Azzara, PO Box 886, Pennington, NJ
08534-0886, (609) 737-6848, fax: (609) 737-
2366, Email: mazzara@nofanj.org
Supervisor, Organic Certifcation Program:
Erich V. Bremer, NJ Dept. of Agriculture, 369
S. Warren St., Trenton, NJ 08625-0330, (609)
984-2225, fax: (609) 341-3212 erich.bremer@
ag.state.nj.us
Administrative Coordinator: Connie Deetz, PO
Box 886 Pennington, NJ 08534-0886, (609)
737-6848, Fax (609) 737-2366 General Request
Emails: nofanj@nofanj.org Email: cdeetz@
nofanj.org, website: www.nofanj.org
New York
President: Scott Chaskey, Quail Hill Farm, PO
Box 1268, Amagansett, NY 11930-1268, H
(631) 725-9228 W (631) 267-8942, schaskey@
peconiclandtrust.org
Vice President: Vince Cirasole, Sunshine Farm,
745 Great Neck Rd, Copiague, NY 11726,
(631) 789-8232, vince@sunshinefarm.biz
Treasurer: Joseph Gersitz, 90 Hotchkiss Cir,
Penfeld, NY 14526-1402 (585) 381-8659,
josephg2@aol.com
Secretary: Maria Grimaldi, Panther Rock Farm,
148 Hardenburgh Rd, Livingston Manor, NY
12758, (845) 482-4164, pantherrock@direcway.
com
Executive Director: Greg Swartz, 245
Westwood Dr, Hurleyville, NY 12747-5527,
(845) 796-8994, fax: (845) 434-7306, director@
nofany.org
Offce Manager: Mayra Richter, PO Box 880,
Cobleskill, NY 12043-0880, (607) 652-NOFA,
fax: (607) 652-2290, offce@nofany.org
NOFA-NY Certifed Organic, LLC,
Certifcation Director: Carol King, 840 Front St,
Binghamton, NY 13905, (607) 724-9851, fax:
(607) 724-9853, certifedorganic@nofany.org
Organic Seed Partnership (OSP) Project
Coordinator: Elizabeth Dyck, Crimson Farm,
1124 County Rd 38, Bainbridge, NY 13733-
3360, (607) 895-6913, organicseed@nofany.org
Projects Coordinator & ODT Project Co-Project
Manager: Kate Mendenhall, 14 Menlo Pl,
Rochester, NY 14620-2718, (585) 271-1979,
projects@nofany.org
Organic Dairy Transitions Project Co-Project
Manager: Bethany Russell, PO Box 874,
Mexico, NY 13114-0874, (315) 806-1180,
bethany.organicdairy@nofany.org
Organic Dairy Transitions Project Dairy
Technician: Robert Perry, Maple Slope Farm,
5557 NYS 41, Homer, NY 13077, (607) 749-
3884, robert.organicdairy@nofany.org
Newsletter Editor: Aissa ONeil, Betty Acres
Organic Farm, 21529 State Highway 28, Delhi,
NY 13753, (607) 746-9581, newsletter@
nofany.org
website: www.nofany.org
Rhode Island
President: Fritz Vohr, In the Woods Farm, 51
Edwards Lane, Charlestown, RI 02813 (401)
364-0050, fritzvohr@verizon.net
Vice-President: Kristin Howard 1245 Reynolds
Road, Chepachet, RI 02814 (401)-647-4570
kmariahoward@yahoo.com
Secretary: Dan Lawton 247 Evans Road
Chepachet, RI 02814 (401)-949-1596
dlawton33@hotmail.com
Treasurer/Membership: Abbie Barber,
Shannock Organic Farm, 1411 Shannock Rd.,
Charlestown, RI 02813-3726 (401) 364-7140
shannockorganicfarm@hotmail.com
Bookkeeper: Peggy Conti, Brookside
Apartments, Apt. #8, Charlestown, RI 02813,
(401) 364-3426
NOFA/RI : 51 Edwards Lane, Charlestown, RI
02813, (401) 364-7557, nofari@nofari.org
website: www.nofari.org
Send $15 for US, $20 for foreign address to:
Th e Na t u r a l Fa r me r
S p r i n g , 2 0 0 8 47
Calendar
Saturday, March 8: Cooking for Life: A Natural
Whole Foods Cooking Workshop, Pfeiffer
Center, Chestnut Ridge, NY, for more info:
Carol Rosenberg, 845-352-5020 x20, info@
pfeiffercenter.org, www.pfeiffercenter.org.
Thursday, March 13, 2008: Perennial Plant
Conference, University of Connecticut, Storrs,
CT, for more info: Donna Ellis at 860-486-6448,
donna.ellis@uconn.edu, or www.hort.uconn.
edu/2008ppc/
Thursday, March 13: Newport, VT
Friday, March 14: Highgate, VT
Tuesday, March 18: Springfeld, VT
Wednesday, March 19: Rutland, VT
One day traveling workshop: Maximizing Milk
on Home Grown Grains and Forages for more
information, NOFA-VT at 802-434-4122 or UVM
Extension at 802-524-6501
Saturday, March 15, 2008: Environmental
Action Conference, Boston, MA, for more info:
Meredith at info@toxicsaction.org, or (617) 747-
4362.
Friday, April 25 Saturday, April 26: Organic
Beekeeping Workshop, Pfeiffer Center, Chestnut
Ridge, NY, for more info: Carol Rosenberg, 845-
352-5020 x20, info@pfeiffercenter.org, www.
pfeiffercenter.org.
Saturday, April 5: The Role of Raised Beds in
the Farm Organism, Pfeiffer Center, Chestnut
Ridge, NY, for more info: Carol Rosenberg, 845-
352-5020 x20, info@pfeiffercenter.org, www.
pfeiffercenter.org.
Friday, April 18: Mycological Landscaping with
Dave Wichland, Dorchester, NH for more info:
info@dacres.org or www.dacres.org
Saturday, May 10 - Sunday, May 11: Biological
Orchard Care & Composting with Mark Fulford,
Dorchester, NH for more info: info@dacres.org or
www.dacres.org
Saturday, June 7: The Role of the Horse in
the Farm Organism, Pfeiffer Center, Chestnut
Ridge, NY, for more info: Carol Rosenberg, 845-
352-5020 x20, info@pfeiffercenter.org, www.
pfeiffercenter.org.
Friday, August 8 Sunday, August 10: NOFA
Summer Conference, Amherst, MA, for more
info: www.nofamass.org or 978-355-2853
Friday, September 26 Sunday, September
28: 2008 Northeast Animal Power Field
Days, Tunbridge, VT, for more info. www.
animalpowerfelddays.org
You may join NOFA by joining one of the seven
state chapters. Contact the person listed below for
your state. Dues, which help pay for the important
work of the organization, vary from chapter to
chapter. Unless noted, membership includes a
subscription to The Natural Farmer.
Give a NOFA Membership! Send dues for a friend
or relative to his or her state chapter and give a
membership in one of the most active grassroots
organizations in the state.
Connecticut: Individual $35, Family $50, Business/
Institution $100, Supporting $150, Student/Senior
$25, Working $20
Contact: CT NOFA, Box 164, Stevenson, CT 06491,
(203)-888-5146, or email: ctnofa@ctnofa.org or join
on the web at www.ctnofa.org
Massachusetts: Low-Income $20, Individual $35,
Family/Farm/Organization $45, Supporting $150,
Business $175
Contact: Kathleen Geary, 411 Sheldon Road,
Barre, MA 01005, (978) 355-2853, or email: info@
nofamass.org
New Hampshire: Individual: $30, Student: $23,
Family: $40, Sponsor: $100, Basic $20*
Contact: Elizabeth Obelenus, 4 Park St., Suite 208,
Concord, NH 03301, (603) 224-5022, info@nofanh.
org
New Jersey: Individual $35, Family/Organizational
$50, Business/Organization $100, Low Income:
$15*
Contact: P O Box 886, Pennington, NJ 08534-0886,
(609) 737-6848 or join at www.nofanj.org
New York*: Student/Senior/Limited Income
$15, Individual $30, Family/Farm/Nonproft
Organization $40, Business/Patron $100. Add $10 to
above membership rates to include subscription to
The Natural Farmer.
Contact: Mayra Richter, NOFA-NY, P O Box 880,
Cobleskill, NY 12043, Voice (607) 652-6632, Fax:
(607) 652-2290, email: offce@nofany.org www.
nofany.org
Rhode Island: Student/Senior: $20, Individual: $25,
Family $35, Business $50
Contact: Membership, NOFA RI, 51 Edwards Lane,
Charlestown, RI 02813 (401) 364-7557, fritzvohr@
verizon.net
Vermont: Individual $30, Farm/Family $40,
Business $50, Sponsor $100, Sustainer $250, Basic
$15-25*
Contact: NOFA-VT, PO Box 697, Richmond, VT
05477, (802) 434-4122, info@nofavt.org
*does not include a subscription to The Natural
Farmer
NOFA Membership
Vermont
NOFA-VT Offce, P. O. Box 697, Bridge St.,
Richmond, VT 05477 (802) 434-4122, Fax:
(802) 434-4154, website: www.nofavt.org,
info@nofavt.org
Executive Director: Enid Wonnacott, enid@
nofavt.org
NOFA Financial Manager: Kirsten Novak
Bower, kirsten@nofavt.org
Winter Conference Coordinator: Olga Boshart,
olga@madriver.com
VOF Administrator & Apprentice Program
Coordinator: Nicole Dehne, Nicole@nofavt.org
VOF Staff: Cheryl Bruce, cheryl@nofavt.org
Bulk Order Coordinator & VOF Staff: Erin
Clark, erin@nofavt.org
Dairy & Livestock TA Administrator, David
Rogers, dave@nofavt.org
Dairy and Livestock Advisor: Willie Gibson,
willie@nofavt.org
Offce Manager: Meg Klepack, meg@nofavt.
org
Ag Education Coordinator: Abbie Nelson,
abbie@nofavt.org
Offce Assistant and Share the Harvest
fundraiser: Becca Weiss, becca@nofavt.org
Farm Share Coordinator: Jean Hamilton, jean@
nofavt.org
NOFA
Interstate
Council
* indicates voting representative
* Bill Duesing, President, Staff, Box 135,
Stevenson, CT, 06491, (203) 888-5146, fax,
(203) 888- 9280, bduesing@cs.com
Kimberly A. Stoner, 498 Oak Ave. #27,
Cheshire, CT 06410-3021, (203) 271-1732
(home), Email: kastoner@juno.com
* Mary Blake, Secretary, P O Box 52 Charlton
Depot, MA 01509 (508)-248-5496 email:
blakem_2001@msn.com
Elizabeth Obelenus, 22 Keyser Road, Meredith.
NH 03253, (603) 279-6146, nofanh@innevi.
com
* Jack Mastrianni, Treasurer, 277 Holden Hill
Road, Langdon, NH 03602, (603) 835-6488,
jamastrianni@yahoo.com
* Steve Gilman, Ruckytucks Farm, 130
Ruckytucks Road, Stillwater, NY 12170 (518)
583-4613, sgilman@netheaven.com
* Vince Cirasole, Sunshine Farm, 745 Great
Neck Rd, Copiague, NY 11726, (631) 789-
8231, vince@sunshinefarm.biz
Elizabeth Henderson, 2218 Welcher Rd.,
Newark, NY 14513 (315) 331-9029 ehendrsn@
redsuspenders.com
* Fritz Vohr, In the Woods Farm, 51 Edwards
Lane, Charlestown,RI 02813 (401) 364-0050,
fritzvohr@verizon.net
* Abbie Barber, Shannock Organic Farm,
1411 Shannock Rd., Charlestown, RI 02813-
3726 (401) 364-7140 shannockorganicfarm@
hotmail.com
* Enid Wonnacott, 478 Salvas Rd., Huntington,
VT 05462 (802) 434-4435, enid@nofavt.org
Kirsten Novak Bower, 65 Wortheim Ln.,
Richmond, VT 05477 (802) 434-5420, kirsten@
nofavt.org
Kay Magilavy, Virtual Rep, 212 18th St., Union
City, NJ 07087, (201) 927-7116
David Pontius, Webmaster, 26 School Street,
Northfeld, MA 01360, (413) 498-2721, Email:
webmaster@nofamass.org
Jack Kittredge and Julie Rawson, The Natural
Farmer, NOFA Summer Conference, 411
Sheldon Rd., Barre, MA 01005 (978) 355-2853,
Jack, tnf@nofa.org, Julie@nofamass.org
Marion Griswold, Bookkeeper, 30 Hollow
Rd., Woodbury, CT 06798, (203) 263-2221,
marion@ctnofa.org
Interstate
Certifcation
Contacts
Nicole Dehne, nicole@nofavt.org, PO Box 698,
Richmond, VT 05477, 802-434-4122, 802-434-
4154 (fax)
Carol King, 840 Front Street, Binghamton, NY
13905, (607) 724-9851, fax: (607)724-9853,
certifedorganic@nofany.org
Erich V. Bremer, c/o NJ Dept. of Agriculture,
PO Box 330, Trenton, NJ 08625, (609) 984-
2225 erich.bremer@ag.state.nj.us
Send $15 for US, $20 for foreign address to:
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