Translation theory Can help translators

Refuting misconceptions that have always smeared Translation theory

1) Claim: "Translation theory is dismissive of any non-literary texts"
Opponents of translation theory have always claimed that due attention is not given to other
types of texts except for the literary ones. One might say that literary translation has always
been much researched due to its significant cross-cultural impact along with the problematic
areas that might arise. However, the legitimacy of this claim loses its ground today more than
ever. If someone does not know a certain theory , then it does not mean that such a 'theory'
does not exist. Juan Sager (1994) has specialized in the study of commercial translation ,
translation as industrial practice, the one which sweeps the market now. He also has other
books that handle terminology and automation, which touches upon the technological trends
that play a role now in the field. Sager is not the only one to get outside the literary sacred
bubble . Snell Hornby (1995) Classified translation types into three distinctive ones. The first
type is the literary translation covering Bible, Stage texts, lyric and poetry, the second type is
the general translation covering the newspaper and the advertisement language. The third type
is the special language translation covering more specialized domains to name just a few : legal
and economic language.

2) Claim :"Translation theory is all about abstractions and generalizations that do not lend
themselves to application, hence widening the gap between the academia and the daily
workflow."
Adversaries of translation theory have also argued that translation theory is all about rigid
terminology that they rarely face in their daily routine. Contrary to the common belief,
translation theory nowadays takes a professional line.
Juan Sager( 1994) views translation as a project with subsequent phases. He also delineates the
job assigned to the translator in each phase. Translation project begins with the specification
phase , in this initial phase guidelines should be set to avoid any future disagreements due to
unspoken expectations . The translator should strive to get this information whether the client
provides them or upon his request.
1- Identifying the source language document
What Kind of document is it ? what is the text type and general topic ?
2-Identifying the intention
Who is the document for ? What is the document for? Should the translation have a different
intention from that of the source text ? If yes, then it will require some adaptation.
3- Interpreting the specifications
what type of document should the translation be ( Not necessarily the same type as the source
text)
What is the expected reaction of the recipient?
What information can be presupposed, i.e. what can we assume that the recipient already
knows?
Other subsequent phases include preparation, translation and finally revision \evaluation .
Christine Nord (1997) includes factors related to the market in her analysis that go beyond the
text which she categorized as 'extratextual' factors that include time , medium , intention and
function.

Major Contributions that account for the importance of translation theory
Translation theory has introduced major contributions that practitioners cannot over look.
Translation theory recently took a functional, sociological line; Translation is not viewed as a
pure linguistic activity, rather it is an intentional communicative act . Translation is viewed as
a message whose sender has an intention in mind; this intention should manifest itself in the
effect that the translation is supposed to have it on the reader.
Translation theory introduced many theoretical frameworks to answer the inevitable questions
any professional translator should consider before actually translating; otherwise, the alternative
will be 'blind translation'.
Questions:
1- Why was that document originally written? Why will it be translated?
2-How to translate (Which methods, which translation type)?
These two questions cannot be adequately answered without taking into account the target
audience.
3- To whom is the translation addressed?
Purpose of the original writing
Before translating the translator should analyze the source text to determine the main purpose
of it. Bhler's model -used in Reiss (2000) and Reis and Vermeer (1984) -is a good starting
point. Language has three main functions. The First function is the referential one where the
focus is always on the subject matter. Expressive function is the one concerned with expressing
the speaker's feelings and ideas, it is speaker-oriented . Operational texts are written to persuade
or to instruct or to get somebody do something ,thus it is always receiver-oriented. Other
functions are added to this basic classification such as aesthetic function, phatic function where
the goal is only establishing or maintaining contact , and the metalinguistic one to use language
to say something about language itself.
Next, the translator should check if the same original purpose should be maintained or the
translation serves another purpose.
Purpose of the translation
Skopos is the Greek for aim or purpose .Skopos theory (1978) is associated primarily with
German Scholars following Hans J. Vermeer. This theory sees translation as a rational
intentional action. The skopos determines what kind of relationship should be between source
and target text. The same source text, translated with two different skopoi will give rise to
different kinds of translation. There are further developments that enrich the notion of Skopos
like that of Christine Nord (1997) where Skopos is broken down into intention ,function and
effect. Intention is something in the mind of the sender of the message: the purpose that the
sender wishes to achieve. The Function is a property of the translation itself, separate (in
principle) from the sender's intention. The function is assigned to a translation by the recipient
who takes the translation to be a text functioning in a particular way, with a particular point.
The effect, then, refers to what happens in the reader's mind or behavior after reading the
translation.
Theory helps practitioners decide which'How '
After this initial stage , the next question that follows is how does the translator translate ,
which method should he adopt. This will take us back to 'why', motivated by the purpose of the
translation, the translator should be able to choose from the wide range of options available or
at least defend his choice. The general principle is introduced by Ernst-August Gutt(2000)
which is relevance . Simply put , relevance means clarity so that the reader or the hearer can
easily identify with the message , unless the skopos of the translation states otherwise. Delving
deep into the 'how', Translation types has many classifications , the classical ones were always
binary ones. The choice is whether the translation should be literal or free and these two
approaches have taken different names and different perspectives through the years. Other
classifications were introduced by Gouadec(1990) ,Cowie and Shuttleworth where they take
different criteria into account. Gouadec introduced Keyword , selective and abstract
translation where the main task is summarizing the message. On the other hand, there is the
absolute translation where the translator is faithful even to the mistakes of the source text.
Other types include diagrammatic translation which means giving the sense of the original in
the form of a diagram. Sight translation also changes the medium from written to spoken .
Translation with reconstructions cares for both accuracy and acceptability, the whole content is
translated yet freely. Other classifications introduced by Cowie and Shuttleworth divide types
of translation according to the cultural dimension such as the thick translation with mountains
of explanations to the cultural references, Cultural translation where all the cultural references
are being adapted to the target culture. Polemical translation is when the translator deliberately
deviates from the author's intention. Radical translation is a translation from a language no one
has translated out of before. Other types have to do more with the relationship between the
source text and the target text ; intralingual where the translator paraphrases in the same
language ,interlinear where the source text is presented along with the target text or Integral
translation where the translator does not add or omit anything above the sentence.

Translation theory helps translators figure out the needs of the target audience
Awareness of the addressee affects the quality of the translation through the choices the
translator makes. It makes a differences when the translator has the reader in mind, paying
attention that he is not translating in a vacuum. Theory has proposed general classifications.
Are the target readers homocultural or heterocultural ? Heterocultural groups are always 'the
general public' while homocultural groups are readers of a certain domain or journal . Are the
readers native speakers of the TL or not and what implications does this information have
especially when it comes to the choice of the language. The cultural dimension also plays an
important role , translator should consider the distance between the cultures; distance here has
two different meanings . First, the discrepancy between the source and target culture .Second,
it also refers to the prestigious gap between the cultures, and how these differences should be
presented when he is translating to a superior culture. Theory has also segmented the audience
into three kinds of text receivers according the degree of involvement expected. The first
category is the participative receiver to whom the text explicitly addressed. The second
segment is the servational reader who understands a text though the text does not directly
address him. The last segment which has to be minimized is the excluded reader who might not
get the text due to the difficulty of the jargon used.

With all this information even at the back of the mind of the translator he can translate
confidently and more importantly defend his choices before his superiors, revisers, or the client.

Professional translators themselves said so when asked about the importance of translation
theory . Nesrin who is a translator from Arabic to English said on proze.com Theories can
also be useful in providing translators with the proper terminology to speak about their work
and defend their translations. Obviously, theory encourages translators to think ahead of
translating, to determine the purpose of the text, the purpose of the translation, the target reader,
and from that derive the most suitable translation strategy