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University of Birmingham

Birmingham Business School

Towards a consolidated theory of celebrity endorsement
in Eastern and Western markets are there similarities
between successful endorsement deals in the East and
West?

Student name: Sania Dawood

Student ID: 892192

Module Code: 07 22689

Dissertation 2009-2010

Supervisor: Jo Andrews

Words: 7,654

Appendices: 795

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Contents:
Abstract ..........................................................................................................................pg3
Introduction ..................................................................................................................pg4
Objectives and Research Questions ...........................................................................pg6
Literature Review ...........................................................................................................pg8
Methodology .................................................................................................................pg21
-Research Philosophy and Approach ..................................................................pg21
-Research Strategy .............................................................................................pg21
-Data Collection Technique and Sampling Technique ........................................pg23
-Ethical Issues .....................................................................................................pg23
-Contents of Questionnaire .................................................................................pg23
-Pilot ....................................................................................................................pg25
Findings ........................................................................................................................pg26
-Results and Discussion .....................................................................................pg 26
- Criticisms and Suggestions for Improvement................................................... pg35
- A Consolidated Model of Celebrity Endorsement..............................................pg37
Conclusions .................................................................................................................pg39
-Application .........................................................................................................pg40
-Future suggestions............................................................................................ pg40
Appendices................................................................................................................... pg41
-Appendix 1: Mini Case Study Samsung as a Global Brand ............................pg41
- Appendix 2: Questionnaire Sample ..................................................................pg44

- Appendix 3: Results Table ................................................................................pg46

Bibliography .................................................................................................................pg48

-Websites ............................................................................................................pg48

-Books .................................................................................................................pg48

-Articles ...............................................................................................................pg50
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Abstract
The aims of this research were:
To identify the extent to which celebrity endorsement has penetrated the Eastern
and Western markets.
To determine the common factors if any - which link celebrity endorsement
advertisements in the Eastern and Western markets
To combine primary and case study research with existing theories of celebrity
endorsement, to construct a widely applicable model of celebrity endorsement,
applicable to both Eastern and Western Markets.
A literature review was conducted and primary research was then undertaken. A sample of
thirty four male and female University going students was used. They comprised of
students from both the East and the West.
Questionnaires were distributed via email and respondents were self selected on a
voluntary basis. It was found that while similar segments are most commonly targeted in
both cultures, celebrity endorsement is used more in the East.
Many cultural differences were found between endorsement deals in the East and the
West, which support theories discussed in the literature review. For example, Eastern
markets tend to use male celebrities more than females, which supports Hofstedes theory
of cultural dimensions.
However, as the sample comprised of affluent, well educated University students, it is not
representative of the wider segments of the Eastern and Western markets. This may affect
the accuracy of results.
Further suggestions and areas of research have been included in the conclusions section
of this dissertation.
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Introduction
Celebrities are used to promote everything from shoes to shampoo; from the Olympic
Games, to even tourism within a specific country. However, as new technologies enable
communication to become quicker and more widespread, celebrities are becoming less
bound to their homeland and are becoming global celebrities.
While many American celebrities have endorsed products in Eastern countries such as
Japan, very few Eastern celebrities have done so in the West the actor Jackie Chan
being one of the elite few. Chan and other contemporary Asian-American celebrities like
Jet Li rose to fame by portraying themselves as stereotypical, Kung Fu masters of the
East.
However, in reality very few Asians can relate to the way that Asians are depicted in
Western cinema. The portrayals of Chan and Li seem to fit the Western perception of life
in the East, rather than conveying an accurate image of Eastern inhabitants. Despite
theories such as the Global Teenager (Pickton and Broderick, 2005), research shows that
the Eastern and Western markets are very different, even within similar age groups (Choi,
Lee and Kim, 2005).
The issue then arises, of how to market a product in the Eastern marketplace, when the
Western understanding of the East is relatively limited. Even long standing models such as
Maslows Hierarchy of Needs (1943) are being questioned when taken from a largely
individualistic American culture, and applied to different parts of the world, many of which
are considered to be collectivist (Roll, 2006).
In todays world, where globalisation is becoming increasingly important to firms, both
Eastern and Western companies are vying for a place in the global marketplace. With so
many brands and products already in the marketplace, companies must leverage the fame
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of other business entities such as celebritys to draw attention to their own brand, rather
than that of competing firms, both in domestic and overseas markets (Pringle, 2004).
This raises several questions, such as, How should celebrities be marketed in overseas
advertisements, and Which celebrities should be used to endorse products overseas, as
well as many more. Therefore, the aim of this research is to understand the differences
and similarities (if any) between celebrity endorsement deals in the Eastern versus
Western markets.
This will involve conducting primary and secondary research regarding celebrity endorsed
advertisements in both Eastern and Western markets.
Furthermore, this research is being conducted with the aim of consolidating existing
(Western) theories of celebrity endorsement with primary and case study research, to
formulate a widely applicable theory of celebrity endorsement for both the Eastern and
Western markets. As the terms East and West are very broad, for the purposes of this
research, East will refer to the East Asian countries of China, Japan, Taiwan and South
Korea, while West will refer to North America, Canada and the British Isles.
The overall goal of this research is to enable marketers to apply the research findings and
conclusions to advertising techniques when aiming to gain overseas market share using
celebrity endorsement.





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Objectives and Research Questions
To fully address the similarities and differences between celebrity endorsement in the
Eastern versus Western markets, two main research objectives, (spawning further specific
research questions) have been outlined below.
a) Identify the extent to which celebrity endorsement has penetrated the Eastern and
Western markets. This objective is divided into two specific research questions;
i) How common is the use of celebrity endorsement in advertising in the
Eastern versus the Western markets?
ii) What market segments are most commonly targeted in the Eastern versus
Western markets?
b) Determine the common factors if any - which link celebrity endorsement
advertisements in the Eastern and Western markets. This objective is divided into
five specific research questions;
i) What medium of advertising is most commonly used for celebrity
endorsement in the Eastern and Western markets?
ii) What are the most common products to be advertised using celebrity
endorsement in the Eastern and Western markets?
iii) Do most celebrities in the Eastern and Western markets endorse one or many
products, and what could be the reasons behind this?
iv) Do most advertisements in the Eastern and Western markets use one or
many celebrities to endorse their products, and what could be the reasons
behind this?
v) What factors if any affect the choice of celebrity used in advertisements in
the Eastern and Western markets?
Furthermore, the final research objective of consolidating research findings into a widely
applicable framework of celebrity endorsement has been outlined below.
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c) Combine primary and case study research with existing theories of celebrity
endorsement, to construct a widely applicable model of celebrity endorsement,
applicable to both Eastern and Western Markets.


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Literature review
Previous researchers have studied celebrity endorsement across different cultures
(McCracken 1989; Choi, Lee and Kim 2005). However, these studies have looked
primarily at high and low context factors between cultures, whereas this research study
focuses more on internal differences between the advertisements themselves.
Additionally, the previous studies looked at differences between American advertisements
and those of Japan and Korea, whereas this research focuses on the East and West in a
wider context (as mentioned in the introduction).
Furthermore, most of the previous studies have focused on analysing either print or
television advertisements, whereas this research is focused on analysing various different
mediums of advertising. Therefore, previous research studies are minimally relevant to this
research study. Hence primary research will have to be conducted, which can answer the
specific research questions asked in this study.
The main content of this literature review will therefore be focused towards meeting the
third objective of this research study (consolidating existing theories of celebrity
endorsement with findings from primary research to formulate a model of celebrity
endorsement which can be applied to both Eastern and Western markets). To do this,
existing theories of celebrity endorsement will be analysed, along with models which have
attempted to explain or categorise the differences between Eastern and Western cultures.
The first of these models is Hofstedes (1980) model of Cultural Dimensions. Hofstede
surveyed over sixty countries and concluded that there are four main points of cultural
difference around the world. The first of these is the extent of power distance that is
present in the country. This refers to the amount of inequality that exists between those
with power and those without. In Eastern countries, it was found that the extent of power
distance is generally high, and that both those who have power and those who do not,
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approve or at the least are comfortable with this inequality. Whereas, it was found that
Western countries such as England have a low power distance level, and likewise approve
or are comfortable with this.
The second of Hofstedes dimensions is the amount of individualism versus collectivism
that exists within a country. In general, Western countries like America value individualism;
this means that people are encouraged and expected to provide for themselves (and their
immediate family), whereas Eastern countries have complex and intricate social circles, so
that extended family, neighbours, friends and co-workers are all expected to care for one
anothers needs.
The third dimension is the amount of masculinity within a culture, or rather a cultures
tendency to adhere to traditional ideas of gender roles. In the West, it was found that most
countries have low levels of masculinity, in that gender roles are blurred and both men and
women are treated as equals in the workforce. Whereas in the East, it was found that most
countries still value the separation of masculine and feminine roles; therefore men are
seen as the breadwinners, and women as the nurturers.
The fourth dimension is the level of uncertainty avoidance that exists within a country.
This refers to the extent to which society is governed by rules, and the idea that a definitive
truth exists. Many Eastern countries were found to have high levels of uncertainty
avoidance, whereas Western countries were the opposite. Americans in particular were
found to have a very laid back attitude in terms of planning and work orientation.
Interestingly, some Eastern countries like Singapore also had a low uncertainty avoidance
level.
However, there are many criticisms to be made of Hofstedes analysis technique. Firstly,
Hofstede mainly surveyed middle class workers, which represents an unequal sample of
the countries populations. Therefore, large discrepancies may exist in different socio-
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economic classes within each country a problem which Hofstede has failed to address
(McSweeney, 2002).
In addition, his methodology of using questionnaires to gather data can be criticised.
Questionnaires generally yield quite limited data, and many theorists argue that when
studying different cultures, an in depth analysis must be made, as opposed to broad
generalisations which may not be applicable to certain individuals within the country. For
example, individual differences occur from person to person, depending on certain family
structures or past experiences.
Furthermore, many subcultures exist alongside the main culture of a country. These
subcultures can be due to regional differences, religious differences, or due to ethnic
differences as a result of mass immigration (such as in America).
Moreover, due to globalisation and mass media communication, it can be argued that
there are less differences between countries nowadays than there were a few decades
ago. In this sense, Hofstedes work can be considered somewhat outdated, and less
applicable to modern studies of cross cultural differences.
Unsurprisingly, Bond (1988) extended Hofstedes original framework to incorporate a fifth
dimension known as Confuscian Dynamism. Hofstede later incorporated it into his own
framework under the name of Long Term Orientation, which referred to the level of value
placed on tradition versus innovation. Western countries like England and America were
found to have low levels of long term orientation, whereas Eastern countries like China
and Japan scored extremely highly for this dimension.
Hofstedes findings suggest that Eastern countries are generally diametrically opposed to
Western countries. This suggest that the primary research to be carried out as part of this
dissertation can be expected to generate similar results. However, due to the
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shortcomings of Hofstedes methodology (as mentioned above), the primary research for
this dissertation may yield quite different results due to factors such as globalisation.
Nevertheless, Hofstedes findings can be supported by work from other theorists such as
Mintzberg (1994), Trompenaars (1998) and Roll (2006). Although the theorists have
differing criteria for intercultural differences, they have all incorporated individualism versus
collectivism in their own criteria. As they have all noticed this major intercultural difference,
it can be assumed that it is a reliable difference (despite the limitations associated with
questionnaire analysis).
However, McSweeney (2002) argues that terms such as individualism and collectivism are
reductionist. Hofstede suggests that the aforementioned terms cannot co-exist, Yet
McSweeney suggests they can and do exist within a culture; they are simply apparent in
different situations. Therefore, it can also be said that Hofstedes dimension of masculinity
is reductionist, as masculinity and femininity co-exist within cultures, as well as within
individuals, and are likewise apparent if the situation requires.
However, Schutte and Ciarlante (1998) have also noticed the general difference of
individualism versus collectivism, and have adapted it to form an Asian equivalent of
Maslowes Hierarchy of Needs. In it, status, admiration and affiliation replace self-
actualisation, prestige and belonging (see figure 1).






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Although the terms may sound similar in both hierarchies, the Eastern Hierarchy
emphasises social values more than personal values, which reflects a distinctly collectivist
perspective.
Further support can be found from Markus and Kitayamas (1998) theory of independant
versus interdependent selves (see figure 2).








Figure 1: The Asian Hierarchy of Needs



Source: Schutte and Ciarlante (1998)

























Source: Schutte and Ciarlante (1998).

Figure 2: Independent versus interdependent
selves

Source: Markus and Kitayama (1998)
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They argue that Western countries tend to emphasises and value independence of self
from family, friends, co-workers and the general community. Although bonds are formed,
the self is seen as a separate and distinct entity from others, and the self is the main locus
of consciousness (Roll, 2006). Whereas in Eastern cultures, the self is seen as an
interdependent entity, in that the self and others are connected, despite being separate
people. Research studies have supported this idea. Takata (1999) found that Japanese
college students showed interdependent traits, as compared to their American and
Canadian counterparts.
However, Takata also found that interdependence decreased amongst Japanese citizens
as they got older. This suggests that the idea of independent versus interdpendent selves
is more complex than Markus and Kitayama suggest, as interdependence can change
within the people of a culture over time. It can be assumed that Westerners become
independent from a young age, while their Japanese counterparts stay interdependent for
longer. Thus the theory of independent and interdependent selves can be criticised as it
fails to account for the factors which affect the amount of interdependence within a culture.
Nevertheless. Takatas findings do support the idea of basic differences between Western
and Eastern cultures, in that the extended period of interdependence found in the East is
comparable to the notion of Japan being a collectivist culture, and the short lived period of
interdependence in the West is comparable to America and Canada being primarily
individualist cultures. Although conclusions cannot be drawn for other countries, it can be
hypothesised that neighbouring countries will have similar collectivist and individualistic
traits present in their cultures.
This suggests that celebrity endorsement should be tailored to fit the ideals of a collectivist
versus an individualistic culture, for the advertisements to be better received by consumers
of different cultures. Therefore, if an American company wishes to be successful in
countries such as Japan, the marketing strategy will have to be tailored to fit the ideals and
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aspirations of a collectivist rather than an individualist society (Roll, 2006). This may
involve using local rather than overseas celebrities to endorse products as they are seen
as being part of the in group and therefore more trustworthy (Solomon et al 2006; Francis
1991; Pornpitapkan 2004).
This can be linked to the Source Credibility Model (Hovland and Weiss, 1951), which
suggests that the more trustworthy a celebrity is, the more successful they will be in
endorsing a brand and convincing consumers of the products superiority over others in
the market. This also links to Klein et als (1998) theory of consumer animosity. The theory
states that consumers feel animosity towards brands from different countries, particularly if
there has been past hostility between their own country and the brands country of origin.
This theory is supported by Shimp and Sharma (1987) and is linked to the idea of
ethnocentrism.
Kent and Burnight (1951) define an ethnocentric consumer as a person who prefers
products from a country (or region) other than their own and who rates and scales
products in reference to the foreign country and not their own. Adorno et al (1950) support
this, suggesting that consumers may feel that products from their own country of origin are
superior to foreign products because their own culture forms part of their in group, while
the foreign culture is an out group. Therefore, if a foreign company wishes to become
successful in a new country, it may be advisable to use celebrities from the new country to
endorse the products. This will allow the new company to quickly become part of the in
group, as the celebritys in-group status can be leveraged. The celebrity will also act as a
role model (Bandura,1977) which consumers will identify with and try to imitate. This idea
is also supported by theories of reference groups (Solomon and Assael, 1987). A
reference group is similar to an in-group in that it is a basis of comparison and has
significant relevance upon an individuals evaluations.

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However, the idea of ethnocentrism can be criticised, as other research studies have
found evidence for xenocentrism (Kent and Burnight, 1951). This is the idea that certain
sub groups within a culture identify less with their own culture and more with a foreign
culture. An example is the affinity of the American Dream which has become widespread
throughout many regions of the world. Many consumers wish to buy American products
because they wish to fill an aspirational desire rather than a functional need. This is related
to the Self Concept Theory, as proposed by Sirgy (1982). Sirgy states that all consumers
have a realistic concept of themselves and an ideal concept of themselves. Consumers
buy products which fit with their idea of their real self, but also buy products which they feel
will bring them closer to reaching their ideal self. Hence, if Asian consumers buy American
goods, they may be aspirirng to an ideal life, rather than fulfilling as functional need.
Therefore, this research suggests that a foreign celebrity may be more useful if targeting a
xenocentric segment of the market.
In terms of this dissertation, both theories of ethnocentrism and xenocentrism may apply,
as both have research studies to support their ideas.
However, the theory of xenocentrism can be criticised for failing to address the factors
which affect it. For example, Roszak (1970) criticised the idea of xenocentrism, stating that
it is affected by age. He suggested that as consumers grow out of adolescence, they
develop a closer affinity for goods produced by their own country. According to Shimp and
Sharma (1987), it may even be seen as immoral to support another countrys economy.
Salazar (1983) further criticised xenocentrism, stating that it is affected by socio-economic
status (SES). Consumers from a high SES background buy foreign products as a status
symbol, due to connotations of quality which are attached to foreign brands in Asia.
Ironically, the best brands in America and England are considered to be Asian (such as
the Japanese brand Sony). Conversely, consumers from a low SES background buy
foreign products to aspire towards their ideal selves and an idealised lifestyle. This may
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result in low regard for their own culture and an exaggerated, idealised perception of
foreign culture.
This is related to the Source Attractiveness Theory, which states that the more attractive
a celebrity is, the more convincing they will be in endorsing a product (McGuire, 1985).
Attractiveness does not only refer to physical attractiveness. It also refers to an attractive
lifestyle, athletic prowess and intellectual abilities. However, DeBono and Telesca (2006)
found that individuals with a high level of self monitoring are less affected by source
attractiveness, and form their opinions based on expertise or credibility. Self monitoring is
defined as a tendency to act according to social expectations, rather than ones own
feelings, with the intention of appearing more socially desirable (Snyder, 1974). This would
suggest that an attractive celebrity cannot convince every type of consumer to buy a
certain product without factual evidence to support the superiority of one product over
another.
However, in criticism of this, Reifman et al (1989) have found that self monitoring
behaviour decreases with age, and is most prevalent in adolescents. This suggests two
things; firstly that adolescents are most critical of celebrity endorsement, and need a
trustworthy or credible opinion in order to buy an endorsed product. Secondly, that
contrary to the first assumption, adolescents may buy endorsed products because the
socially desirable behaviour is to emulate certain celebrities (as celebrities such as pop
stars may be role models for adolescents. Therefore, credibility and attractiveness would
be secondary to emulating the behaviour of the celebrity).
In addition, McGuire (1985) found that ethnicity is linked to source attractiveness. He
argued that familiarity and similarity are two key elements of attractiveness, and that
therefore, they affect ones perception of a beautiful physique, as well as a beautiful
lifestyle. This is supported by Perez-Nordveldt et al (2008), who found that Asian American
students responded better to an Asian American spokespeople, in comparison to
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spokespeople of another race. In a business context, this suggests that celebrities which
are of the same race as consumers will be more successful in endorsing products. This
also supports the previously discussed theories of in-groups in relation to source
credibility.
In further support of the source attractiveness theory, Edrogen (1999) found that an
attractive endorser aids brand recall. This can be linked to Pavlovs (1927) theory of
classical conditioning. Pavlov suggests that an unconditioned stimulus (such as a product
or brand), when paired with a conditioned stimulus (such as a celebrity who is naturally
attractive and memorable), then the product itself becomes a conditioned response. The
consumers will buy the product simply because they are reminded of the celebrity; and
since they like the celebrity, they will buy the product. Thus the celebritys attractiveness is
transferred to the product.(see figure 3). This is supported by Till (1998).









Additionally, whenever the celebrity is seen in advertisements (regardless of whether or
not the celebrity is endorsing the same product in every advertisement), the brand will be
Figure 3: Classical conditioning applied to celebrity endorsement




Applied to celebrity endorsement


Source: Adapted from Edrogan (1999).
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recalled due to the consumers being conditioned. This raises the issue of overexposure.
Pringle (2004) argues that celebrities who appear in multiple advertisements, endorsing
many different products will not only make consumers tired of seeing them everywhere,
they will also fail to successfully endorse any one product or brand, as they are affiliated
with so many different ones, that no conditioning can occur.
In support of this, McCracken (1989) argues that there must be a transfer of meaning, or
symbolic values between the brand and endorser. This is the Meaning Transfer Model. It
suggests that there must be strong links between the celebrity and the product being
endorsed, for any kind of meaning to be successfully conveyed to consumers. This is
supported by Friedman and Friedman (1979), who state that there must be congruence
between the celebrity and product being endorsed. To further support this, Ohanian (1991)
has stated that celebrities must have a degree of expertise when endorsing products.
However, Edrogan (1999) criticises the very idea of celebrity endorsement, saying that it is
riddled with risks. Not only is celebrity endorsement a highly expensive investment, there
is a risk that the celebrity will overshadow the brand, and no only the celebrity will benefit
form the advertisement, with no consumers recalling the actual product itself. Byrne et al
(2003) call this the vampire effect, as the celebrity acts as a leech, sucking the blood (or
rather, money), from the product. This was the case when Celine Dion endorsed Land
Rover (Pringle, 2004). She was a Canadian Singer, and Land Rover was the perfect car
for the rough Canadian landscape, yet she completely overshadowed the brand.
Another risk is that the celebrity may develop a negative reputation (Fiske, 1980). Due to
the conditioning process, any negative connotations acquired by the celebrity will
automatically be transferred to the brand or product. This then detracts from the
attractiveness and credibility of the celebrity, and can result in huge financial losses for the
brand (Louie, Kulik and Jacobson, 2001). However, if a celebrity is seen as the victim,
rather than perpetrator of a crime, then sales can actually increase.
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As mentioned, overexposure of a celebrity can result in no conditioning effects occurring,
which also leads to huge financial losses (Tripp et al, 1994). Conversely, Mowen and
Brown (1981) suggest that overexposure can actually lead to negative associations of the
brand, as consumers perceive the celebrity to be insincere and untrustworthy. These
feelings are then transferred to the brand itself. However, many Asian cultures view
multiple endorsement deals as a sign of success. This therefore facilitates further positive
notions of the celebrity and brands endorsed by them in the minds of the consumer.
However, Pringle (2004) criticise this, saying that there is too much noise in the
marketplace in todays wired society, which means that most celebrity endorsed
advertisements go unnoticed.
As a response to such negative criticisms, the Celebrity Brand Impact Model was
suggested (Roll 2006). It states that source attractiveness, combined with meaning
transfer and source credibility results in both high brand awareness and high impact
amongst consumer (see figure 4).









Figure 4: The Celebrity Brand Impact Model


Source Roll (2006)









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Therefore, for an endorsement deal to overcome noise in the channel, the celebrity will
have to be credible and attractive, with a high level of meaning transfer. Although this
seems difficult, it has been achieved with celebrities such as Beyonce endorsing
Samsungs mobile phones. This is discussed further in the case study on Samsung, found
in appendix 1. Although not integral to understanding the concepts discussed in this
literature review, it provides cases of practical applications of the theories and concepts
discussed.
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Methodology
Research Philosophy and Approach:
As this dissertation is analysing the differences between cultures, and culture affects
perception, the research philosophy will be that of social constructionism. This is because
subjective realities will be explored, rather than objective truths (Saunders et al, 2007).

The research approach will be inductive, as this dissertation seeks to establish new
theories and connections by conducting primary research.

This dissertation will consist mainly of exploratory research, as there are very few previous
studies which have investigated the similarities between celebrity endorsement deals in
the Eastern and Western markets. Those that do exist have focused more on context
analysis rather than content analysis. Therefore, this dissertation is aimed at exploring in
depth the content of endorsement deals in both markets.

Research Strategy:
To address the individual research questions, I will conduct primary research in the form of
questionnaires. Although often associated with quantitative research, Hussey and Hussey
(1997) argue that they can also be used for either positivistic or social constructivist
approaches to data collection. They state that questionnaires can also yield qualitative
data, which can be explored in depth to discover new insights. Although in unstructured
interviews would result in richer data, due to time constraints questionnaires will be used.
Additionally, unstructured interviews can yield unrelated information, and are subject to
many biases such as the Greenspoon effect (Saunders et al, 2007). This occurs when an
interviewer gives interviewees positive cues through body language (such as nodding and
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smiling) which can lead the interviewee to act in a socially desirable way, rather than
giving their honest opinion.

Furthermore, even if greenspooning does not occur, interviewees may still wish to act
socially desirable, and thus will not give honest opinions. This will result in findings which
are neither accurate nor reliable. In contrast, the anonymity of questionnaires usually leads
to much more honest answers, and therefore much more accurate and reliable results.

However, the Screw You effect can still occur (Saunders et al, 2007), where participants
deliberately give dishonest answers, in order to corrupt results. Therefore, if a particular
participant consistently gives answers which are radically different from other participants,
their results will not be considered, as the participant may be deliberately trying to corrupt
results.

Alternatively, the participant may be answering honestly, but may have radically different
opinions from the rest of the population. In this case, their results will also not be
considered, as they will not be representative of the wider population.

A pilot study will occur to identify faults in the methodology and areas for improvement in
the final questionnaire design. Results will be analysed and discussed, and findings will be
combined with research from the literature review to form a consolidated model of celebrity
endorsement which can be applied to both Eastern and Western markets. Finally, the
dissertation will be evaluated in terms of strengths and weaknesses, so that areas for
improvement and further research topics can be identified.



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Data Collection Technique and Sampling Technique:
Questionnaires will be distributed via email to students at various Universities throughout
England. This will result in a sample of self selected individuals, who have voluntarily
chosen to participate in the research. To test both the Eastern and Western markets, the
participants I choose to email will be a selection of students from different parts of the
world. The Western participants will consist of students from North America, Canada and
the British Isles, while the Eastern participants will consist of students from China, Taiwan,
Korea and Japan.
As the participants will be friends of the researcher, they may feel obligated to participate.
They may also feel pressurised to appear socially desirable. However, as the
questionnaire will be designed to investigate the similarities and differences between
endorsement deals in the East and West, the questions themselves will consist solely of
opinions regarding the content of advertisements, rather than any personal or prying
questions which may make the participants feel uncomfortable. In fact, as I will know the
participants personally, they may be more honest with me than with a stranger.

Ethical Issues:
To overcome any ethical issues, participants will be reminded that they are free to
withdraw from the research study at any time, and that their names will not be mentioned
in any part of the dissertation. They will also be debriefed about the nature and purpose of
the study upon completion of the questionnaire, and will be welcome to review the findings
and conclusions should they wish to do so.

Contents of Questionnaire:
For a sample of the questionnaire emailed to participants, please refer to appendix 2. The
main contents of the questionnaire are described below.

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Firstly, demographic questions, such as age and gender will be asked of participants, so
as to better analyse any trends which may appear in results.

To answer the first research question, I will ask each participant to rate the commonality of
celebrity endorsement in their country of origin on a verbal scale ranging from extremely
common to rare.

To answer the second research question, I will ask participants to highlight the most
common segments that are targeted in their country of origin in terms of age, gender and
race.

To answer the third research question, I will ask participants to highlight the most common
medium of celebrity endorsement from a choice of print, TV, online, radio, live events or
other, with space to write what the other medium could be.

To answer the fourth research question, I will ask participants to highlight the most
common products which are endorsed in their country of origin, from a choice of clothes
and shoes, jewellery and cars, food and drink, beauty and hygiene products, or other.

To answer the fifth research question, I will ask participants to highlight the most common
number of products that celebrities in their country of origin endorse, from a range
provided.
To answer the sixth research question, I will ask participants to highlight the most common
number of celebrities that appear in endorsement deals in their country of origin, from a
range provided.
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To answer the seventh research question, I will ask participants to highlight the most
common traits that celebrity endorsers possess in their country of origin, in terms of age,
gender, race and occupation. Each trait will have a range of options to choose from.
To meet the final objective of this dissertation and create a consolidated theory of celebrity
endorsement, I will combine the findings of my primary research with the theories and
cases discussed earlier.

Pilot:
A pilot study of eight Western and nine Eastern students was carried out. No problems
were incurred in regards to the methodology. Therefore, the questionnaire will remain
unchanged, and further participants will be emailed the questionnaire to obtain a larger
sample. This should make the findings and conclusions more accurate and reliable, as a
larger sample will represent a wider segment of the Eastern and Western populations.
Page 26 of 52

Findings:
Results and Discussion
A table of results is displayed in appendix 3. A general discussion is found below.
A total of seventeen Western and nineteen Eastern students responded to the
questionnaire. However, to keep numbers equal and avoid bias, only seventeen Eastern
respondents were counted when analysing results. A mixture of male and female students
between the ages of eighteen and twenty six were used. Figure 5 shows that the most
concentrated group of participants were Eastern females, and also Eastern students aged
18 to 21.












Figure 5: Graphs showing the age, gender and ethnicity of participants




Page 27 of 52


It was found that Eastern students felt celebrity endorsement was used more commonly in
their country of origin than did Western students (see figure 6)








Both Eastern and Western students felt that the most common age group to be targeted by
celebrity endorsed advertisements were the twenty to twenty five year olds, and the most
common gender was females (figure 7 on page 28). However, Many Eastern students also
felt that men were equally targeted. This could be linked to the research finding that more
electronic devices are endorsed in the East than in the West. This is linked to the idea of
the Asian Hierarchy of Needs valuing status above all else. If a male celebrity endorses a
product, and that celebrity is a strong role model, other males may wish to emulate him.




Figure 6: A graph comparing Eastern and Western answers to How common is
celebrity endorsement in your country of origin?


Page 28 of 52















Western students felt that Caucasians were most targeted in endorsed advertisements,
while Eastern students felt that Asians were most targeted (figure 8 on page 29). This
reflects the idea of ethnocentrism, in that in-groups are most targeted. However, many
Western students also felt that no particular race is targeted. This may reflect the
multicultural aspect of countries such as America, Canada and England, in that whatever
race the celebrity is, the audience is assumed to be anyone who lives in that country and
is watching the advertisement, regardless of race. This suggests that Eastern countries
Figure 7: Graphs showing the most common age and gender to be targeted in
Eastern and Western markets




Page 29 of 52

are more ethnocentric than Western countries, perhaps because most Eastern countries
have very low populations of immigrants.










Both Eastern and Western students agreed that TV was the most common medium of
celebrity endorsed advertisements (figure 9 on page 30). However, many Eastern students
also said that the internet was the most common medium. This may be because Eastern
countries are more wired than Western ones - Korea in particular is the most wired
country in the world. Additionally, many students do not watch television, preferring instead
to watch their favourite shows on the internet, particularly Eastern students whos favourite
shows from their country of origin are not even broadcast in the West. Therefore, they may
gain their pop culture updates from websites rather than TV channels. This introduces the
highly important concept of PESTLE factors (political, economic, social, technological,
legal and environmental). Technology in particular is rapidly changing the way in which
information is conveyed. International firms will need to be aware of this to compete in
Figure 8: A graph to show the ethnicity most commonly targeted in Eastern and Western
markets


Page 30 of 52

overseas markets, which use the internet for entertainment and consumption much more
than the West. Furthermore, as all the participants were young, they are more likely to be
attuned to the latest technologies. An older sample may have unanimously agreed that TV
is the most commonly used medium of celebrity endorsement.









It was found that Western countries endorse beauty and hygiene products the most,
whereas Eastern countries endorse electronic goods the most (figure 10 on page 31). This
reflects the long standing reputation of countries such as China, Japan, Korea and Taiwan
as being industry leaders in the field of technology. Moreover, it reflects the Asian
Hierarchy of Needs, in that electronic goods may be seen as status symbols, whereas
beauty products fit more into the Western category of self actualisation.



Figure 9: A graph showing the most common medium of endorsed advertisements
in Eastern and Western markets


Page 31 of 52











It was found that Western celebrities endorsed mostly two to four products, whereas
Eastern celebrities endorsed mostly five to seven (figure 11). This reflects the idea
discussed in the literature review that overexposure is seen as insincerity in the West, but
is considered a sign of success in the East (Roll, 2006).







Figure 10: A graph to show which products are most endorsed in Eastern and
Western markets


Figure 11: A graph to show how many products most celebrities endorse in
Eastern and Western markets


Page 32 of 52

It was also found that Western advertisements typically feature one celebrity, whereas
Eastern advertisements mostly feature two to four (figure 12). This supports the idea of
individualism versus collectivism, as Hofstede suggested. Furthermore, it supports Markus
and Kitayamas theory of the independent versus interdependent self, in that celebrities in
the West are portrayed as independent, and so appear alone in advertisements; whereas
celebrities in the East are portrayed as interdependent, and so appear in a group with
other celebrities.








It was found that most Western celebrities featured in advertisements are between the
ages of twenty and twenty five, and that the most common gender is also female (figure 13
on page 33). This is the same age range and gender as the most commonly targeted
group of consumers in the West, which supports theories of reference groups, in that we
use our reference group as a guide on decision making, as discussed in the literature
review. However, Eastern students felt that most celebrity endorsers were aged between
eighteen and twenty, and were male. This supports Hofstedes theory that Eastern cultures
are more masculine orientated, and it also support the Schutte and Ciarlantes Asian
Figure 12: A graph showing how many celebrities appear in endorsements in
Eastern and Western Markets


Page 33 of 52

Hierarchy of Needs, in that endorsing a product from a young age may be seen as a sign
of success, and thus highly valued in promoting both the celebrity and the product.














It was felt that most Western celebrities are Caucasian, and most Eastern celebrities are
Asian, which supports the idea of ethnocentricity (figure 14 on page 34). Additionally,
Black celebrities were a close second amongst Western responses, which reflects the
ethnic diversity of Western countries. This affects the reference groups of the target
Figure 13: Graphs showing the most common age and gender of endorsers in
Eastern and Western markets




Page 34 of 52

audience, as is evidenced by Beyonce (a black singer) being chosen as the face of
Samsung in America (see appendix 1).








Finally, it was found that Western celebrity endorsers were equally matched between
singers and actors, whereas Eastern celebrity endorsers were mostly singers, with actors
being a close second (figure 15). This may represent a cultural preference, or it may be
due to a low response rate, as discussed in the criticisms section.







Figure 14: A graph showing the most common race of endorsers in Eastern and
Western markets


Figure 15: A graph showing the most common occupation of endorsers in
Eastern and Western markets


Page 35 of 52

Criticisms and Suggestions for Improvement:
Although the results seem to match the theories discussed in the literature review and
case study, thirty four participants is a very low response rate. This is often the case with
questionnaires (Saunders et al, 2009) and can result in misleading findings. For example,
Eastern respondents stated that more male celebrities endorsed products than female
celebrities. However, the actual difference was very small (only one more respondent
answered male instead of female celebrities). This implies that if the sample was much
bigger, the results may have been different.
Furthermore, the respondents were merely stating their opinions, which may themselves
be flawed as they are based on a subjective perception of reality rather than absolute fact.
This is a part of the research philosophy adopted for this dissertation (social
constructivism), which has its limitations. To improve and extend this research, a study
similar to the ones carried out by McCracken (1989) and Choi et al (2005) could be
conducted, where advertisements from the East and West were recorded for a specified
time period. Although the previous researchers coded the recordings for high and low
context factors, for the purposes of this dissertation topic, such recordings could be
analysed in terms of content rather than context. Namely, the race, age, gender, etc of the
celebrity endorsers could be analysed, as was done in my primary research. However, the
recordings would be based on fact rather than opinion, which would render the results
more accurate and reliable.
Another criticism is that the sample of participants itself was biased; all the Eastern
respondents were from affluent, well educated and somewhat Westernised families. This
is not a representative sample of the population of Asia, as there exist great class divisions
in Eastern countries, particularly China. The group of Western respondents was also not a
representative sample, even though less class divisions exist in Western countries. To
improve this dissertation (and time and resources permitting), a wider, stratified sample
Page 36 of 52

could be taken of Eastern and Western countries, so that the overall populations could be
better understood in terms of cultural differences regarding celebrity endorsement.
However, impoverished families in the East are highly unlikely to respond to celebrity
endorsement, as their basic physiological needs are not being met. This is supported by
the Asian Hierarchy of Needs. Therefore, a sample of the population of Asia which is
above a certain income level could be taken, and their responses recorded. This could
then also be extended to the Western participants so that only people above a certain
income level will be included in the sample. Although this excludes many people, and can
be considered an unrealistic and overall unrepresentative sample, the sample that is finally
taken would be more relevant to the purpose of this dissertation. Therefore, sampling
affluent Eastern students in the first place is more relevant to this dissertation, which is the
original sample technique. Especially as twenty to twenty five year olds were found to be
the most commonly targeted segment on both the East and the West, University students
in general would be a good sample of any research on celebrity endorsement.
Overall, the results of this study can be considered reasonably accurate and reliable, as
they are consistent with the theories defined in the literature review. These results will now
be combined with the research theories and case study analysis to form a consolidated
model of celebrity endorsement, applicable to both Eastern and Western markets.

Page 37 of 52


A Consolidated Model of Celebrity Endorsement:
Figure 16 shows the consolidated model.









The S stands for segment, as in the market segment that is being targeted by the
endorsed advertisement. In this box, everything that affects consumers should be
considered; the decision making process, reference groups and self concept theory,
xenocentrism, ethnocentrism, collectivism, individualism, Hofstedes five dimensions, the
Hierarchy of Needs, interdependent versus independent self. Additionally, demographic
and psychographic factors can also be placed in this box; anything which affects the
consumers choice to buy a product.
The C stands for celebrity. In this box goes everything that affects a consumers
perception of the celebrity; attractiveness, similarity, familiarity, credibility, positive or
negative media portrayal. In this box should also be placed everything that the firm will
Figure 16: A consolidated Model of Celebrity Endorsement, Applicable in both Eastern and
Western Cultures




1
2
3
4
P
C
S
M

Page 38 of 52

consider when selecting a celebrity for an advertisement; cost, risk, meaning transfer and
brand impact.
The P stands for product. in this box should be placed everything that affects the choice
of celebrity for the product, namely, meaning transfer. In this box should also be placed
everything to do with the firm, such as corporate identity, company ethos, brand identity,
media portrayal of CSR activities.
The M stands for market. In this box should be placed everything that affects the market
conditions, such as PESTLE factors, cross cultural variations, consumer animosity, etc.
The double headed arrows denote the relationships between each box. Firstly, the
segment must be aware of the product. Secondly, the product must be linked to the
celebrity. Thirdly, the celebrity must resonate with the segment. Fourthly, the segment
must be aware of the link between celebrity and product. The market acts as an external
box, holding everything else within it.
In this way, all theories of celebrity endorsement and cultural variation have been
categorically placed in an appropriate box; the beauty of this model lies in its simplicity.
Any theory as yet not covered in the literature review can be placed in either of the four
boxes as an additional factor which affects the endorsement process.
A drawback of this model is that it has not been formed using cultures other than the East
and West (for example, Africa). However, since the model is so easy to use, any theories
which are specific to certain countries should be able to be placed in one of the boxes.
Hence, this model should be applicable globally.
Page 39 of 52

Conclusions:
All of the research objectives have been achieved. The first objective was to identify the
extent of penetration of celebrity endorsement ion the Eastern and Western markets. It
was found that endorsement deals are more prevalent in the East, and that females
between the ages of twenty and twenty five are most targeted. The race of the most
targeted segment is congruent with the majority race of the country.
The second research objective was to identify the similarities - if any between
endorsement deals in the East and West. Many similarities and differences were found.
Firstly, TV is the most popular medium of endorsement, although in the East, internet
endorsement is also very popular. Secondly, hygiene and beauty products are the most
popular to be endorsed in the West, whereas the East endorses electronic goods the
most. Thirdly, most celebrities in the West endorse two to four products, whereas Eastern
celebrities endorse many more. Fourthly, most Western advertisements use one celebrity,
whereas Eastern advertisements use five to seven. Finally, Eastern endorsers are typically
younger than Western endorsers, and are more likely to be male than female. Once again,
race was found to be congruent with the ethnic diversity of the countrys population.
These findings were found to be consistent with the various theories covered in the
literature review, as discussed in the results section. However, the methodology was
slightly flawed in that opinions were asked, rather than objective truths being measures;
the sample was not representative, as it included only a group of affluent, well educated
individuals. The sample size was also quite small, which may yield results which are quite
different from the actuality.
A consolidated model of celebrity endorsement was created, which categorised each
existing theory into four simplified boxes. Links between the boxes were established
through double headed arrows to show the process of endorsement being enacted.
Page 40 of 52

Further theories can be added to the boxes, and the theory should be applicable globally,
due its nature of summarising and simplifying theories into one of four categories.

Application:
This dissertation shows that global companies and companies wishing to enter new
markets should be aware of the cultural factors affecting celebrity endorsement. The
choice of celebrity should be carefully reviewed and matched with the product to maximise
brand impact. The consolidated theory can be applied in real life situations, as a summary
of all factors that should be considered in the endorsement process.

Future Suggestions:
To extend this research, further factors that affect celebrity endorsement can be explored,
such as social class and religion. Religion in particular is a very interesting factor, as it
affects many Eastern countries. Malaysia for example, is an affluent country, with a
majority Muslim population. It would be interesting to see the impact of religion on a highly
developed country like Malaysia in terms of celebrity endorsement.






Page 41 of 52

Appendices:

Appendix 1: Mini Case Study Samsung as a Global Brand
By applying theories from the literature review to the case of Samsung, we can see how
effective cultural advertising has been promoted through the use of celebrity endorsement.
Firstly, the singer Beyonce shall be analysed as a credible source. She herself is a
musician, and therefore is reliable when it comes to endorsing Samsungs phones on the
basis of their music quality. In terms of source attractiveness, not only is she considered
one of the worlds most beautiful women, she is also the fourth most highly paid celebrity
according to Forbes (2008). In addition, she is known for being a strict Christian, which
theoretically reduces the risk of scandalous behaviour lending negative connotations to the
brands she endorses. Her beauty, success, talent and respectable lifestyle make her an
extremely attractive source, and also a strong role model.
For other African American women, Beyonce would be a particularly attractive source, as
she is more similar to them (McGuire 1985) and is therefore also more trustworthy.
However, as she is a global celebrity, overseas market segments (especially those who
are xenocentric) may also wish to emulate her. This is linked to the self concept theory, in
that consumers from the East may aspire to live the American Dream. Thus, by seeing
Beyonce endorsing Samsung, they will wish to buy the phone in order to become closer to
achieving their ideal self.
However, to target ethnocentric consumers, Samsung has developed the clever strategy
of using celebrities from each country that they operate in. For example, in Korea,
Samsung uses the popular music group 2PM, in China the singer Rain, and in Taiwan
the popular music group Focus Five. Thus, by leveraging celebrity credibility and
attractiveness, Samsung can be perceived as part of the in-group, rather than a foreign
brand.
Page 42 of 52

It is also interesting to note that most of the celebrities from Eastern countries are male
(2PM, Rain and Focus Five). This is related to Hofstedes (1980) idea of Eastern cultures
being more masculine orientated, with traditional roles prescribes for women. In contrast,
the Western countries that Samsung operates in have used female celebrities, which
further supports Hofstedes suggestion that Western cultures are less masculine orientated
in terms of gender roles. In support of this, the singer Taecyeon from 2PM was voted the
best male celebrity for his masculine physique (All K Pop, 2009), whereas many Western
celebrities such as James Blunt have achieved high levels of fame and success without
being considered masculine.
Furthermore, it can be noted that Eastern celebrities often appear as a group, whereas
their Western counterparts often endorse products as solo artists. This is reflective of
Hofstedes suggestion that Eastern cultures are more collectivist. It also reflects Markus
and Kitayamas (1998) idea of interdependence. The fact that Samsung uses multiple
celebrities in advertisements in Eastern countries suggests that the consumers are
comfortable with the idea of co-dependence and sharing the spotlight.
Additioanlly, the Eastern celebrities that Samsung uses often endorse several products at
the same time. For example, 2PM also endorse Coca Cola, Paris Baguette, Real
Brownies, Spris, Cass Beer and more. In the West, this may be seen as insincerity, and
may detract from the credibility of the celebrity. However, as Schutte and Ciarlante (1998)
suggested, the Asian Hierarchy of Needs places status above self actualisation; thus,
endorsing multiple products would be seen as a sign of success, making the celebrity
more attractive.
In terms of cost, 2PM are an extremely popular band, and asking them to exclusively
endorse Samsung would be highly expensive. This is also the case with Beyonce, as she
also endorses clothing and perfume as well as Samsung phones. Tripp et al (1994)
suggest that this method of celebrity sharing is much more affordable, and does not
Page 43 of 52

detract from brand impact. In fact, as Beyonce, Rain, 2PM and Focus Five are all singers,
they have a high degree of meaning transfer when endorsing the musical capabilities of
phones. Thus, when combines with attractiveness and credibility, a high level of brand
impact can be achieved.


Page 44 of 52

Appendix 2: Questionnaire Sample
Thank you for agreeing to participate in this research. You will be asked to answer
questions about celebrity endorsement, as well as some demographic questions. You will
remain anonymous throughout this research study and subsequent written reports. If you
do not wish to complete the questionnaire, or wish to withdraw your participation, you can
do so at any time. Please return all questionnaires to sxd792@bham.ac.uk. Thank you.

Question: Response (please highlight)
Gender Male
Female
Country of Origin
Age 18 to 21
22 to 26
How common is celebrity endorsement in
your country of origin?
Extremely common (nearly all ads)
Very common (over half of all ads)
Quite common (about half of all ads)
Not very common (less than half of all ads)
Rare (less than one in five ads)
What is the most common age group that
is targeted by endorsed ads?
Under 15
15 to 20
20to 25
25 to 30
30 to 35
35 to 40
Over 40
What is the most common gender to be
targeted by endorsed ads?
Male
Female
Both are equally targeted
What race of consumer is most commonly
targeted in endorsed ads?
Caucasian
Black
Asian (oriental)
Asian (Indian sub continent)
Middle Eastern
Other (please specify)
No particular race is targeted
What medium of advertising is most
commonly used in endorsed ads?
TV
Radio
Print
Internet
Live event
Other please specify
What products are most commonly
endorsed?
Clothes and shoes
Perfumes
Cars
Page 45 of 52

Electronics
Food and drink
Beauty and hygiene
Charities
Other please specify
How many products do most celebrities
endorse?
One
Two to four
Five to seven
Eight to ten
Over ten:
How many celebrities do most
endorsement ads feature?
One
Two to four
Five to seven
Eight to ten
Over ten
What age are most celebrities featured in
endorsement ads?
Under 15
15 to 20
20 to 25
25 to 30
30 to 35
35 to 40
Over 40
What gender are most celebrities featured
in endorsement ads?
Male
Female
Both are equal
What race are most celebrities featured in
endorsement ads?
Caucasian
Black
Asian (oriental)
Asian (Indian sub continent)
Middle Eastern
Other (please specify)
Different races
What occupation are most celebrities
featured in endorsement ads?
Singer
Actor
Athlete
Model
Politician
Businessman
Other please specify

Thank you for participating in this study. The aim of this research is to compare celebrity
endorsement between Eastern markets, with the hope of forming a widely applicable
model of celebrity endorsement, which can be applied to different cultural settings.
If you wish to view the final results and conclusions, please email sxd792@bham.ac.uk.
Thank you for your participation.
Page 46 of 52


Appendix 3: Results Table

Question: Western Respondents: Eastern Respondents

Total No. Of
Respondents
17 17 (initially 19, but two
respondents taken out to keep
numbers equal)

Gender Male 7
Female 10
Male 5
Female 12

Country of Origin Canada 2
USA 3
England 10
Wales 1
Isle of Man 1
China 11
Taiwan 3
Japan 1
Korea 2
Age 18 to 21: 13
22 to 26: 4
18 to 21: 15
22 to 26: 2

How common is
celebrity
endorsement in
your country of
origin?
Extremely common (nearly all
ads):
Very common (over half of all
ads):
Quite common (about half of all
ads): 8
Not very common (less than half
of all ads:9
Rare (less than one in five ads):

Extremely common (nearly all
ads):
Very common (over half of all
ads):5
Quite common (about half of all
ads): 9
Not very common (less than half
of all ads:3
Rare (less than one in five ads):

What is the most
common age group
that is targeted by
endorsed ads?
Under 15:
15 to 20:3
20 to 25:8
25 to 30:6
30 to 35:
35 to 40:
Over 40:
Under 15:
15 to 20:4
20 to 25: 10
25 to 30:3
30 to 35:
35 to 40:
Over 40:

What is the most
common gender to
be targeted by
endorsed ads?
Male:6
Female:8
Both are equally targeted:3
Male:4
Female:7
Both are equally targeted: 6
What race of
consumer is most
commonly targeted
in endorsed ads?
Caucasian:9
Black:
Asian (oriental):
Asian (Indian sub continent):
Middle Eastern:
Other (please specify):
No particular race is targeted: 6

Caucasian:
Black:
Asian (oriental): 15
Asian (Indian sub continent):
Middle Eastern:
Other (please specify):
No particular race is targeted:2

What medium of
advertising is most
commonly used in
TV: 14
Radio:
Print:2
TV: 12
Radio:
Print:
Page 47 of 52

endorsed ads? Internet:1
Live event:
Other please specify:
Internet:5
Live event:
Other please specify:
What products are
most commonly
endorsed?
Clothes and shoes:1
Perfumes: 5
Cars:
Electronics:3
Food and drink:1
Beauty and hygiene:7
Charities:
Other please specify:
Clothes and shoes: 5
Perfumes:
Cars:
Electronics:7
Food and drink:3
Beauty and hygiene:2
Charities:
Other please specify:

How many
products do most
celebrities
endorse?
One:2
Two to four: 15
Five to seven:
Eight to ten:
Over ten:
One:
Two to four: 7
Five to seven:10
Eight to ten:
Over ten:

How many
celebrities do most
endorsement ads
feature?
One:12
Two to four: 5
Five to seven:
Eight to ten:
Over ten:
One:2
Two to four: 9
Five to seven:6
Eight to ten:
Over ten:

What age are most
celebrities featured
in endorsement
ads?
Under 15:
15 to 20:
20 to 25:9
25 to 30:8
30 to 35:
35 to 40:
Over 40:
Under 15:
15 to 20:8
20 to 25: 7
25 to 30:2
30 to 35:
35 to 40:
Over 40:

What gender are
most celebrities
featured in
endorsement ads?
Male:6
Female: 9
Both are equal:2
Male:7
Female: 6
Both are equal:4
What race are most
celebrities featured
in endorsement
ads?
Caucasian:7
Black:6
Asian (oriental):
Asian (Indian sub continent):
Middle Eastern:
Other (please specify):
Different races: 4
Caucasian:
Black:
Asian (oriental): 16
Asian (Indian sub continent):
Middle Eastern:
Other (please specify):
Different races:1

What occupation
are most celebrities
featured in
endorsement ads?
Singer:6
Actor:6
Athlete:5
Model:
Politician;
Businessman:
Other please specify:
Singer:9
Actor:8
Athlete:
Model:
Politician;
Businessman:
Other please specify:


Page 48 of 52


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