Review Notes in Fire Technology and Arson Investigation

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REVIEWER IN CRIMINOLOGY

FIRE TECHNOLOGY AND ARSON INVESTIGATION
Introduction:
The development of methods and tools for using and controlling fire was critical in human
evolution and is believed to have allowed early humans to spread northward from the warm
climate of either origin into the more severe environment of Europe and Asia. The evidence of
early fire use is often ambiguous because of the difficulty in determining whether the
archeological evidence is the result of accidental fire or its deliberate use. Such evidence include
finds of occupation sites with fired or baked soils, bones or stones that have been changed
through the application of heat, and areas containing thick layers of ash and charcoal that might
have hearth structures.
The earliest finds, in Kenya and Ethiopia, date from about 1. million years ago. !ess
e"uivocal evidence e#ists for deliberate fire use in the $aleolithic period, beginning about %%,%%%
years ago. &eolithic sites have yielded ob'ects that may have been used in fire, making drill for
producing friction, heat in wood and flints for striking sparks from iron pyrites.
(n legend and religion, fire is common thing. )or e#ample, in $ersian literature fire was
discovered during a fight of a hero with a dragon. A stone that the hero used as a weapon missed
the monster and struck a rock. !ight shone forth and human beings saw fire for the first time. (n
*reek mythology, $rometheus was bestowed with god like powers when he stole the god+s fire to
give it to humanity. )ire has also played a central role in religion. (t has been used as a god and
recogni,ed as a symbol of home and family in many cultures. )ire has also been a symbol of
purification and of immortality and renewal, hence the lighting of flames of remembrance. The
Temple of -esta in .ome was an outstanding e#ample of the importance of fire to the .omans.
-esta was originally the goddess of the fire and her shrine was in every home.
/e can only guess that pre0historic people may have gained knowledge of fire from
observing things in nature. So the origin of fire before the dawn of civili,ation may be traced to an
erupting volcano, or a forest fire, started by lighting. &o one really knows where on the earth
surface or at what stage of early history man learned how to start a fire and how to make use of it.
1et, today, man has had fire as2
source of warmth and light
protection against enemies
cause chemical changes to foodstuffs to suit man+s body structure
provides processes for modifying chemicals into medicines
provides heat to convert wood, metals, and bones into domestic tools or instruments
for aggression
/hile the application of fire has served man+s needs its careless and wanton use e#act
an enormous and dreadful toll from society in life and property. 3ence, man+s understanding of
fire would enable him to develop the technology of prevention and control to a considerable
advance state 4Abis5.
WHAT IS FIRE?
Fire is the manifestation of rapid chemical reaction occurring between fuel and an
o#idi,er0 typically the o#ygen in the air. Such rapid chemical reaction releases energy in the form
of heat and light.
Fire is het and !i"ht resulting from the rapid combination of o#ygen, or in some cases
gaseous chlorine, with other materials. The light is in the form of a #!$e, which is composed of
glowing particles of the burning material and certain gaseous products that are luminous at the
temperature of the burning material.
THE START OF FIRE
All matters e#ist of one of the three states 6 solid, li"uid and gas 4vapor5. The atoms or
molecules of a solid are packed closely together, and that of a li"uid is packed loosely, the
molecules of a vapor are not packed together at all, they are free to move about. (n order for a
substance to o#idi,e, its molecules must be pretty well surrounded by o#ygen molecules. The
molecules of solids or li"uids are too tightly packed to be surrounded. Thus, only vapors can
burn.
3owever, when a solid or a li"uid is heated, its molecules move about rapidly. (f enough
heat is applied, some molecules break away from the surface to form a vapor 'ust above the
substance. This vapor can now mi#ed with o#ygen. (f there is enough heat to raise the vapor to its
ignition temperature 4temperature needed to burn5, and if there is enough o#ygen present, the
vapor will o#idi,e rapidly 6 it will start to burn.
Rkmfiles/2008/Reviewer in Fire Technology 1
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The start of burning is the start of a Chain Reaction 4the burning process5. -apor from
heated fuel rises, mi#es with air and burns. (t produces enough heat to release more vapor and to
draw in air to burn that vapor. As more vapor burns, flame production increases. 7ore heat is
produced, more vapor released, more air drawn into the flames and more vapor burns, the chain
reaction keeps increasing 6 the si,e of the fire increases until fuel is consumed.
CHEMISTRY OF FIRE
8bviously, three things are re"uired for combustion or fire2 F%EL 49ombustible materials
to vapori,e and burn5, O&YGEN 48#ygen in air is the common o#idi,ing agent, to combine with
fuel vapor, air contains :;< 8, =; &, 1< inert gas5, and HEAT 4to raise the temperature of the
fuel vapor to its ignition temperature5. The combinations of these three elements form the so0
called Fire Trin"!e'
The Fire Trin"!e
8#ygen 3eat
)uel
)igure 1
)igure 1 will show that if any side of the fire triangle is missing, a fire can not start or if
any side of the fire triangle is removed, the fire will go off.
/ith the presence of the elements of fire, combustion may take place. >efore a fuel will
burn, it must be changed to its vapor state. (n a fire situation, this change usually results from the
initial application of heat. The process is known as $1.8!1S(S. ()ro!)*i* 4also known as
thermal decomposition5 is defined as the ?chemical decomposition of matter through the action of
heat@. (n this case, the decomposition causes a change from a solid state to vapor state. (f the
vapor mi#es sufficiently with air and heated to high temperature, combustion results.
The combustion process is better represented by the fire tetrahedron.
The Fire Tetrhedron
8#ygen 3eat
)uel 9hain .eaction
)igure :
The fire tetrahedron is useful in illustrating and remembering the combustion process
because it has room for the chain reaction and because each face touches the other three faces.
The basic difference between the fire triangle and the fire tetrahedron is that2 The
tetrahedron illustrates how flaming combustion is supported and sustained through the chain
reaction. (n this sense, the chain reaction face keeps the other three faces from falling apart.
The fire tetrahedron also e#plains the flaming mode of combustion. The modes of
combustion are either )laming mode or Surface mode 4*lowing6 represented by the fire triangle5.
A condensed phased combustion is called glowing combustion
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A gas0phased combustion is known as flame
(f the process is confined with pressure it is called explosion
(f combustion propagates at supersonic speed, it produced a detonation
(RO(ERTIES OF FIRE

A' The (h)*ic! +ro+ertie*
1. Specific *ravity 6 the ratio of the weight of a solid or li"uid substance to the
weight of an e"ual volume of water.
:. -apor density 6 the weight of a volume of pure gas composed to the volume of
dry air at the same temperature and pressure.
A. -apor $ressure 6 the force e#erted by the molecules on the surface of a li"uid.
B. Temperature 6 the measure of the degree of thermal agitation of molecules.
. >oiling $oint 6 the constant temperature at which the vapor pressure of the li"uid
is e"ual to the atmospheric pressure.
C. (gnitionDKindling temperature 6 the minimum temperature at which the substance
must be heated in order to initiate combustion.
=. )ire point 6 the lowest temperature of a li"uid in an open container at which
vapors are evolved fast enough to support combustion.
;. )lash point 6 the temperature at which a flammable li"uid forms a vapor0air
mi#ture that ignites 4mi#ture with in the e#plosive range5.
To burn a fuel 4combustible material5, its te$+erture must be raised until i"nition +oint
is reached. Thus, before a fuel start to burn or before it can be ignited, it has to be e#posed to a
certain degree of temperature. /hen the temperature of a certain substance is very high, it
releases highly combustible vapors known as FREE RADICALS 4combustible vapors such as
hydrogen gas, carbon mono#ide, carbon dio#ide, and nitrogen5.
Euring the process of +)ro!)*i*, the following are involved2
the fuel is heated until its temperature reaches its #ire +oint,
decomposition takes place 6 moisture in the fuel is converted to vapor,
decomposition produces combustible vapors that rise to the surface of the fuel 4free
radicals5
free radicals undergo combustion.
-' The Che$ic! (ro+ertie*
1. Endothermic .eactions 6 changes whereby energy 4heat5 is absorbed or is
added before the reaction takes place.
:. E#othermic .eactions 6 those that release or give off energy 4heat5 thus they
produce substances with less energy than the reactants.
A. 8#idation 6 a chemical change that is e#othermic, a change in which combustible
material 4fuel5 and an o#idi,ing agent 4air5, react. E#ample of o#idation is
combustion which is the same as actual burning 4rapid o#idation5
B. )lames 6 flames are incandescent 4very brightDglowing with intense heat5 gases.
(t is a combustion product and a manifestation of fire when it is in its gas0phased
combustion.

T)+e* o# F!$e*:
a. >ased on 9olor and 9ompleteness of 9ombustibility of )uel
1. !uminous )lame 6 is orange0red, deposit soot at the bottom of a vessel
being heated due to incomplete combustion and has a low temperature.
:. &on0!uminous )lame 6 is blue, there is complete combustion of fuel and
has relatively high temperature.
b. >ased on )uel and Air 7i#ture
1. $remi#ed )lame 6 is e#emplified by a >unsen0type laboratory burner
where hydrocarbon 4any substance containing primarily carbon and
hydrogen5 is thoroughly mi#ed with air before reaching the flame ,one.
:. Eiffusion )lame 6 is observed when gas 4fuel5 alone is forced through a
no,,le into the atmosphere which diffuse in the surrounding atmosphere
in order to form a flammable mi#ture. The candle flame is an e#ample of
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diffusion flame governed purely by molecular diffusion, and the flame of
the o#yacetylene torch. 4diffused 6 dispersed, widely spread5
c. >ased on Smoothness
1. !aminar )lame 6 when a particle follows a smooth path through a
gaseous flame.
:. Turbulent )lame 6 are those having unsteady, irregular flows. As
physical si,e, gas density or velocity is increased, all laminar gas flows
tend to become turbulent.
FIRE ELEMENTS
As mentioned in part one, fire has been described as having three components2 #ue!,
het, nd o.)"en. This triad was illustrated by the fire triangle, which symboli,ed, in the most
basic terms, a chemical relationship. The additional component needed to e#plain flaming
combustion is a chemical chain reaction shown in the fire tetrahedron.
THE F%ELS
F%ELS /Co$0u*ti0!e Mteri!*16 fuel is matter and matter e#ist in three physical states2
solid, li"uid and gas. Solids melt to become li"uids, and these may vapori,e and become gases.
The basic rule is that at high enough temperature all fuels can be converted to gases. And each
of the physical states e#hibits different physical and chemical properties that directly affect a
fuel+s combustibility. )or e#ample, gasoline as a li"uid does not burn, it is the vapors rising from
the li"uid that burn. !ikewise, wood, the most common solid fuel, is not flammable, but gives of
flammable vapors 4free radicals5.
)FE! is also a material that provides useful energy. )uels are used to heat and cook
food, power engines, and produce electricity. Some fuels occur naturally and others are artificially
created. Such natural fuels are coals, petroleum, and natural gases obtained from underground
deposits that were formed million years ago from the remains of plants and animals. They are
called fossil fuels, which account for about G%< of the energy people use today.
Synthetic fuels can be made from fossil fuels, certain types of rock and sand, and
biomass.
7ost fuels release energy by burning with o#ygen in the air. >ut some 6 especially
chemical fuels used in rockets 6 need special o#idi,ers in order to burn. &uclear fuels do not burn
but release energy through the fission 4splitting5 of fusion 4'oining together5 of atoms.
C!**i#iction o# Co$0u*ti0!e Mteri!*
1. C!** A Fue!* 6 they are ordinary combustible materials that are usually made of
organic substances such as wood and wood0based products. (t includes some
synthetic or inorganic materials like rubber, leather, and plastic products.
:. C!** - Fue!* 6 materials that are in the form of flammable li"uids such as alcohol,
acidic solutions, oil, li"uid petroleum products, etc.
A. C!** C Fue!* 6 they are normally fire resistant materials such as materials used on
electrical wiring and other electrical appliances.
B. C!** D Fue!* 6 they are combustible metallic substances such as magnesium,
titanium, ,irconium, sodium and potassium.
Gener! Cte"orie* o# Fue!

1. Solid 9ombustible 7aterials 6 includes organic and inorganic, natural or synthetic,
and metallic solid materials.
:. !i"uid 9ombustible 7aterials 6 includes all flammable li"uid fuels and chemicals.
A. *aseous Substances 6 includes those to#icDha,ardous gases that are capable of
ignition.
The So!id Fue!*
The most obvious solid fuels are wood, paper and cloth. (ts burning rate depends on its
configuration. )or e#ample, solid fuels in the form of dust will burn faster than bulky materials.
Types of )lammable solids
a. $yroly,able solid fuels 6 include many of the ordinary accepted combustibles2 wood,
paper and so on. The vapors released by their chemical decomposition support flaming
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combustion. This e#emplifies a gas0to0gas reaction2 the vapors released mi#ed with o#ygen in the
air to produce a flame.
b. &on0pyroly,able solid fuels 6 solid fuels that are difficult to ignite. A common e#ample
is charcoal. 9hemical decomposition does not occur because there are no pyroly,able elements
present. &o vapors are released. The glowing combustion that results is an e#ample of a gas0to0
solid reaction.
The following are group of solid fuels2
2' -io$** 6 it is the name given to such replaceable organic matters like wood,
garbage and animal manure that can be use to produce energy. )or e#ample, heat produced by
burning nutshells, rice and oat hulls, and other by0products of food processing. They are often
used to operate plant e"uipment.
Fctor* ##ectin" the co$0u*ti0i!it) o# 3ood nd 3ood40*ed +roduct*
a. $hysical form 6 the smaller the piece of wood, the easier it is to burn.
b. 7oisture content 4water content5 6 the freshly cut wood is more difficult to ignite and
burn than dry wood.
c. 3eat conductivity 0 a poor conductor of heat takes a longer time to ignite than those
materials that are good conductors of heat.
d. .ate and period of heating 6 less flammable materials don+t easily ignite and needs
direct contact with flame than highly combustible materials.
e. .ate of combustion 6 with an unlimited supply of o#ygen, the rate of burns increases,
more heat is produced and fuel is consumed more completely.
f. (gnition temperature 6 the higher the temperature, the faster it reaches ignition point
and it varies depending on the other factors above.
5' F0ric* nd Te.ti!e* 6 almost all fibers and te#tiles are combustible. A fiber is a very
fine thin strand or thread like ob'ect. )abrics are twisted or woven fibers. And te#tiles are machine
woven or knitted fabric.
9lassification of )ibers
a. &atural )ibers 6 they come from plants 49oir 6 coconut fiber, 9otton 6 seed fiber,
pulp 6 wood fiber5 , from animals 4wool, silk, protein fibers 6 leather5, from minerals
4asbestos5
b. SyntheticDArtificial )ibers 6 organic fibers, cellulose fibers, cellulose acetate, non0
cellulose, and inorganic fibers like fiber glass, steel
Fctor* ##ectin" the co$0u*ti0i!it) o# #i0er*
a. 9hemical composition 6 natural and synthetic organic fibers are generally highly
combustible materials especially if they are dry. 7ineral fibers and synthetic inorganic
fibers are normally fire resistant materials.
b. )iber finish or coating 6 fiber coating combined with organic fibers are supportive to
continued burning of fabric.
c. )abric weight 6 the heavier the fabric, the greater its resistance to ignition, thus
delaying its ignition.
d. Tightness of weave 6 the closer the fiber are woven, the smaller the space it
contains, thus it takes a longer period to ignite it.
e. )lame retardant treatment 6 fabric treated with flame retardant have higher
resistance to ignition.
F0ric I"nition
Li$itin" O.)"en Inde. 4!8(5 is a numerical basis of measuring the tendency of a fabric
to continuously burn once source of ignition is removed. (f the !8( of a fabric is high, the
probability that it will cease to burn once the flame is removed is also high. )abrics with high !8(
and high ignition temperature are safer for clothing and furnishing because they do not ignite
easily. Also, they do not continue burning after the source of heat or flame is removed.
6' (!*tic* 6 plastics are included as ordinary fuels under class A e#cept those materials
of or containing cellulose nitrate. 9ellulose &itrate is a chemical powder used in bombs, they are
also called pyroxylin.
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$lastics comprise a group of materials consisting mainly of organic substances or high
molecular substances. They are solid in the finished state although at some stage of manufacture
plastics can be made to flow into a desired shape, usually through the application of heat or
pressure or both.
7' Co! 6 a black, combustible, mineral solid resulting from the partial decomposition of
matter under varying degrees of temperature. They are used as fuels in the production of coal
gas, water gas, and many coal compounds. They are also used to heat buildings and to provide
energy for industrial machinery.

The forms of coal are lignite or brown coal, sub0bituminous coal, bituminous coal,
anthracite. >ituminous coal is the most plentiful and important coal used by industry. (t contains
more carbon and produces more heat than either lignite or sub0bituminous coal. (t is also the coal
best suited for making coke. Antracite is the least plentiful and hardest coal. (t contains more
carbon and produces more heat than other coals. 3owever, antracite is difficult to ignite and
burns slowly.
8' (et 6 (t is partially decayed plant matter found in swamps called bags and used as a
fuel chiefly in areas where coal and oil are scarce. (n (reland and Scotland, for e#ample, peat is
cut formed in blocks, and driedH the dried bloks are then burned to heat homes.
The Li9uid Fue!*
!i"uid fuels are mainly made from (etro!eu$, but some synthetic li"uids are also
produced. $etroleum is also called crude oil. They may be refined to produce gasoline, diesel oil,
and kerosene.
8ther fuel oils obtained by refining petroleum to distillate oil and residual oils. Eistillate
oils are light oils, which are used chiefly to heat homes and small buildings. .esidual oils are
heavy, and used to provide energy to power utilities, factories and large ships.
8il0based paint products are also highly flammable li"uids.
(n the process of vapori,ation, flammable li"uids release vapor in much the same way as
solid fuels. The rate of vapor is greater for li"uids than solids, since li"uids have less closely
packed molecules. (n addition, li"uids can release vapor over a wide range, e#ample, gasoline
starts to give vapor at 6B%9 40B )5.
This makes gasoline a continuous fire ha,ardH it produces flammable vapor at normal
temperature.

Gener! Chrcteri*tic* o# Li9uid*
1. They are matters with definite volume but no definite shape.
:. They assume the shape of their vessel because there is free movement of
molecules.
A. They are slightly compressible. They are not capable of indefinite e#pansion, unlike
gas.
5 Gener! Grou+* o# Li9uid Fue!*
1. )lammable li"uids 6 they are li"uids having a flash point of A=.; 9 41%%)5 and a
vapor pressure not e#ceeding B% psia 4:%C;.C um5 at A=.; 9.
2. 9ombustible !i"uids 6 these li"uids have flash point at or above A=.; 9 41%%)5.
-urnin" Chrcteri*tic* o# Li9uid*
Since it is the vapors from the flammable li"uid which burn, the case of ignition as well as
the rate of burning can be related to the physical properties such as vapor pressure, flash point,
boiling point, and evaporation rate.
1. !i"uids having vapors in the flammable range above the li"uid surface at the stored
temperature have rapid rate of flame propagation.
:. !i"uids having flash points above stored temperature have slower rate of flame
propagation. The chemical e#planation is, it is necessary for the fire to heat
sufficiently the li"uid surface to form flammable vapor0air moisture before the flame
will spread through the vapor.
Fctor* ##ectin" the Rte o# F!$e (ro+"tion
nd -urnin" o# Li9uid*
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wind velocity 0 temperature 0 heat of combustion 0 latent heat of evaporation 0
atmospheric pressure
!atent heat is the "uantity of heat absorbed by a substance from a solid to a li"uid and
from a li"uid to gas. 9onversely, heat is released during conversion of a gas to li"uid or li"uid to a
solid.
The G* Fue!*
G*eou* #ue!* are those in which molecules are in rapid movement and random motion.
They have no definite shape or volume, and assume the shape and volume of their container.
There are both natural and manufactured flammable gases. *as fuels flow easily through
pipes and are used to provide energy for homes, businesses, and industries. E#amples of gas
fuels are acetylene, propane, and butanes.
Some properties of gas fuels are2
compressibility 6 e#pandability 0 permeability 4open to passage or penetration5 0
diffusion 4intermingling of molecules5
9ompressibility and e#pandability refer to the potential in changes in volume. Eiffusion is
the uniform distribution of molecules of one substance through those of another. $ermeability
means that other substances may pass through or permeate a gas.
Chrcteri*tic* o# G* Fue!*
1. They are matters that have no definite shape.
:. They are composed of very tiny particles 4molecules5 at constant random motion in a
straight line
A. *as molecules collide against one another and against the wall of the container and
are relatively far from one another.
C!**i#iction o# G*e*:
2' -*ed on Source
' Ntur! G* 6 the gas used to heat buildings, cook food, and provides energy for
industries. (t consists chiefly of methane, a colorless and odorless gas. &atural
gas is usually mi#ed with compounds of foul0smelling elements like sulfur so gas
leaks can be detected.
>utane and propane, which make up a small proportion of natural gas, become
li"uids when placed under large amount of pressure. /hen pressure is released,
they change back to gas. Such fuels, often called !i"uefied $etroleum *as 4!$*5
or li"uefied &atural *as 4!&*5, are easily stored and shipped as li"uid.
0' Mnu#ctured G* : this gas like synthetic li"uid fuels is used chiefly where
certain fuels are abundant and others are scarce. 9oal, petroleum, and biomass
can all be converted to gas through heating and various chemical procedures.
5' Accordin" to (h)*ic! (ro+ertie*
' Co$+re**ed G* 6 gas in which at all normal temperature inside its containerH
e#ist solely in the gaseous state under pressure. The pressure depends on the
pressure to which the container is originally charged and how much gas remains
in the container. 3owever, temperature affects the volume and pressure of the
gas.
0' Li9ue#ied G* 6 gas, which, at normal temperature inside its container, e#ist
partly in the li"uid state and partly in gaseous state and under pressure as long
as any li"uid remains in the container. The pressure basically depends on the
temperature of the li"uid although the amount of li"uid also affects the pressure
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under some condition. A li"uefied gas e#hibits a more complicated behavior as
the result of heating.
c' Cr)o"enic G* 6 a li"uefied gas which e#ist in its container at temperature far
below normal atmospheric temperature, usually slightly above its boiling point
and correspondingly low to moderate pressure. E#amples of this gas are air,
carbon monoxide, ethylene, fluorine, helium, hydrogen, methane, nitrogen, and
oxygen.
6' Accordin" to %*"e
' Fue! G*e* 6 flammable gases usually used for burning with air to produce heat,
utili,e as power, light, comfort, and process. 7ost commonly used gases are
natural gas and the !$* 4butane and propane5.
0' Indu*tri! G*e* 0 This group includes a large number of gases used for
industrial processes as those in welding and cutting 4o#ygen, acetylene5H
refrigeration 4freon, ammonia, sulfur dio#ide5H chemical processing 4hydrogen,
nitrogen, ammonia, chlorine5H water treatment 4chlorine, fluorine5.
c' Medic! G*e* 6 those used for treatment such as anesthesia 4chloroform,
nitrous o#ide5H respiratory therapy 4o#ygen5.
-urnin" o# G*eou* Fue!*
*aseous fuels are already in the re"uired -apor State. 8nly the proper intermi#ed with
o#ygen and sufficient heat is needed for ignition. *ases like flammable li"uids, always produce a
visible flame, they do not smolder.
Che$ic! Fue!*
9hemical fuels, which are produced in solid and li"uid form, create great amounts of heat
and power. They are used chiefly in rocket engines. 9hemical rocket propellants consist of both a
fuel and an o#idi,er. A common rocket fuel is the chemical hydrazine. The o#idi,er is a
substance, such as nitrogen tetroxide, that contains o#ygen. /hen the propellant is ignited, the
o#idi,er provides the o#ygen the fuel needs to burn. 9hemical fuels are also used in some racing
cars.
Nuc!er Fue!*
&uclear fuels provide energy through the fission or fusion of their atoms. Uranium is the
most commonly used nuclear fuel, though plutonium also provides nuclear energy. /hen the
atoms of these elements undergo fission, they release tremendous amounts of heat. &uclear
fuels are used mainly to generate electricity. They also power some submarines and ships.
&uclear energy can also be produced through the fusion of hydrogen atoms.
&uclear )ission 6 split of the nucleus of atoms
&uclear )usion 6 combination of two light nuclei of atom
THE HEAT ELEMENT
HEAT 6 (t is the energy possessed by a material or substance due to molecular activity.
(n physics, heat is the transfer of energy from one part of a substance to another or from
one body to another by virtue of a difference in temperature. 3eat is energy in transitH it always
flows from substance at a higher temperature to the substance at a lower temperature, raising the
temperature of the latter and lowering that of the former substance, provided the volume of the
bodies remains constant. 3eat does not flow from lower to a higher temperature unless another
form of energy transfer work is always present.
The study of energy is rooted in the sub'ect of thermodynamics, a very logical science
that carefully defines energy, heat, temperature and other properties.
3eat is thermal energy in motion that travels from a hot to a cold region. Thermal energy
is a property of matter directly associated with the concept of temperature.
Het nd Te$+erture
3eat should not be confused with temperature, which is the measurement of the relative
amount of heat energy contained with in a given substance. Temperature is an intensity
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measurement, with units in degrees on the 9elsius 4centigrade5, )ahrenheit, or Kelvin scales.
3eat is the measurement of "uantity and is given in >ritish thermal units 4>tu5. 8ne >tu is the
amount of heat re"uired to raise one pound of water one degree )ahrenheit2
1 >tu heats 1 lb of water 1 )
1 gallon of water weighs ;.AA lb
;.AA >tu heat 1 gallon of water 1 )
Te$+erture is the measurement of the degree of thermal agitation of moleculesH the
hotness or coldness of something. Thermometer is the instrument used to measure temperature
and commonly e#pressed in 9, ), and K.
Although it is very easy to compare the relative temperatures of two substances by the
sense of touch, it is impossible to evaluate the absolute magnitude of the temperature by
sub'ective reactions. Adding heat to a substance, however, not only raises its temperature,
causing it to impart a more acute sensation of warmth, but also produces alterations in several
physical properties, which may be measured with precision.
S+eci#ic Het
The heat capacity or the measure of the amount of heat re"uired raising the temperature
of a unit mass of a substance one0degree. (f the heating process occurs while the substance is
maintained at a constant volume or is sub'ected to a constant pressure the measure is referred to
as a specific heat at constant volume.
Ltent Het
A number of physical changes are associated with the change of temperature of a
substance. Almost all substances e#pand in volume when heated and contract when cooled. The
behavior of water between % and B9 4A: and AG )5 constitutes an important e#emption to this
rule. The phase of a substance refers to its occurrence as a solid, li"uid, or gas, and phase
changes in pure substances occur at definite temperatures and pressures. The process of
changing from solid to gas is referred to as S%-LIMATION, from solid to li"uid as melting and
from li"uid to vapor as VA(ORI;ATION. (f the pressure is constant, the process occurs at
constant temperature. The amount of heat to produce a change of phase is called LATENT
HEAT, and hence, latent heats of sublimation, melting and vapori,ation e#ist. (f water is boiled in
an open vessel at a pressure of 1 atm, the temperature does not rise above 1%%9 4:1:)5, no
matter how much heat is added. )or e#ample, the heat that is absorbed without changing the
temperature of the water is the latent heat, it is not lost but e#pended in changing the water to
steam and is then stored as energy in the steam, it is again released when the steam is
condensed to form water 49ondensation5. Similarly, if the mi#ture of water and ice in a glass is
heated, its temperature will not change until all the ice is melted. The latent heat absorbed is used
up in overcoming the forces holding the particles of ice together and is stored as energy in the
water.
Te$+erture Sc!e*
)ive different temperature scales are in use today, they are2
1. Ce!*iu* 6 it has a free,ing point of %9 and a boiling point of 1%%9. (t is widely used
through out the world, particularly for scientific works.
2. Fhrenheit 6 it is used mostly in English0speaking countries for purposes other than
scientific works and based on the mercury thermometer. (n this scale, the free,ing
point of water is A:) and the boiling point is :1: ).
3. <e!=in or A0*o!ute 6 it is the most commonly used thermodynamic temperature
scale. Iero is defined as absolute ,ero of temperature, that is, 0 :=A.1 c, or 6
BG.C= ).
4. Rn>ine 6 is another temperature scale employing absolute ,ero as its lowest point
in which each degree of temperature is e"uivalent to one degree on the )ahrenheit
scale. The free,ing point of water under this scale is BG: . and the boiling point is
C=: ..
5. Interntion! Te$+erture Sc!e 6 (n 1GAA, scientist of A1 nations adopted a new
international temperature scale with additional fi#ed temperature points, based on the
Kelvin scale and thermodynamic principles. The international scale is based on the
property of electrical resistively, with platinum wire as the standard for temperature
between 61G% and CC%9.
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Het (roduction
There are five ways to produce heat2
1. Che$ic! 6 chemically produced heat is the result of rapid oxidation.
:. Mechnic! 6 mechanical heat is the product of friction. The rubbing of two sticks
together to generate enough heat is an e#ample.
A. E!ectric! 6 electrical heat is the product of arcing, shorting or other electrical
malfunction. $oor wire connections, too much resistance, a loose ground, and too
much current flowing through an improperly si,ed wire are other sources of electrical
heat.
B. Co$+re**ed "* 6 when a gas is compressed, its molecular activity is greatly
increased producing heat.
. Nuc!er 6 &uclear energy is the product of the splitting or fusing of atomic particles
4)ission or fusion respectively5. The tremendous heat energy in a nuclear power plant
produces steam to turn steam turbines.
Het Trn*#er
The physical methods by which energy in the form of heat can be transferred between
bodies are conduction and radiation. A third method, which also involves the motion of matter, is
called convection.
3ence, there are three ways to transfer heat2 9onduction, 9onvection, and .adiation.
Conduction 6 it is the transfer of heats by molecular activity with in a material or
medium, usually a solid. Eirect contact is the underlying factor in conduction. E#ample, if you
touch a hot stove, the pain you feel is a first result of conducted heat passing from the stove
directly to your hand. (n a structural fire, superheated pipes, steel girders, and other structural
members such as walls and floors may conduct enough heat to initiate fires in other areas of the
structure.
Con=ection 6 it is the transfer of heat through a circulating medium, usually air or li"uid.
3eat transfer by convection is chiefly responsible for the spread of fire in structures. The supper0
heated gases evolved from a fire are lighter than air, and conse"uently rise, they can and do
initiate additional damage. (n large fires, the high fireball that accompanies the incident is referred
to as a firestorm and is an e#ample of convected heat.
Rdition 6 radiated heat moves in wave and rays much like sunlight. .adiated heat
travels the speed, as does visible light2 1;C,%%% miles per second. (t is primarily responsible for
the e#posure ha,ards that develop and e#ist during a fire. 3eat waves travel in a direct or straight
line from their source until they strike an ob'ect. The heat that collects on the surface of the ob'ect
or building in the path of the heat waves is subse"uently absorbed into its mass through
conduction.
9onduction re"uires physical contact between bodies or portions of bodies e#changing
heat, but radiation does not re"uire contact or the presence of any matter between the bodies.
9onvection occurs when a li"uid or gas is in contact with a solid body at a different temperature
and is always accompanied by the motion of the li"uid or gas. The science dealing with the
transfer of heat between bodies is called heat transfer.
O.idi?in" A"ent /O.)"en1: The 6
rd
E!e$ent
O.)"en as defined earlier is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, gaseous chemical element,
the most abundant of all elements2 it occurs free in the atmosphere, forming one fifth of its
volume, and in combination in water, sandstone, limestone, etc.H it is very active, being able to
combine with nearly all other elements, and is essential to life processes and to combustion.
The common o#idi,ing agent is o#ygen present in air. Air composes :1< o#ygen, =;<
nitrogen, and 1 < inert gas 4principally Argon5. :1< normal o#ygen is needed to produce fire in
the presence of fuel and heat. 1:< o#ygen is insufficient to produce fire, 1B01< o#ygen can
support flash point, and 1C0:1< o#ygen can support fire point.
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FIRE -EHAVIOR, CA%SES AND CLASSIFICATION
The behavior of fire maybe understood by considering the principle of thermal balance
and thermal imbalance.
Ther$! -!nce refers to the rising movement or the pattern of fire, the normal
behavior when the pattern is undisturbed. Ther$! i$0!nce, on the other hand is the abnormal
movement of fire due to the interference of foreign matter. Thermal imbalance often confuses the
fire investigator in determining the e#act point where the fire originated.
Dn"erou* -eh=ior o# Fire
)ire is so fatal when the following conditions occurred2
1. -c>dr#t 6 it is the sudden and rapid 4violent5 burning of heated gases in a confined
area that occurs in the form of e#plosion. This may occur because of improper ventilation. (f a
room is not properly ventilated, highly flammable vapors maybe accumulated such that when a
door or window is suddenly opened, the room violently sucks the o#ygen from the outside and
simultaneously, a sudden combustion occur, which may happen as an e#plosion 4combustion
e#plosion5.
:. F!*ho=er 6 it is the sudden ignition of accumulated radical gases produced when
there is incomplete combustion of fuels. (t is the sudden burning of free radicals, which is initiated
by a spark or flash produced when temperature rises until flash point is reached.
/hen accumulated volume of radical gases suddenly burns, there will be a very intense
fire that is capable of causing flames to 'ump at a certain distance in the form of fireball. )ireballs
can travel to a hundred yards with in a few seconds.
A. -ite0c> 0 a fatal condition that takes place when the fire resists e#tinguishment
operations and become stronger and bigger instead.
B. F!*h Fire 6 better known as dust explosion. This may happen when the metal post
that is completely covered with dust is going to be hit by lightning. The dust particles covering the
metal burn simultaneously thus creating a violent chemical reaction that produces a very bright
flash followed by an e#plosion.
The Three St"e* o# Fire
1. (ncipient $hase 4(nitial Stage5 6 under this stage, the following characteristics are
observed2 normal room temperature, the temperature at the base of the fire is B%%0
;%% ), ceiling temperature is about :%% ), the pyrolysis products are mostly water
vapor and carbon dio#ide, small "uantities of carbon mono#ide and sulfides maybe
present.
2. )ree >urning $hase 6 it has the following characteristics2 accelerated pyrolysis
process take place, development of convection current2 formation of thermal columns
as heat rises, temperature is ;%%01%%% ) at the base of fire, 1:%%01C%% ) at ceiling,
pyrolytic decomposition moves upward on the walls4crawling of the flame5 leaving
burnt patterns 4fire fingerprints5, occurrence of flashover.
3. Smoldering $hase 6 this stage has the following characteristics2 o#ygen content
drops to 1A< or below causing the flame to vanish and heat to develop in layers,
products of incomplete combustion increase in volume, particularly carbon mono#ide
with an ignition temperature of about 11: ), ceiling temperature is 1%%%01A%% ),
heat and pressure in the room builds up, buildingDroom contains large "uantities of
superheated fuel under pressure but little o#ygen, when sufficient supply of o#ygen is
introduced, backdraft occurs.
C!**i#iction o# Fire*
-*ed on Cu*e
1. Ntur! cu*e* 6 such as
Spontaneous heating 6 the automatic chemical reaction that results to
spontaneous combustion due to auto0ignition of organic materials, the
gradual rising of heat in a confined space until ignition temperature is
reached.
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!ightning 6 a form of static electricityH a natural current with a great
magnitude, producing tremendous amperage and voltage. !ightning usually
strikes ob'ects that are better electrical conductors than air. (t can cause fire
directly or indirectly. (ndirectly when it strikes telephone and other
transmission lines, causing an induced line surge. (t can also cause flash fire
or dust e#plosion. /hen lightning strikes steel or metal rod covered with
dust, the dust will suddenly burn thus resulting to an e#plosion.
A lightning may be in the form of2
3ot >olt 6 longer in durationH capable only of igniting combustible
materials
9old >olt 6 shorter in duration, capable of splintering a property or
literally blowing apart an entire structure, produces electrical current with
tremendous amperage and very high temperature.
.adiation of Sunlight 6 when sunlight hits a concave mirror, concentrating
the light on a combustible material thereby igniting it.
:. Accident! Cu*e* 6 such as
Electrical accidents in the form of2
Short Circuit 6 unusual or accidental connections between two points at
different potentials 4charge5 in an electrical circuit of relatively low resistance.
Arcin" 6 the production of sustained luminous electrical discharge
between separated electrodesH an electric ha,ard that results when electrical
current crosses the gap between : electrical conductors.
S+r>in" 6 production of incandescent particles when two different
potentials 4charged conductors5 come in contactH occurs during short circuits
or welding operations.
Induced Current 6 induced line surge 6 increased electrical energy flow
or power voltageH induced currentH sudden increase of electrical current
resulting to the burning of insulating materials, e#plosion of the fuse bo#, or
burning of electrical appliances.
O=er hetin" o# e!ectric! ++!ince* 6 the increase or rising of
amperage while electric current is flowing in a transmission line resulting to
the damage or destruction of insulating materials, maybe gradual or rapid,
internal or e#ternal.
$urely accidental causes
&egligence and other forms of human error
6' Intention! cu*e* /Incendir)1
(f in the burned property, there are preparations or traces of accelerant, plants
and trailers, then the cause of fire is intentional.
Acce!ernt 6 highly flammable chemicals that are used to facilitate flame
propagation.
(!nt 6 the preparation and or gathering of combustible materials needed to start
a fire.
Tri!er 6 the preparation of flammable substances in order to spread the fire.
-*ed on -urnin" Fue! /the c!**e* o# #ire1
1. C!** A Fire 6 8rdinary firesH they are the types of fire resulting from the burning
wood, paper, te#tiles, rubber and other carbonaceous materials. (n short, this is the
type of fire caused by ordinary combustible materials.
:. C!** - Fire 6 !i"uid firesH they are caused by flammable and or combustible li"uids
such as kerosene, gasoline, ben,ene, oil products, alcohol and other hydrocarbon
deviations.
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A. C!** C Fire 6 Electrical firesH they are fires that starts in live electrical wires,
e"uipment, motors, electrical appliances and telephone switchboards.
B. C!** D Fire 6 7etallic firesH fires that result from the combustion of certain metals in
finely divided forms. These combustible metals include magnesium, potassium,
powdered calcium, ,inc, sodium, and titanium.
FIRE FIGTHING O(ERATIONS AND E&TING%ISHMENT
Fire #i"htin" is an activity intended to save lives and property. (t is one of the most
important emergency services in a community. )ire fighters battle fires that break out in homes,
factories, office buildings, shops, and other places. )ire fighters risk their lives to save people
and protect property from fires.
The people who work as fire fighters also help others who are involved in many kinds of
emergencies besides fires. )or e#ample, fire fighters rescue people who may be trapped in cars
or vehicles after an accident. They aid victims of such disasters as typhoons, floods, landslides,
and earth"uakes.
>efore the advent of modern fire fighting techni"ues, fires often destroyed whole
settlements. /hen a fire broke out, all the people in the community rushed to the scene to help.
Today, fire fighting organi,ations in most industriali,ed nations have well0trained men and women
and a variety of modern fire fighting e"uipment.
Hi*tor) o# Fire Fi"htin"
7ost fire services around the world were formed after a ma'or fire made people reali,e
that lives and property would have been saved if they had had a proper body of people trained to
fight fires. 8ne of the first organi,ed fire fighting forces was established in .ome, about %% >.9.
The first fire fighters were .oman slaves who, under the command of the cityJs magistrates, were
stationed on the walls and the gates of .ome. These units were called )amilia $ublica.
3owever, this system was not very effective, probably because the slaves had no choice in
whether they fought fires or not. (n A.E. C, after an enormous fire devastated .ome, the Emperor
Augustus created the vigiles, a fire fighting force of =,%%% men that was divided into seven
regiments. !ike many of todayJs fire services, the vigiles had the power to inspect buildings to
check for fire risks, and could punish property owners whose negligence led to fires. The vigilesJ
fire fighting e"uipment included pumps, s"uirts, siphons, buckets, and ladders. /icker mats and
wet blankets were used for rescue and salvage work. The .omans developed advanced fire
fighting e"uipment. >ut when the empire fell, much of this technology was lost for centuries.
After the collapse of the .oman Empire, European cities and towns became disorgani,ed
and nobody coordinated fire fighting. Some people even thought that prayer was the best way to
control fires. Slowly, however, some fire laws evolved. (n many cities people were re"uired to
put out their cooking and home fires at night. (n some towns, thatched roofs were forbidden and
night watchmen were employed to raise the alarm if they discovered a fire.
8rgani,ed fire services in Europe were usually only formed after hugely destructive fires.
The *reat )ire of !ondon in 1CCC led to the development of fire insurance industries in England.
These companies marked their insured properties with metal badges called fire marks and
formed private fire brigades to protect those properties. Each companyJs brigade attended only
those premises bearing the companyJs own fire mark. There was much competition, and
occasionally rival fire brigades even obstructed each other in their fire fighting efforts. (t was not
until the 1;%%Js that !ondon insurance companies began to cooperate and a single !ondon )ire
Engine Establishment was formed. The new service fought fires in any premises within the
!ondon area.
Serious bla,es also caused death and destruction elsewhere in Europe, and rulers began
to reali,e that it was necessary to have organi,ed forces to deal with fires. (n )rance, groups of
citi,ens kept watch for outbreaks of fire, and regulations controlled rescue operations. (n the
1C%%Js, a number of serious fires spread terror throughout $aris. The king of )rance bought 1:
pumps, and a private fire service was established. (n 1=%, the company of firemen was mostly
taken over by the army, but fires continued to ravage the city and fire fighting efforts were not
always effective. (n 1;1%, the Emperor &apoleon attended a ball at the Austrian Embassy. A
candle set the curtains abla,e, and the fire spread "uickly, causing a dreadful panic. After this
fire, &apoleon ordered the creation of the >attalion de Sapeurs $ompiers and the )rench )ire
>rigade was born.
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>etter e"uipment for getting water to fires and for fighting fires was developed in the
1%%Js. Tools included syringes, which s"uirted water, but most people relied on bucket
brigades, relays of men passing buckets of water. The problems with bucket brigades were that
many men were needed, it was very tiring work, and it was not very efficient00buildings often
burned to the ground. (n 1C=:, an uncle and nephew in Amsterdam, both called Kan van der
3eide, invented a fle#ible hose, which could be 'oined together to form a long pipe. !ater, the
same men invented a pump to deliver water through the hose, and fire fighting became much
more efficient. (n many places around the world, fire pumps were first drawn to fires by horses or
even by people. /arning bells enabled people to get out of the way when the pumps were
rushing to a fire. The *erman company Eaimler invented the first petrol0driven pump in 1;;, but
the pump still had to be taken to fires by horses. $etrol0powered fire engines were introduced in
the early 1G%%Js, but many countries were slow to change from horse0drawn pumps. Although
todayJs fire services have a range of modern e"uipment, fire can be 'ust as dangerous now as it
was thousands of years ago.
The -ureu o# Fire (rotection /-F(1
.epublic Act L CG=, the E(!* Act of 1GG% 49hapter B, Section A0G5 created the
>ureau of )ire $rotection 4>)$5 to be responsible for the prevention and suppression of all
destructive fires and to enforce the laws on fire.
Fire Protection is the descriptive term referring to the various methods used by the
bureau to stop, e#tinguish and control destructive fire for eventual prevention of loss of life and
property. (t has the following ob'ectives2 To prevent destructive fire from starting, To e#tinguish
4stop or put out5 on going destructive fire, To confine a destructive fire at the place where it
began, To prevent loss of life and property when fire starts
Fire Prevention and Suppression refers to the various safety measures utili,ed to stop
harmful or destructive fires from starting.
The laws related with the fire prevention and fire protection in the $hilippine setting
includes $E L 11;, )ire 9ode of the $hilippine 4:C August 1G==5, $E L 1%GC, >uilding 9ode of
the $hilippine 41G )ebruary 1G==5
The >ureau of )ire $rotection is composed of well0trained fire fighters. (n fighting fires,
they bring with them ladders and pumps. Additional specialist vehicles can provide turntable
ladders, hydraulic platforms, e#tra water, foam, and specialist appliances for ha,ardous incidents.
(n some countries, such as the Fnited States, fire0fighting units are divided into engine
companies and ladder companies. Engine companies operate trucks called engines, which carry
a pump and hoses for spraying water on a fire. !adder companies use ladder trucks, which carry
ladders of various lengths. !adder trucks also have a hydraulically e#tended ladder or elevating
platform to rescue people through windows or to spray water from a raised position.
)ire fighters in the $hilippines handle many types of fires. Each type re"uires a different
plan of action to put it out. )or e#ample, the methods used to fight a building fire differ greatly
from those used to fight a forest or grassland fire.
Fctor A##ectin" Fire (rotection nd Contro!
)ire protection and control is affected by the accumulation of fire hazards in a building or
area.
Fire Hazard is any condition or act that increases or may cause increase in the
probability that fire will occur or which may obstruct, delay, hinder or interfere with fire fighting
operations and the safeguarding of life and property
Condition* o# Fire H?rd*
1. E#istence of dangerous or unlawful amount of combustible or e#plosives in the building
not designed to store such materials.
:. Eefective or improperly installed facilitiesD e"uipment.
A. !ack of ade"uate e#it facilities.
B. 8bstruction at fire escapes or other designated opening for fire fighters.
. Eangerous occumulation of rubbish waste and other highly combustible materials.
C. Accumulation of dust in ventilation system or of grease in the kitchen.
=. >uilding under repair
;. -ery old building or building is primarily made of combustible materials
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Fire Fi"htin" O+ertion*
)ire fighting operations refers to fire suppression activities. (n general the following
procedures should be observed2
1. $.E0)(.E $!A&&(&* 0 this activity involves developing and defining systematic course
of actions that maybe performed in order to reali,e the ob'ectives of fire protection2
involves the process of establishing the S8$ in case fire breaks out.
:. E-A!FAT(8& 6 S(IE 6 F$ 4on0the0spot planning or si,ing0up the situation5 0 this is the
process knowing the emergency situation. (t involves mental evaluation by the operation
officer0in0charge to determine the appropriate course of action that provides the highest
probability of success.
A. E-A9FAT(8& 6 This the activity of transferring people, livestock, and property away
from the burning area to minimi,e damage or destruction that the fire might incur in case
it propagates to other ad'acent buildings.
B. E&T.1 6 This is the process of accessing the burning structure. Entry maybe done in a
forcible manner.
. .ES9FE 6 This is the operation of removing 4e#tricating5, thus saving, people and other
livestock from the burning building and other involved properties, conveying them to a
secure place
C. EM$8SF.E 6 also called cover e#posure, this is the activity of securing other buildings
near the burning structure in order to prevent the fire from the e#tending to another
building.
=. 98&)(&E7E&T 6 This is the activity of restricting the fire at the place 4room5 where it
started 2 the process of preventing fire from e#tending from another section or form one
section to another section of the involved building.
;. -E&T(!AT(8& 6 This the operation purposely conducted to displace to#ic gases. (t
includes the process of displacing the heated atmosphere within the involved building
with normal air from outside atmosphere.
G. SA!-A*E 6 The activity of protecting the properties from preventable damage other than
the fire. The steps are a5 remove the material outside the burning area, and b5 protecting
or cover the materials by using tarpaulins 4cotton canvass treated with water proofing5.
1%. EMT(&*F(S37E&T 6 This is the process of putting out the main body of fire by using the
B general methods of fire e#tinguishments.
11. 8-E.3AF! 6 This is the complete and detailed check of the structure and all materials
therein to eliminate conditions that may cause re0flashH involves complete
e#tinguishments of sparks or smouldering 4glowing5 substances 4embers5 to prevent
possibilities of re0ignition or rekindling.
1:. )(.E S9E&E (&-EST(*AT(8& 0 This is the final stage of fire suppression activities. (t is
an in"uiry conducted to know or determine the origin and cause of fire.
What is a Sprinkle System
A sprinkler system consists of a network of pipes installed throughout a building. The
pipes carry water to no,,les in the ceiling. The heat from a fire causes the no,,les directly above
the fire to open and spray water.
The )ire >ureau personnel inspect public buildings to enforce the local code. The
officials check the operating condition of the fire protection systems. They note the number and
location of e#its and fire e#tinguishers. The inspection also covers housekeeping practices and
many other matters that affect fire safety. )ire inspectors may also review plans for a new
building to make sure it meets the safety code.
What is a Smoke !etector
Smoke detector is a device that sounds an alarm if a small amount of smoke enters their
sensors. Smoke detectors are attached to the ceiling or wall in several areas of the home. )ire
protection e#perts recommend at least one detector for each floor of a residence.
)ire fighters also recommend that people have portable fire e#tinguishers in their homes.
A person must be sure, however, to call the fire fighting service before trying to e#tinguish a fire.
(t is also important to use the right kind of e#tinguisher for the type of fire involved.
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The Fire E.tin"ui*h$ent Theor)
The )ire E#tinguishments Theory maintains that ?to e#tinguish a fire, interrupt or
eliminate the supply of any or all of the elements of fire.@ )ire can be e#tinguished by reducingD
lowering the temperature, eliminating the fuel supply, or by stopping the chemical chain reaction.
B *eneral 7ethods of )ire E#tinguishment
1. E#tinguishment by Temperature .eduction
- 9ooling the temperature of the fire environment2 usually done by using water.
- !ower down the temperature to cool the fuel to a point where it does not produce
sufficient vapors that burn.
:. E#tinguishment by )uel .emoval
- Elimination of the fuel supplyD source which maybe done by stopping the flow of li"uid
fuel, preventing the production of flammable gas, removing the solid fuel at the fire
path, allowing the fire to burn until the fuel is consumed
A. E#tinguishment by 8#ygen Eilution 0 reduction of o#ygen concentration at the burning area, by
introducing inert gases, by separating o#ygen from the fuel
B. E#tinguishment by 9hemical (nhibition
- Some e#tinguishments agents, like dry chemical and halon, interrupt the production
of flame resulting to rapid e#tinguishment of the fire. This method is effective only on
burning gas and li"uid fuels as they cannot burn in smoldering mode of combustion.
Wht re the methods of extinguishing the " #lasses of Fire
1. 9!ASS A )(.ES 6 by "uenching and cooling2 water is the best agent in cooling the
burning solid materialsH water has a "uenching effect that can reduce the temperature of
a burning material below its ignition temperatureH 4)ire e#tinguishers which have water,
sand, acid, foam and special solution containing alkali methyl dust, as found in the loaded
stream e#tinguisher, should be used for this type of fire.5
:. 9!ASS > )(.ES 6 by smothering or blanketing 4o#ygen e#clusion5. This type of fire is put
or controlled by foam, loaded stream, carbon dio#ide, dry chemical and vapori,ing li"uid.
A. 9!ASS 9 )(.ES 6 controlled by a non0conducting e#tinguishing agent2 the safest
procedure is to always de0energi,e the electrical circuit. E#tinguishers that should be
used to put out these type of fires are 9arbon Eio#ide E#tinguishers, Ery 9hemical,
-apori,ing li"uids.
B. 9!ASS E )(.ES 6 by using special e#tinguishing agents marked specifically for metals.
*E type, meth !M, !ith M, 7eth !, Kyl, dry sand and dry talc can put out class E fires
. 9!ASS E )(.ES 6 only combination of the above methods.
Fire E.tin"ui*her*
A Fire $xtinguisher is a mechanical device, usually made of metal, containing
chemicals, fluids, or gasses for stopping fires, the means for application of its contents for the
purpose of putting out fire 4particularly small fire 5 before it propagates, and is capable of being
readily moved from place to place.
(t is also a portable device used to put out fires of limited si,e.
What are the types of Fire $xtinguishers
1. /ater )ire E#tinguisher 6 e#tinguisher filled with water use of fight 9lass A and 9lass
> fires e#cept class 9 fires.
:. !i"uefied )ire E#tinguisher 6 those e#tinguishers that contain 9arbon 7ono#ide *as
use to fight class A, >, and 9 fires
A. Ery 9hemical E#tinguisher 6 those that contain chemical powder intended to fight all
classes of fires.
B. )oam E#tinguisher6 contains sodium bicarbonate and a foam0stabili,ing agent in a
larger compartment and a solution of aluminum sulfate in an inner cylinderH reaction
between the two solutions forms a stabili,ed foam of carbon dio#ide bubbles.
. Soda0acid )ire E#tinguisher 6 filled with sodium bicarbonate mi#ed with waterH a
small bottle of sulfuric acid is suspended inside 4near the top5 in such a way that
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when the e#tinguisher is turned up0side0down, the acid mi#es with sodium
bicarbonateH carbon dio#ide is formed by the reaction which results to the building of
pressure inside the e#tinguisherH this pressure forces the water solution out from the
container through a hose.
C. -apori,ing !i"uid )ire E#tinguisher 6 contains non0conducting li"uid, generali,ation
carbon tetrachloride or chlorobromethaneH operation is by manual pumping or using a
stored pressureH the stream of li"uid that is e#pelled is vapori,ed by the heat of the
fire and forms a smothering blanket. This type is usually used in fires involving
flammable li"uids or electrical e"uipment.
=. 9arbon Eio#ide )ire E#tinguisher 6 effective against burning li"uids and fires in live
electrical e"uipmentH used mainly to put out 9lass 9 fires.
What are examples of extinguishing agents
1. 7F!T(0$F.$8SE E.1 93E7(9A!S like the 7ono0Ammonium $hosphate 4 &3 3
$8 5
:. >9)03A!8& 1:11 or >romochlorodifluoromethane
A. A))) 6 4A"ueous )ilm )orming )oam5, is a synthetic foam0forming li"uid designed
for use with fresh water.
B. 9A.>8& E(8M(EE 6 a chemical that can deliver a "uick smothering action to the
flames, reducing the o#ygen and suffocating the fire. 9arbon dio#ide dissipates
without leaving any contamination or corrosive residue.
What are the markings re%uired on Fire $xtinguishers
Fnder 4.ule A=, Sec. 1%C of $E 11;5, all fire e#tinguishers manufactured or sold in the
$hilippines must be labelled or marked to show at least the following2
1. Eate of original filling
:. 9hemical 9ontents
A. Type of e#tinguisher
B. 8perating (nstruction and Safe $rocedure in usage
. &ame and address of the manufacturer
C. &ame and address of the dealer.
What are the prohibited types of fire extinguishers
.ule A=, Sec. 1%B of (.. of $E 11; provides that the following types of fires
e#tinguishers are prohibited for manufacture or sale2
1. All inverting types which make it necessary to invert the container before the
e#tinguisher+s operation
:. Soda0acid e#tinguishers
A. Stored pressure or cartridge operated foam solution, unless and air0aspiring no,,le is
provided
B. -apori,ing li"uid e#tinguishers using carbon tetrachloride or chlorobromomethane in any
concentration of formulation
. -apori,ing li"uid e#tinguishers of less than one kilogram e#tinguishing agent
C. *lass bulb, ? grenade@ type, or ?bomb@ type of vapori,ing li"uid e#tinguishers which have
to be thrown to the fire or are mounted on specific location and which operate upon the
melting of a fusible link.
=. Thermatic special ha,ards single station e#tinguishers with e#tinguishing capability of
less than four and a half 4B.5 cubic meters
;. 8ther types which maybe hereinafter prohibited.
What are the prohibited acts involving the operation of fire extinguishers
)rom the same legal basis above, the following are declared prohibited acts concerning
the use of fire e#tinguishers2
1. .emoval of inspection tags attached to fire e#tinguishers
:. .efilling a discharge e#tinguisher with a e#tinguishing agent other than what the unit was
designed to contain
A. Selling fire e#tinguishers not appropriate to the ha,ard
B. Selling fire e#tinguishers prohibited by .ule A=, Section 1%B
. Selling defective or substandard e#tinguishers
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C. FsingDinstalling two or more thermatic special ha,ard vapori,ing li"uid units in rooms with
volume greater than the nominal capability of one unit.
=. (nstalling pressure gauges in fire e#tinguishers which do not indicate the actual pressure
of the interior of vessel such as, but not limited to use of uncalibrated gauges, not
providing or blocking the connection between the gauge and the interior, or fi#ing the
indicatorDneedle to indicate a certain pressure.
What are the &eneral 'perating Procedures in Fire $xtinguishment
The general operating procedures in using a fire e#tinguisher may be modified by the
acronym $ASS.
( 0 $ull the pin at the top of the e#tinguisher that keeps the handle from being pressed.
$ress the plastic or thin wire inspection band.
A6 Aim the no,,le or outlet towards the fire. Some hose assemblies are dipped to the
e#tinguisher body. .eleased it and then point at the base of the fire.
S 6 S"uee,e the handle above carrying handle to discharge the e#tinguishing agent
inside. The handle can be released to stop the discharge at any time.
S 6 Sweep the no,,le sideways at the base of the flame to disperse the e#tinguishing
agent.
After the fire is out, probe for remaining smouldering hot spots or possible re0flash of flammable
li"uids. 7ake sure the fire is out before leaving the burned area.
Fire Fi"htin" E9ui+$ent
The most important e"uipment for fire fighters includes2
2' Co$$uniction S)*te$*
They are necessary to alert fire fighters to the outbreak of a fire. 7ost fire alarms are
telephoned to the fire department. 7any countries have introduced a simple, A0digit number as
the telephone number to call in emergencies. This number can be dialed from almost any
telephone and from most pay phones without a coin. Eialing this number is free. (n the
$hilippines, the emergency line is 1CC.
5' Fire Vehic!e*
)ire fighters have several types of fire vehicles. The main types are 415 engines, 4:5
ladder appliances, and 4A5 rescue vehicles.
$ngines, also called water tenders, have a large pump that takes water from a fire
hydrant or other source. The pump boosts the pressure of the water and forces it through hoses.
Engines carry several si,es of hoses and no,,les. 7any also have a small0diameter hose called
a booster line, which is wound on a reel. The booster line is used chiefly to put out small outdoor
fires.
(adder appliances 0 There are two kinds of ladder appliances00turntable ladders and
hydraulic platforms.
A turntable ladder appliance has a metal e#tension ladder mounted on a turntable. The
ladder can be raised as high as A% meters, or about eight storeys.
A hydraulic platform truck has a cage0like platform that can hold several people. The
platform is attached to a lifting device that is mounted on a turntable. The lifting device consists
of either a hinged boom 4long metal arm5 or an e#tendable boom made of several sections that fit
inside each other. The boom on the largest vehicles can e#tend BC meters. A built0in hose runs
the length of the boom and is used to direct water on a fire. (n most cases, a pump in a nearby
engine generates the pressure needed to spray the water.
Fire Fighting )ehicles 0 are e"uipped with portable ladders of various types and si,es.
They also carry forcible entry tools, which fire fighters use to gain entry into a building and to
ventilate it to let out smoke. 9ommon forcible entry tools include a#es, power saws, and sledge
hammers.
*escue )ehicles are enclosed vehicles e"uipped with many of the same kinds of
forcible entry tools that ladder appliances carry. >ut rescue vehicles also carry additional
e"uipment for unusual rescues. They have such tools as o#yacetylene torches, for cutting
through metal, and hydraulic 'acks, for lifting heavy ob'ects. They may also carry other hydraulic
tools. /ith a hydraulic rescue tool, fire fighters can apply a large amount of pressure to two
ob'ects to s"uee,e them together or prise them apart. The tool is often used to free people
trapped in cars and other vehicles after an accident. 7any rescue vehicles also carry small hand
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tools, such as crowbars and saws, and ropes and harnesses for rescuing people from water or
high places. (n addition, they carry medical supplies and e"uipment.
Special Fire )ehicles include airport crash tenders and ha,ardous materials units.
Airport crash tenders are engines that spray foam or dry chemicals on burning aircraft. /ater is
ineffective against many aircraft fires, such as those that involve 'et fuel or certain metals.
(n addition to the above fire fighting e"uipment, fire fighters are also re"uired to use
protective clothing.
Protective #lothing 0 clothing for protection against flames, falling ob'ects, and other
ha,ards. They wear coats and trousers made of fire0resistant material. 8ther clothing includes
special boots, gloves, and helmets. )ire fighters also use a breathing apparatus to avoid inhaling
smoke and to#ic gases.
Fire (re=ention nd (u0!ic S#et)
As mentioned earlier, Fire (re=ention is a term for the many safety measures used to
keep harmful fires from starting. )ires not only cause e#tensive damage to valuable property, but
also responsible for large numbers of deaths.
-ASIC FIRE INVESTIGATION
(n the $hilippines, the >ureau of fire $rotection is the main government agency
responsible for the prevention and suppression of all destructive fires on buildings, houses and
other structures, forest, land transportation vehicles and e"uipments, ships or vessels docked at
piers or ma'or seaports, petroleum industry installation, plane crashes and other similar incidents,
as well as the enforcement of the )ire 9ode and other related laws. (t has the ma'or power to
investigate all causes of fires and necessary, file the proper complaints with the proper authority
that has 'urisdiction over the case 4..A. no. CG=, sec. B5.
Why Fires should be investigated
The very reason why fires should be investigated is to determine the cause of the fire in
order to prevent similar occurrences. The determination of the origin and cause of fire is arrived at
only after a thorough investigation. Since basic investigation is prelude to the discovery of the true
cause of the fire, an understanding of the chemistry of fire and its attendant behavior should be a
concern for successful investigation.
Who are %ualified to investigate fires
A fire investigator should have the following traits2
1. $ossession of knowledge of investigational techni"ues.
:. 3e should have an insight of human behavior.
A. 3e should have a first hand knowledge of the chemistry of fire and its behavior
B. 3e should be resourceful.
+s Fire +nvestigation #omplex and ,ni%ue
)ire investigation is comple# and uni"ue because of the following reasons2
1. )ire destroys evidence
:. (f it is Arson, it is planned, motivated and committed is discreet.
A. .arely can there be an eyewitness in Arson.
What are the roles of the Firemen in Fire +nvestigation
)iremen are usually at the crime scene ahead of the fire investigators. 3ence, they are
valuable sources of information. They are the so0called ?Eyes and Ears@ of the police before,
during and after the fire has been placed under control. The information taken from them may be
categori,e as2
1. (nformation attainable or developed prior to the arrival at the scene
:. (nformation available to the firemen at the scene
A. (nformation available during overhaul and thereafter.
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Le"! A*+ect o# Fire In=e*ti"tion
ARSON de#ined
Ar*on is the intentional or malicious destruction of property by fire.
(t is the concern of fire investigation to prove malicious intent of the offender. (ntent must
be proved, otherwise, no crime e#ist. The law presumes that a fire is accidental, hence criminal
designs must be shown. )ire cause by accident or criminal design must be shown. )ire cause by
accident or negligence does not constitute arson.
What is !estructive -rson
Fnder Article A:% of the .evised $enal 9ode, as amended, the penalty of .eclusion
$erpetua to Eeath shall be imposed upon any person who shall burn2
1. 8ne 415 or more buildings or edifices, conse"uent to one single act of
burning, or as a result of simultaneous burnings, or committed on several or different
occasions.
:. Any building of public or private ownership, devoted to the public in general
or where people usually gather or congregate for a definite purpose such as, but not
limited to official governmental function or business, private transaction, commerce,
trade workshop, meetings and conferences, or merely incidental to a definite purpose
such as but not limited to hotels, motels, transient dwellings, public conveyance or
stops or terminals, regardless of whether the offender had knowledge that there are
persons in said building or edifice at the time it is set on fire and regardless also of
whether the building is actually inhabited or not.
A. Any train or locomotive, ship or vessel, airship or airplane devoted to
transportation or conveyance, or for public use, entertainment or leisure.
B. Any building, factory, warehouse installation and any appurtenances thereto,
which are devoted to the service to public utilities.
. Any building the burning of which is for the purpose of concealing or
destroying evidence of another violation of law, or for the purpose of concealing
bankruptcy or defrauding creditors or to collect from insurance.
(rrespective of the application of the above enumerated "ualifying circumstances, the
penalty of reclusion to death shall likewise be imposed when the arson is perpetrated or
committed by two or more persons or by group of persons, regardless of whether their purpose is
merely to burn or destroy the building or the building merely constitutes an overt act in the
commission or another violation of law.
The penalty of .eclusion $erpetua to Eeath shall also be imposed upon any person who
shall burn2
1. any arsenal, shipyard, storehouse or military power or firework
factory, ordinance, storehouse, archives or general museum of the government.
:. in an inhabited place, any storehouse or factory of inflammable or
e#plosives materials.
(f the conse"uence of the commission of any of the acts penali,ed under this Article, death
results, the mandatory penalty of death shall be imposed 4sec. 1%, .A =CG5.
What is the basis of criminal liability in arson
1. Kind and character of the building burned
:. !ocation of the building
A. E#tent or value of the damage
B. /hether inhabited or not.
What are other forms of arson
8ther forms of arson refers to those enumerated under Article A:1 of the .evised $enal
9ode, as amended like the following2

1. Setting fires to any building, farmhouse, warehouse, hut, shelter, or
vessel in port, knowing it to be occupied at the time by one or more person.
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:. >uilding burned is a public building and value of damage e#ceeds si#
thousands pesos 4$C%%%.%%5.
A. >uilding burned is a public building and purpose is to destroy
evidence kept therein to be used in instituting prosecution for punishment of violators
of law, irrespective of the amount of damage.
B. >uilding burned is a public building and purpose is to destroy
evidence kept therein to be used in legislative, 'udicial or administrative proceeding,
irrespective of the damage, if the evidence is to be used against defendant of any
crime punishable under e#isting law.
Ar*on o# (ro+ert) o# S$!! V!ue /Art' 656, R(C1
>urning of any uninhabited hut, storehouse, barn, shed, or any other property, under
circumstances clearly e#cluding all danger of the fire spreading, value of the property not e#ceed
:.%% pesos.
Cri$e* In=o!=in" De*truction /Art 657, R(C1
The offender causes destruction by any of the following means2
1. e#plosion
:. discharge of electric current
A. inundation, sinking or stranding of a vessel
B. taking up the rails from a railway track
. malicious changing of railway signals for the safety of moving trains
C. destroying telegraph wires and telegraph post or those any other communication
system
=. by using any other agency or means of destruction as effective as the above
>urning one+s own property as a means to commit arson 4.ead 9ase of F.S vs. >udiao,
B $hil. %:5 4Article A:, .$95
Article A:C, .$9 6 Setting )ire to $roperty E#clusively 8wned >y the 8ffender
This act is punished if the purpose of the offender is to2
1. Eefraud or cause damage to another or
:. damaged is actually caused upon another+s property even if such purpose is absent
A. thing burned is a building in an inhabited place.
(re*identi! Decree No' 2@26 6 Amending the !aw on Arson
S+eci! A""r=tin" Circu$*tnce in Ar*on
1. (f committed with intent to gain2
:. (f committed with the benefit of another2
A. (f the offender is motivated by spite or hatred towards the owner or occupant of the
property burned2
B. (f committed by a syndicate 4A or more persons5.
(ri$ Fcie E=idence o# Ar*on
1. (f the fire started simultaneously in more than one part of the building or
establishment
:. (f substantial amounts of flammable substance or materials are stored within the
building not necessary in the business of the offender nor for house hold use.
A. (f gasoline, kerosene, petroleum, or other flammable or combustible substances or
materials soaked therewith or containers thereof, or any mechanical, electrical,
chemical, or electronic contrivance designed to start a fire, a fire, or ashes or traces
of any of the foregoing are found in the ruins or premises of the burned building or
property.
B. (f the building or property is insured for substantially more than its actual value at the
time of the issuance of the policy.
. (f during the lifetime of the corresponding fire insurance policy more than two fires
have occurred in the same or other premises owned or under the control of the
offender and D or insured.
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C. (f shortly before the fire, a substantial portion of the effects insured and stored in a
building or property had been withdrawn from the premises e#cept in the ordinary
course of business.
=. (f a demand for money or other valuable consideration was made before the fire in
e#change for the desistance of the offender or the safety of the person or property of
the victim.
Ar*on In=e*ti"tion
What #onstitutes -rson
1. >urning 6 to constitute burning, pyrolysis must takes place. (n other words, there
must be burning or changing, i.e. the fibber of the wood must be destroyed, its
identity changed.
:. /ilfulness 6 means intentional, and implies that the act was done purposely and
intentionally.
A. 7alice 6 it denotes hatred or a desire for revenge.
B. 7otive 6 is the moving cause that induces the commission of the crime.
. (ntent 6 is the purpose or design with which the act is done and involves the will.
Method* o# (roo# in Ar*on
$hysical evidences in arson are often destroyed. To prove arson was committed, 9orpus
Eelicti must be shown and identify of the arsonist must be established. 9orpus Eelicti 4body of the
crime5 is the fact of that crime was committed. The following must show it2
1. >urning 6 that there was fire that may be shown by direct testimony of complaint,
firemen responding to the crime, other eyewitnesses. >urned parts of the building
may also indicate location.
:. 9riminal Eesign 6 must show that it was wilfully and intentionally done. The presence
of incendiary devices, flammables such as gasoline and kerosene may indicate that
the fire is not accidental.
A. Evidence of (ntent 6 /hen valuables were removed from the building before the fire,
ill0feeling between the accused and the occupants of the building burned, absence of
effort to put off fire and such other indications.
What are basic lines of in%uiry in -rson +nvestigation
The arson investigator must have to in"uire on the following a5 point of origin of fire b5
motives of arsonist c5 prime suspects d5 the telltale signs of arson.
2' (oint o# ori"in o# #ire
(nitially, the important point to be established is the point of origin of fire. (n other words, at
what particular place in the building the fire startedN This may be established by an e#amination
of the witness, by an inspection of the debris at the fire scene and by studying the fingerprint of
fire. The fingerprint of fire occurs during the free burning stage of the fire when pyrolytic
decomposition moves upward on the walls leaving a bunt pattern.
/itnesses must be "uestioned as to2
1. 3is identity
:. /hat attracted his attention
A. Time of observation
B. 3is position in relation to the fire at the time of observation
. E#act location of the bla,e
C. Si,e and intensity
=. .apidity of spread
;. 9olor of flame and odor if he is in a position this
G. Any other person in the vicinity beside the witness
&ote fire setting mechanism
1. matches
:. candles
A. electrical system
B. mechanical means
. chemical methods
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5' Moti=e o# Ar*oni*t

To understand the motives of arsonist, the arson investigator have to note the following
that fires are set by2
$ersons with 7otives
a. Those with desire to defraud the (nsurer
b. Employees or such other person who have a grievance 4)ire revenge5
c. Those with desire to conceal evidence of a crime
d. Those who set fire for purposes of intimidation
$eople without motives
a. Those who are mentally ill
b. $athological fire0setters
c. $yros and the $sychos
7otives of Arsonist
1. Economic *ain
a. (nsurance fraud 6 benefiting
b. Eesire to dispose merchandise 6 lost of market value being out of
season, lack of raw materials, over supply of merchandise can be a big reason
for arson.
c. E#isting business transaction that the arsonist would like to avoid such
as impending li"uidation, settlement of estate, need for cash, prospective
business failure, and increase rentals
d. $rofit by the $erpetrator other than the Assured like insurance agents
wishing business with the assured, business competitors planning to drive
others, person seeking 'ob as personnel protection, salvagers and contractors
wishing to contact another building
:. 9oncealment of 9rime 0 /hen the purpose of hiding a crime or committing a crime,
arson was used as means.
A. $unitive 7easure 0 9ommitting arson to inflict in'ury to another due to hatred,
'ealousy and revenge.
B. (ntimidation or Economic Eisabling 0 Arsonist as saboteurs, strikers and racketeers to
intimidate management or employer.
. $yromania
A pyromaniac having the uncontrollable impulse to burn anything without any
motivation. They do not run away from the fire scene since they love watching fire
burning.
Types of $yromania
a. Abnormal 1outh 6 epileptics, imbeciles and morons
b. 3ero Type 6 a person set a building on fire and pretends to discover it, turn
on the alarm or make some rescue works to appear as ?hero@
c. Erug addicts and alcoholics
d. Se#ual deviates and perverts.
6' (ri$e Su*+ect* /nd the (ri$ Fcie E=idence*1
The development of prime suspects 0 this involves identification results from the full
development of leads, clues and traces, the testimony particularly eyewitnesses and the
development of e#pert testimony, The following techni"ue may serve the investigation2
1. Search of the fire scene for physical evidence2
a. $rotection of the scene
b. 7echanics of search
c. 9ollection and preservation of evidences
d. !aboratory aids
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:. >ackground study of policyholders, occupants of premises, owner of building or other
person having ma'or interest in the fire.
A. (nterviews and interrogations of persons who discovered the fire, and the one who
turned the first alarm, firemen, and eyewitnesses.
B. Surveillance
7' The Te!! T!e Si"n* o# Ar*on
These signs maybe obvious that the first fireman at the scene will suspects arson or they
maybe so well concealed that moths of patient investigation to show that it is set off will be
re"uired.
1. >urned >uilding 6 the type of the building may indicate a set fire under certain
circumstance. A fire of considerable si,e at the time the first apparatus arrive at the
scene is suspicious if it is a modern concrete or semi0concrete building.
:. Separate fires 6 when two or more separate fire breaks out within a building. The fire
is certainly suspicious.
A. 9olor of Smoke 6 some fire burn with little or no smoke but they are e#ception. The
observation of the smoke must be made at the start of the fire since once the fire has
assumed a ma'or proportion, the value of the smoke is lost, because the smoke will
not indicate the material used by the arsonist
a.5 /hen white smoke appears before the water from the fire hose comes in
contact with the fire, it indicates humid material burning. E#ample 6 burning
hay, vegetable materials, phosphorus 4with garlic odor5.
b.5 >iting smoke, irritating the nose and throat and causing lacrymation and
coughing indicates presence of chlorine.
c.5 >lack smoke indicates lack of air if accompanied by large flames it indicates
petroleum products and rubber.
d.5 .eddish0brown smoke indicates nitrocellulose, S1, 3:, S%B, 3&%A, or 39(.
e.5 7eaning of color of Smoke and )ire2
>lack smoke with deep red flame 6 petroleum products, tar, rubber,
plastics, etc.
3eavy brown with bright red flame 6 nitrogen products
/hite smoke with bright flame 6 magnesium products
>lack smoke with red and blue green flame 6 asphalt
$urple0violet flame 6 potassium products
*reenish0yellow flame 6 9hloride or 7anganese products
>right reddish yellow flame 6 9alcium products
;. 9olor of flame 6 The color of the flame is a good indication of the intensity of the fire,
an important factor in determining incendiarism.
G. Amount of 3eat 6 A reddish glow indicates heat of %%% degrees centigrade, a real
bright read about 1%% degrees centigrade. .ed flames indicate of petroleum. >lue
flame indicates use of alcohol as accelerant.
1%. Smoke 7arks 6 An e#perience investigation will determine the volume of smoke
involved at a fire and the character as residue deposited on walls or elsewhere.
Smoke in marks have often been of assistance in determining the possibility of a fire
having more than one place of origin.
11. Si,e of )ire 6 This is important when correlated with the type of alarm, the time
received and the time of arrival of the first fire apparatus. )ires make what might be
termed a normal progress. Such progress can be estimated after an e#amination of
the material burned the building and the normal ventilation offered of the fire. The
time element and the degree of headway by the flames become important factors to
determine factors to determine possible incendiarism.
1:. Eirection of Travel 6 /hile it is admitted that no two fires burn in identical fashion, yet
it can be shown that fire makes normal progress through various types of building
materials, combustibility of contents, channel of ventilation and circumstances
surrounding the sending of alarm, an e#perienced investigator can determine
whether a fire spread abnormally fast.
1A. (ntensity 6 The degree of heat given off by a fire and the color of its flame oftentimes
indicate that some accelerant has been added to the material normally present in a
building and the investigator must look for further evidence pointing to use of such
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accelerant. Eifficulty in e#tinguishing the fire is often a lead to suspect presence of
such fluid as gasoline and kerosene.
1B. 8dor 6 The odor of gasoline, alcohol, kerosene and other inflammable li"uids which
are often used as accelerant is characteristics and oftentimes arsonist are trapped
because of this telltale sign. 7ost of fire 6 setters are inclined to use substance which
will make the bla,e certain and at the same time burn up any evidence of their crime.
1. 9ondition of 9ontent 6 $ersons tending to set their house on fire fre"uently remove
ob'ects of value either materially or sentimentally. Store and other business
establishments oftentimes remove a ma'or portion of their content or replace valuable
merchandise without of style articles.


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