UNIT 2: DISASTERS DUE TO CLIMATE CHANGES

Dr. Pranesh M. R., Dr. Shashi Shankar A., Mr. Prashanth J.

2. INTRODUCTION
A disaster is the impact of a natural or human-made hazard that negatively affects society
or environment. The root of the word disaster ("bad star" in Greek comes from an
astrological idea that when the stars are in a bad position a bad event will happen.
!isaster is an event or series of events" which gives rise to casualties and damage or loss
of properties" infrastructures" environment" essential services or means of livelihood on
such a scale which is beyond the normal capacity of the affected community to cope with.
!isaster is also sometimes described as a #catastrophic situation in which the normal
pattern of life or eco-system has been disrupted and e$tra-ordinary emergency
interventions are re%uired to save and preserve lives and&or the environment'.
An environmental disaster is a disaster to the natural environment due to human activity"
which distinguishes it from the concept of a natural disaster. (t is also distinct from
intentional acts of war such as nuclear bombings.
(n contemporary academia" disasters are seen as the conse%uence of inappropriately
managed risk. These risks are the product of hazards and vulnerability. )azards that
strike in areas with low vulnerability are not considered a disaster" as is the case in
uninhabited regions.
!eveloping countries suffer the greatest costs when a disaster hits * more than +, percent
of all deaths caused by disasters occur in developing countries" and losses due to natural
disasters are -. times greater (as a percentage of G!/ in developing countries than in
industrialized countries.
(ndia being a developing country is vulnerable" in varying degrees" to a large number of
disasters. 0ore than ,1.2 per cent of the landmass is prone to earth%uakes of moderate to
very high intensity3 over 4. million hectares (5-6 of its land is prone to floods and river
erosion3 close to ,"7.. kms" out of the 7",52 kms long coastline is prone to cyclones and
tsunamis3 216 of its cultivable area is vulnerable to droughts3 and" its hilly areas are at
risk from landslides and avalanches. 0oreover" (ndia is also vulnerable to 8hemical"
9iological" :adiological and ;uclear (89:; emergencies and other man-made
disasters. <ig. -.5 shows the (ndian climatic risk map showing the different regions prone
to different types of disasters. !isaster risks in (ndia are further compounded by
increasing vulnerabilities related to changing demographics and socio-economic
conditions" unplanned urbanization" development within high-risk zones" environmental
degradation" climate change" geological hazards" epidemics and pandemics. <ig. -.-
shows the ma=or disasters that occurred in (ndia during 5+1.--..+.
Disasters due to climate changes Page 5
!i". 2. In#ia $%i&ati$ #isaster risk &a'
!i". 2.2: Ma()r #isasters in In#ia #*rin" +,- t) 2--+
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2.2 CLASSI!ICATION O! DISASTERS
<or more than a century researchers have been studying disasters and for more than forty
years disaster research has been institutionalized through the !isaster :esearch 8enter.
0any researchers reflect a common opinion when they argue that all disasters can be
seen as being human-made" their reasoning being that human actions before the strike of
the hazard can prevent it developing into a disaster. All disasters are" hence" the result of
human failure to introduce appropriate disaster management measures. )azards are
routinely divided into natural or human-made" although comple$ disasters" where there is
no single root cause" are more common in developing countries. A specific disaster may
spawn a secondary disaster that increases the impact. A classic e$ample is an earth%uake
that causes a tsunami" resulting in coastal flooding. <ig. -.> shows the different types of
disasters. !isasters may be broadly classified into"
./ Nat*ra% Disasters: A natural disaster is the conse%uence when a natural hazard (e.g."
volcanic eruption or earth%uake affects humans. )uman vulnerability" caused by the lack
of appropriate emergency management" leads to financial" environmental" or human
impact. The resulting loss depends on the capacity of the population to support or resist
the disaster? their resilience. This understanding is concentrated in the formulation?
"disasters occur when hazards meet vulnerability". A natural hazard will hence never
result in a natural disaster in areas without vulnerability" e.g." strong earth%uakes in
uninhabited areas. The term natural has conse%uently been disputed because the events
simply are not hazards or disasters without human involvement.
.2/ Man0&a#e Disasters: !isasters caused by human action" negligence" error" or
involving the failure of a system are called man-made disasters. 0an-made disasters are
in turn categorized as technological or sociological. Technological disasters are the
results of failure of technology" such as engineering failures" transport disasters" or
environmental disasters. @ociological disasters have a strong human motive" such as
criminal acts" stampedes" riots" and war.
!i". 2.1: !%)20$hart )3 $%assi3i$ati)n )3 #isasters
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2.1 INDIAN MONSOON
(n (ndia" the word monsoon commonly refers to the system that visits the continent every
year and gives us rain. The commencement of the Arainy seasonB is associated with the
onset of the monsoon and the end of the rainy season with the retreat of the monsoon. <or
the country as a whole" most of the rainfall occurs during the summer monsoon season
Cune-@eptember. The (ndian atmosphere remains on loaded with monsoon throughout the
year.
The Arabs came to (ndia as traders and named this seasonal reversal of the wind system
as D0onsoonD. The word monsoon is derived from the Arabic word D0ausimD which means
season.
2.1. The )nset )3 the &)ns))n an# 2ith#ra2a%
Onset: Generally" the monsoon arrives at the southern tip of the (ndian peninsular by the
first week of Cune. @ubse%uently" it divides into two branches" viz. the Arabian @ea
branch and the 9ay of 9engal branch. The Arabian @ea branch reaches 0umbai about ten
days later" i.e. around 5.
th
of Cune. The 9ay of 9engal rapidly advances and reaches
Assam in the first week of Cune. The monsoon winds are then deflected by high
mountains and move towards west over the Ganga plains. The Arabian @ea branch of the
monsoon arrives over @urashtra-Euchchh and central part of the country by mid-Cune.
The Arabian @ea and the 9ay of 9engal branches of the monsoon merge over the
northwestern part of the Ganga plains. !elhi usually receives monsoon showers from the
9ay of 9engal branch by the end of Cune. Festern Gttar /radesh" /un=ab" )aryana" and
eastern :a=asthan e$perience monsoon by the first week of Culy. The monsoon reaches
)imachal /radesh and the rest of the country by mid-Culy. <ig. -.4 shows the monsoon
onset map of (ndia.
4ith#ra2a%: Fithdrawal or the retreat of the monsoon is a more gradual process. The
monsoon begins to withdraw from the northwestern states of (ndia by early @eptember.
The monsoon withdraws completely from the northern part of the (ndian peninsular by
mid-Hctober. The monsoon withdraws from the rest by the country by early !ecember.
The islands receive the very first monsoon showers from the first week of April to the
first week of 0ay3 progressively from south to north. The withdrawal of monsoon in the
islands takes place from the first week of !ecember to the first week of Canuary. <ig. -.,
shows the retreat of monsoon in (ndia.
2.1.2 The Seas)ns
There are four main seasons in (ndia" viz. the cold weather season" the hot weather
season" the advancing monsoon and the retreating monsoon.
The C)%# 4eather Seas)n .2inter/: The winter season begins from mid-;ovember and
stays till <ebruary3 in northern (ndia. !ecember and Canuary are the coldest months in the
northern part of (ndia. The temperature ranges between 5.I-5,I8 in the northern plains"
while it ranges between -4I--,I8 in 8hennai. The northeast trade winds prevail over the
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country in this season. As these winds blow from land to sea" most parts of the country
e$perience a dry season. The winter rainfall is in small amount but is very important for
the rabi crop. The peninsular region does not get a well-defined winter because of the
moderating influence of the sea.
!i". 2.5: M)ns))n )nset &a' )3 In#ia
!i". 2.6: Retreatin" &)ns))n )3 In#ia .As )n 2-1 De$e&7er/
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The H)t 4eather Seas)n .s*&&er/: The summer season is from 0arch to 0ay.
!uring this period" the global heat belt shifts towards north because of the apparent
northward movement of the sun. !uring summer" the temperatures rise and air pressure
falls in the northern part of the country. Towards the end of 0ay" an elongated low-
pressure area develops in the region which e$tends from the Thar !esert in the northwest
to /atna and 8hhotanagpur in the east and southeast. !ust storms are very common in
northern (ndia during the month of 0ay. This is also the season of localized
thunderstorms3 accompanied by violent winds" torrential downpours" and hail. /re-
monsoon showers are common towards the end of the summer season3 especially in
Eerala and Earnataka. They are often called Amango showersB as they help in the early
ripening of mangoes.
A#8an$in" M)ns))n .the rain9 seas)n/: The rainy season begins from early Cune. The
low-pressure condition over the northern plains intensifies at this time. (t attracts the trade
winds from the southern hemisphere. These south-east trade winds cross the e%uator and
blow in a south-westerly direction to enter the (ndian peninsula as the south-west
monsoon. These winds bring abundant moisture to the subcontinent. The monsoon winds
cover the country in about a month. The north-eastern part of the country receives the
ma$imum rainfall of this season. 0eghalaya receives the highest average rainfall in the
world. 0onsoon tends to have AbreaksB in rainfall3 which means that there are wet and
dry spells in between. These breaks in the monsoon are because of the movement of the
monsoon trough. The trough and its a$is keep on moving northwards or southward due to
various reasons. The movement of the monsoon trough determines the spatial distribution
of rainfall. The monsoon is famous for its uncertainties. (t may cause heavy floods in one
part of the country" and may be responsible for droughts in other part. 9ecause of its
uncertain behaviour" it sometimes disturbs the farming schedule in (ndia. <ig. -.2 shows
the distribution of rainy season in (ndia.
Retreatin" M)ns))n .The Transiti)n Seas)n/: !uring Hctober-;ovember" the sun
apparently moves towards the south. !uring this period" the monsoon trough over the
northern plains becomes weaker. The south-west monsoon winds weaken and start
withdrawing gradually. The monsoon withdraws from the northern plains by the
beginning of Hctober. The retreat of the monsoon is marked by clear skies and rise in
temperature. Fhile day temperatures are high" nights are cool and pleasant. )umidity
would still be present. )igh temperature and humidity" makes the weather %uite
uncomfortable during the day. This is commonly known as #Hctober )eat'. The
temperature begins to fall rapidly in northern (ndia by the second half of Hctober. The
low-pressure conditions over northwestern (ndia move to the 9ay of 9engal by early
;ovember. This shift leads to cyclonic depressions over the Andaman @ea. These
cyclones usually cross the eastern coasts of (ndia and cause heavy and widespread rain.
These cyclones may also arrive at the 8oasts of Hrissa" Fest 9engal and 9angladesh.
These cyclones contribute to the bulk of the rainfall of the 8oromandel 8oast.
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!i". 2.:: In#ian Seas)na% Rain3a%%
2.1.1 Distri7*ti)n )3 Rain3a%%
The western coast and northeastern (ndia receive over 4... mm of rainfall annually. The
annual rainfall is less than 2.. mm in western :a=asthan and ad=oining parts of Gu=arat"
)aryana and /un=ab. :ainfall is also low in the interior of the !eccan /lateau and east of
the @ahyadris. The area around Jeh also gets low rainfall. The rest of the country gets
moderate rainfall. @nowfall is restricted to the )imalayan region.
2.5 !LOODS
<loods are natural phenomena which result from the precipitation and form an essential
source of freshwater. (n case of e$treme precipitation" melting of snow" rise of
groundwater" storm surges or tsunami" water flows beyond the normal limits of the water
bodies" thereby causing flooding. K$treme flooding is the most ta$ing of water-related
natural hazards to life forms" socio-economic activities" material assets" as well as
cultural and ecological resources.
(ndia is one of the most flood prone countries in the world. The principal reasons for
flood lie in the very nature of natural ecological systems in this country" namely" the
monsoon" the highly silted river systems and the steep and highly erodible mountains"
particularly those of the )imalayan ranges. The average rainfall in (ndia is 55,. mm with
significant variation across the country. The annual rainfall along the western coast and
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Festern Ghats" Ehasi hills and over most of the 9rahmaputra valley amounts to more
than -,.. mm. 0ost of the floods occur during the monsoon period and are usually
associated with tropical storms or depressions" active monsoon conditions and break
monsoon situations. 0a=or flood prone areas in (ndia are shown in <ig. -.7.
<loods occur in almost all rivers basins in (ndia. The main causes of floods are heavy
rainfall" inade%uate capacity of rivers to carry the high flood discharge" inade%uate
drainage to carry away the rainwater %uickly to streams& rivers. (ce =ams or landslides
blocking streams3 typhoons and cyclones also cause floods. <lash floods occur due to
high rate of water flow as also due to poor permeability of the soil. Areas with hardpan
=ust below the surface of the soil are more prone to floods as water fails to seep down to
the deeper layers.
Lulnerability to floods is mainly caused by the high population density" widespread
poverty" unemployment" illiteracy" enormous pressure on rural land" and an economy
traditionally dominated by agriculture. 8hildren and women are particularly vulnerable.
Kighty five percent of the deaths during disasters are of women and children (8entre for
:esearch on the Kpidemiology of !isasters" 8:K! -.... /resently there is an
inade%uate level of protection in the country against floods. Though non-structural
measures improve the preparedness to floods and reduce losses" the necessity of
structural measures would always remain to reduce the e$tent of physical damage caused
by floods.
There are many causes of flooding including" but not limited to the following?
(5 Seas)na% !%))#in": According to some scientists" the record floods of 5++. were
caused by global warming" the theories that the earthBs atmosphere traps heat near the
earth" slowly warming the earth. This greenhouse effect may have heated the water in the
Gulf of 0e$ico" causing it to evaporate faster. Fith more water vapor in the lower
atmosphere" small storms escalated into large systems with lots of moisture. (f the global
warming theory is correct" sea levels will rise three to five feet in 2. years. 8oastal areas
may be partially submerged underwater or easily flooded.
(- C)asta% !%))#in": The earth has seven oceans that cover almost three-fourths of its
surface. ;aturally" wind and other events caused ocean water to sometimes overflow.
Fhen this happens" flooding on the shores occurs. Hcean storms can dump lots of water
on a coast" raising the sea level in that area. These are known as storm surges" and cause
coastal flooding.
8oastal flooding usually occurs as a result of severe storms" either tropical or winter
storms. Hcean waves intensify on the open ocean" and these storms make surface water
much choppier and fierce than normal. :aging winds can create huge waves that crash on
unprotected beaches.
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!i". 2.;: !%))# 'r)ne &a' )3 In#ia
The effects of flooding can be divided into following categories?
2.5. Pri&ar9 e33e$ts:
/hysical damage- 8an range anywhere from bridges" cars" buildings" sewer
systems" roadways" canals and any other type of structure.
8asualties- /eople and livestock die due to drowning. (t can also lead to
epidemics and diseases.
2.5.2 Se$)n#ar9 e33e$ts:
Fater supplies- 8ontamination of water. 8lean drinking water becomes scarce.
!iseases- Gnhygienic conditions. @pread of water-borne diseases
8rops and food supplies- @hortage of food crops can be caused due to loss of
entire harvest.
Trees - ;on-tolerant species can die from suffocation
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2.5.1 Tertiar9<%)n"0ter& e33e$ts:
Kconomic- Kconomic hardship" due to? temporary decline in tourism" rebuilding
costs" food shortage leading to price increase etc
2.6 DROUGHT
!rought is a condition of lesser than normal availability of water" and as such it is a
management issue as a technical one. A drought is an e$tended period of months or years
when a region notes a deficiency in its water supply. Generally" this occurs when a region
receives consistently below average precipitation. Although droughts can persist for
several years" even a short" intense drought can cause significant damage and harm the
local economy. According to the G;" an area of fertile soil the size of Gkraine (appro$.
2.>"2-1 kmM is lost every year because of drought" deforestation and climate instability.
The comple$ interplay of climate factors (lack of enough rainfall" uneven distribution
over time and space" and non-climate factors (such as land situation and water
management practices results in widespread and sometime irreversible impacts on
vulnerable livelihood systems. !uring a drought season" low rainfall in many parts of the
region and conse%uent depressed agricultural production and erosion of productive assets
can result in malnutrition" migration and shifts in occupational patterns.
Fhen the word AdroughtB is used commonly" the intended definition is meteorological
drought" which is brought about when there is prolonged period with less than average
precipitation. )owever" there are generally three types of conditions that are referred to
as drought. Hther than meteorological drought" agricultural drought is brought about
when there is insufficient moisture for average crop production and hydrological drought
is brought about when the water reserves available in sources such as a%uifers" lakes and
reservoirs fall below the statistical average.
Generally" rainfall is related to the amount of water vapour in the atmosphere" combined
with the upward forcing of the air mass containing that water vapour. (f either of these is
reduced" the result is a drought. (n case of (ndia" droughts are generally caused by failure
of summer monsoon. <ig. -.1 shows areas prone to drought in (ndia. The bluish colors
indicate areas that get more rain than is evaporated from the heat" while the yellow to
brown shades indicate regions where evaporation is greater than precipitation. The
browner the color" the drier the region.
/eriods of drought can have significant environmental" agricultural" health" economic and
social conse%uences. @ome of effects include death of livestock" reduced crop yields"
wildfires" dust storms" malnutrition" dehydration and related diseases" famine due to lack
of water for irrigation" mass migration" war over natural resources" reduced electricity
production and social unrest.
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!i". 2.,: Areas 'r)ne t) #r)*"ht in In#ia
2.: LANDSLIDE
A landslide is a geological phenomenon which includes a wide range of ground
movement" such as rock falls" deep failure of slopes and shallow debris flows" which can
occur in offshore" coastal and onshore environments. Although the action of gravity is the
primary driving force for a landslide to occur" there are other contributing factors
affecting the original slope stability. Typically" pre-conditional factors build up specific
sub-surface conditions that make the area&slope prone to failure" whereas the actual
landslide often re%uires a trigger before being released.
Jandslides are caused when the stability of a slope changes from a stable to an unstable
condition. A change in the stability of a slope can be caused by a number of factors"
acting together or alone?
2.:. Nat*ra% $a*ses:
Groundwater pressure acting to destabilize the slope
Joss or absence of vertical vegetative structure" soil nutrients" and soil structure.
Krosion of the toe of a slope by rivers or ocean waves
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Feakening of a slope through saturation by snowmelt" glaciers melting" or heavy
rains
Karth%uakes adding loads to barely-stable slopes
Karth%uake-caused li%uefaction destabilizing slopes
Lolcanic eruptions
!i". 2.+: Lan#s%i#e 'r)ne areas
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2.:.2 H*&an $a*ses:
Librations from machinery or traffic
9lasting
Karthwork which alters the shape of a slope" or which imposes new loads on an
e$isting slope
(n shallow soils" the removal of deep-rooted vegetation that binds colluviums to
bedrock
8onstruction" agricultural" or forestry activities which change the amount of water
which infiltrates into the soil.
Jandslides may destroy human habitat" block roads" bury buildings" destroy plantations
and conse%uently cause great economic loss. Jandslides can also threaten Alife lineD
services such as water" power" telecommunication and transportation network. <ig. -.+
shows the landslide prone areas in (ndia.
2.; C=CLONE
8yclone is a large scale" atmospheric wind and pressure system characterized by low
pressure at its centre and by circular wind motion. 0illions of people living in the coastal
areas of the west Atlantic" east and south /acific and north and south (ndian Hcean"
regularly face cyclones" also known as AhurricaneB in western hemisphere" AtyphoonB in
western /acific" Awilly willyB near Australia and AbaguiousB in /hilippines.
Kvery cyclone begins as tropical low-pressure depression" created by oceanic temperature
rising above -2
.
8" which rotates clockwise in the southern hemisphere and anticlockwise
in the northern hemisphere" forming a gigantic and highly volatile atmospheric system"
with an eye at the vorte$ (5.-,. km which is a relatively calm area" an eyewall (5.-5,
km high and ,. km long of gale winds and intense clouds and spiral bands of convective
clouds with torrential rains (a few km wide and hundreds of km long" that move above
>4 knots (24km&h. The cyclones moving more than +. km" 5-. km and --, km per hour
respectively have been classified as severe" very severe and super cyclone.
0ore often the cyclone blows over and dissipated by its own momentum without causing
much damage due to reduction of the moisture and increase in surface friction" but
sometimes it landfalls on the coastal settlements with very high wind velocity" torrential
rain and massive storm surges" resulting in devastating damages to life and property.

The ma=or natural disaster that affects the coastal regions of (ndia is cyclone and as (ndia
has a coastline of about 7,52 kms" it is e$posed to nearly 5. percent of the worldBs
tropical cyclones. About 75 percent of this area is in ten states (Gu=arat" 0aharashtra"
Goa" Earnataka" Eerala" Tamil ;adu" /uducherry" Andhra /radesh" Hrissa and Fest
9engal. The islands of Andaman" ;icobar and Jakshadweep are also prone to cyclones.
Hn an average" about five or si$ tropical cyclones form in the 9ay of 9engal and Arabian
sea and hit the coast every year. Hut of these" two or three are severe. Table -.5 shows the
Disasters due to climate changes Page 5>
ma=or cyclones of (ndia and 9angladesh. <ig. -.5. shows the areas prone to cyclone in
(ndia.
Ta7%e 2.: Ma()r C9$%)nes )3 In#ia an# >an"%a#esh
S%. N). =ear Na&e )3 the C)*ntr9 N). )3 Deaths St)r& S*r"e .in 3eet/
5 57>7 )oogli" Fest 9engal ((ndia >".."... 4.B
- 5172 9akergan= (9angladesh -",."... 5.B-4.B
> 511, <alse point (Hrissa ,"... --B
4 5+2. 9angladesh ,"4+. 5+B
, 5+25 9angladesh 55"421 52B
2 5+7. 9angladesh -".."... 5>- 57B
7 5+75 /aradeep" Hrissa ((ndia 5."... 7B- -.B
1 5+77 8hirala" Andhra /radesh 5."... 52B-51B
+ 5++. Andhra /radesh ++. 5>B-57B
5. 5++5 9angladesh 5">1"... 7B--.B
55 5++1 /orbander cyclone 5"57> --
5- 5+++ /aradeep" Hrissa +"11, >.B
2., OCEAN ATMOSPHERE
The oceans and the atmosphere are the two large reservoirs of water in the KarthDs
hydrologic cycle. The two systems are comple$ly linked to one another and are
responsible for KarthDs weather and climate. The oceans help to regulate temperature in
the lower part of the atmosphere. The atmosphere is in large part responsible for the
circulation of ocean water through waves and currents.
KarthDs atmosphere consists of a mi$ture of ;itrogen (;
-
and H$ygen (H
-
. At the KarthDs
surface" dry air is composed of about 7+6 ;
-
" -.6 H
-
" and 56 Argon (Ar. (t can also
contain up to 46 water vapor at saturation" but saturation depends on temperature.
:elative humidity is the term used to describe saturation of atmosphere with water vapor.
Fhen the relative humidity is 5..6" the atmosphere is saturated with respect to water
vapor" and precipitation results. Hther gases occur in the atmosphere in small amounts.
Among the most important of these other gases is 8arbon !io$ide (8H
-
.
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!i". 2.-: Ma' )3 In#ia sh)2in" the $9$%)ne 'r)ne areas
2.,. The at&)s'here
The atmosphere has a layered structure as shown in <ig. -.55. Kach layer is defined on
the basis of properties such as pressure" temperature" and chemical composition. The
layer closest to the surface is called the troposphere" which e$tends to an altitude of 5. to
5, km. Temperature decreases upward in the troposphere to the tropopause (the
boundary between the troposphere and the ne$t layer up" the stratosphere. The
troposphere contains about +.6 of the mass of the atmosphere" including nearly all of the
water vapor. Feather is controlled mostly in the troposphere.
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!i". 2.: La9ere# at&)s'here str*$t*re
2.,.2 S)%ar Ra#iati)n an# the At&)s'here
:adiation reaching the Karth from the @un is electromagnetic radiation. Klectromagnetic
radiation can be divided into different regions depending on wavelength. ;ote that visible
light is the part of the electromagnetic spectrum to which human eyes are sensitive. Karth
receives all wavelengths of solar radiation. 9ut certain gases and other contaminants in
the atmosphere have different effects on different wavelengths of radiation.
2.,.1 The Car7)n C9$%e
(n order to understand whether or not humans are having an effect on atmospheric carbon
concentrations" we must look at how carbon moves through the environment. 8arbon is
stored in four main reservoirs.
5. (n the atmosphere as 8H
-
gas. <rom here it e$changes with seawater or water in
the atmosphere to return to the oceans" or e$changes with the biosphere by
photosynthesis" where it is e$tracted from the atmosphere by plants. 8H
-
returns to
the atmosphere by respiration from living organisms" from decay of dead organisms"
from weathering of rocks" from leakage of petroleum reservoirs" and from burning of
fossil fuels by humans.
-. (n the hydrosphere (oceans and surface waters as dissolved 8H
-
. <rom here it
precipitates to form chemical sedimentary rocks" or is taken up by organisms to enter
the biosphere. 8H
-
returns to the hydrosphere by dissolution of carbonate minerals in
rocks and shells" by respiration of living organisms" by reaction with the atmosphere"
and by input from streams and groundwater.
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>. (n the biosphere where it occurs as organic compounds in organisms. 8H
-
enters
the biosphere mainly through photosynthesis. <rom organisms it can return to the
atmosphere by respiration and by decay when organisms die" or it can become buried
in the Karth.
4. (n the KarthDs lithosphere as carbonate minerals" graphite" coal" petroleum. <rom
here it can return to the atmosphere by weathering" volcanic eruptions" hot springs" or
by human e$traction and burning to produce energy.
8ycling between the atmosphere and the biosphere occurs about every 4., years. 8ycling
between the other reservoirs probably occurs on an average of millions of years.
2.,.5 Cir$*%ati)n in the At&)s'here
The air in troposphere undergoes circulation because of convection. 8onvection is a
mode of heat transfer. 8onvection in the atmosphere is mainly the result of the fact that
more of the @unDs heat energy is received by parts of the Karth near the K%uator than at
the poles. Thus" air at the e%uator is heated reducing its density. Jower density causes the
air to rise. At the top of the troposphere this air spreads toward the poles.
(f the Karth were not rotating" this would result in a convection cell" with warm moist air
rising at the e%uator" spreading toward the poles along the top of the troposphere" cooling
as it moves poleward" and then descending at the poles" as shown in the <ig. -.5-. Hnce
back at the surface of the Karth" the dry cold air would circulate back toward the e%uator
to become warmed once again.
Areas where warm air rises and cools are centers of low atmospheric pressure. (n areas
where cold air descends back to the surface" pressure is higher and these are centers of
high atmospheric pressure.
Disasters due to climate changes Page 57
!i". 2.2: Cir$*%ati)n )3 air in at&)s'here
The <ig. -.5> would only apply to a non-rotating Karth. @ince the Karth is in fact rotating"
atmospheric circulation patterns are much more comple$. The reason for this is the
Coriolis Effect. The 8oriolis Kffect causes any body that moves on a rotating planet to
turn to the right (clockwise in the northern hemisphere and to the left (counterclockwise
in the southern hemisphere. The effect is negligible at the e%uator and increases both
north and south toward the poles. The 8oriolis Kffect occurs because the Karth rotates out
from under all moving bodies like water" air" and even airplanes. ;ote that the 8oriolis
Kffect depends on the initial direction of motion and not on the compass direction. (f you
look along the initial direction of motion the mass will be deflected toward the right in
the northern hemisphere and toward the left in the southern hemisphere.
!i". 2.1: C)ri)%is E33e$t
2.,.6 E33e$t )3 Air Cir$*%ati)n )n C%i&ate
Atmospheric circulation is complicated by the distribution of land and water masses on
the surface of the Karth and the topography of the land. (f the Karth had no oceans and a
flat land surface" the ma=or climatic zones would all run in belts parallel to the e%uator.
9ut" since the oceans are the source of moisture and the elevation of the land surface
helps control where moist air will rise" climatic zones depend not only on latitude" but
also on the distribution and elevation of land masses. (n general" however" most of the
worldDs desert areas occur along the mid-latitudes where dry air descends along the mid-
latitude high pressure zones.
2.,.: H9#r)%)"i$a% $9$%e
The hydrological cycle" also known as the water cycle or the )
-
H cycle" describes the
continuous movement of water on" above and below the surface of the Karth. The global
water cycle can be described with physical processes which form a continuum of water
movement. )ydrologic cycle was defined by the ;ational :esearch 8ouncil (;:8" 5+1-
the as #the pathway of water as it moves in its various phases to the atmosphere" to the
earth" over and through the land" to the ocean and back to the atmosphere'. A
fundamental characteristic of the hydrologic cycle is that it has no beginning and it has no
end. <ig. -.54 shows the typical water cycle. (t can be studied by starting at any of the
Disasters due to climate changes Page 51
following processes? /recipitation" infiltration" transpiration" evaporation" percolation"
runoff and groundwater storage.
!i". 2.5: H9#r)%)"i$a% $9$%e
The hydrologic cycle begins with 're$i'itati)n in the form of rain" snow" sleet" or hail
falling on the surface of the earth. As precipitation falls" some of it may evaporate
directly into the atmosphere from bodies of water" and a portion may be intercepted by
vegetation. The remainder reaches the ground where it can enter the soil by a process
called in3i%trati)n. @ome of the infiltrating water remains near the soil surface and
evaporates into the atmosphere. Another portion is e$tracted by plant roots and
transported to leaves where it is lost to the atmosphere as a vapor. This process is called
trans'irati)n. Fater will infiltrate into the soil as long as the potential rate of infiltration
e$ceeds the rate of precipitation. Fhen the precipitation rate e$ceeds the infiltration rate"
e$cess water builds on the soil surface and moves by overland flow called s*r3a$e
r*n)33. (f surface runoff is e$cessive or concentrated" erosion can occur. @till another
portion of water that enters the soil can move vertically or laterally out of the plant root
zone. @ignificant lateral movement of water through the soil is called throughflow or
interflow. !ownward movement of water through the soil is referred to as 'er$)%ati)n.
/ercolating water eventually makes its way to a saturated zone" where all spaces between
rock and soil particles are filled with water. The water filling the spaces between soil
particles and rock in the saturated zone is called "r)*n#2ater.
2.,.; 4ater >*#"et

Fater has one of the highest heat capacities of all known substances. This means that it
takes a lot of heat to raise the temperature of water by =ust one degree. Fater thus absorbs
a tremendous amount of heat from solar radiation" and furthermore" because solar
radiation can penetrate water easily" large amounts of solar energy are stored in the
worldDs oceans. <urther" energy is absorbed by water vapor as the latent heat of
vaporization" which is the heat re%uired for evaporating water or changing it from a li%uid
to a vapor. This latent heat of vaporization is given up to the atmosphere when water
condenses to form li%uid water as rain. (f the rain changes to a solid in the form of snow
or ice" it also releases a %uantity of heat known as the latent heat of fusion. Thus" both
li%uid water and water vapor are important in absorbing heat from solar radiation and
transporting and redistributing this heat around the planet. This heat provides the energy
Disasters due to climate changes Page 5+
to drive the convection system in the atmosphere and thus drives the water cycle and is
responsible for hazards such as floods" thunderstorms" tornadoes" and tropical cyclones.
2.+ TSUNAMI
A tsunami is a series of water waves generated by unusual" abrupt and large disturbances
of the surface caused by earth%uakes" volcanic eruptions" landslides" slumps and meteor
falls. )ence" the storm and typhoon caused by meteorological phenomena and tides are
not categorized as a tsunami. Hver the past -.. years +.6 of the tsunamis were caused
by earth%uakes under sea. Although the number of tsunamis induced by landslide and
volcanic eruption is small" the damage is huge because of significantly large tsunami
heights within a small area.
The term AtsunamiB is a combination of two Capanese words" AnamiB" meaning a wave and
AtsuB" meaning in a harbour or port. 9ecause a tsunami is generated by an earth%uake
under the seas is small" it could be significantly amplified to be noticed by the people in
the shallow coast" especially in a port and harbour. These waves would attack a coastal
area and cause loss of life" catastrophic destruction to structures and infrastructure" and
severely erode the shoreline by repeated attacks of several waves. )uman suffering
during this flooding is enormous as people are swept along with other debris in the
tsunami-induced currents at speeds up to 2. km&h resulting in multiple in=uries like
broken bones" lacerations" abrasions" punctures and crushed body cavities that often lead
to drowning. @ince 51,." tsunami worldwide including the -..4 (ndian Hcean tsunami
have claimed the lives of over >",."... coastal residents. <ig. -.5, shows the damage due
to tsunamis in (ndia.
There are two types of tsunamis" namely" distant and local tsunamis. (n most instances"
the propagation of wave system resulting from a distantly generated tsunami can be
treated in a simplified manner. :elatively short-period tsunami waves are more easily
damped by friction and breaking3 therefore" only longer period front-running waves are
of concern at a coastal site located at a great distance from the generating source.
Tsunami in the deep ocean may have very long waves length of hundred of kilometer and
travels at about 1.. km per hour" but amplitude of only about 5 km. (t remains undetected
by ships in the deep sea. )owever" when it approaches the coast its wavelength
diminishes but amplitude grows enormously" and it takes very little time to reach its full
height. 8omputer model can provide tsunami arrival" usually within minutes of the arrival
time. Tsunamis have great erosion potential" stripping beaches of sand" coastal vegetation
and dissipating its energy through the destruction of houses and coastal structure.
Although ++6 of the tsunami deaths occur near the generating source" tsunamis can
travel across entire ocean basins without losing much power. The 5+2. 8hilean tsunami
reached the coat of Capan" 57... km far from the source" only -> hours after the
generation" propagating over the /acific Hcean at a depth of about 4... m with the speed
of 7-. km&h.
Disasters due to climate changes Page -.
!i". 2.6: Da&a"e #*e t) ts*na&is in In#ia
2.- MITIGATION
0itigation is the effort to reduce loss of life and property by lessening the impact of
disasters. 0itigation is taking action now before the ne$t disaster so as to reduce human
and financial conse%uences later (analyzing risk" reducing risk" insuring against risk.
!isaster mitigation measures are those that eliminate or reduce the impacts and risks of
hazards through proactive measures taken before an emergency or disaster occurs.
(n order to provide general approach to disaster risk management" the importance of any
infrastructure has to be known first. Table -.- shows the classification of infrastructures
based on different sectors of the infrastructure.
Ta7%e 2.2 Ta?)n)&9 )3 in3rastr*$t*re
Se$t)r S9ste& Ma()r $)&')nents
Fater Fater @upply :eservoirs" wells transmission a%ueducts
pumping stations
Treatment plants
Terminal reservoirs&Tanks
Trunk lines
Disasters due to climate changes Page -5
!istribution lines
@anitary sewer @anitary sewer 0ains pumping stations treatment plants
Transportation )ighway 0a=or bridges" conventional bridges
Tunnels
Jimited access highways
Jocal roads
:ailway 9ridge tunnels
Tracks&roadbeds
@tations&terminals
0aintenance yards
@ignaling and control centers
Air transportation :unways and ta$iways passenger
terminals
<uel and freight facilities
Air traffic control system
Fater transportation /orts&cargo handling e%uipment inland
waterways
8anal and locks
Kmergency
services
/olice @tations communications facilities
<ire @tations communications facilities
@pecialized water supply facilities
)ealth care )ospitals
Larious disasters have different impacts on environment and are in turn e$acerbated by
the different factors of the environment. Table -.> shows the environmental impacts of
various disasters.
Ta7%e 2.1 Disasters an# their en8ir)n&enta% i&'a$ts
Disaster
e8ents
P)tentia% en8ir)n&enta%
i&'a$ts
E?a$er7atin" en8ir)n&enta%
3a$t)rs
<lood" storms"
hurricanes"
typhoons"
cyclones
@ewage overflow" chemical
releases from roads" farms
and factories3
)azardous debris *
chemicals" medical and other
materials as disaster debris3
Fater-damaged household
chemicals (paint" pesticides"
solvents3 unsafe water
supplies
Ground and surface water
contamination3
)abitat and ecosystem destruction
(e.g." coral reefs and mangroves
!eforestation and water siltation
Grbanization and land use& land
cover changes
Disasters due to climate changes Page --
Joss of top soil due to rapid
drain of runoff.
!roughts )abitat and crop destruction
Fater scarcity
Grbanization and unsustainable
resource consumption
!eforestation and land use& land
cover changes
Jandslides !amage&deterioration of
habitat ecosystems
Jand use functions" including
agriculture
Groundwater and surface
water contamination
!eforestation
Jand use&land cover changes
2.-. T9'es )3 #isaster &iti"ati)n
!isaster mitigation measures may be structural (e.g. flood dikes or non-structural (e.g.
land use zoning. 0itigation activities should incorporate the measurement and
assessment of the evolving risk environment. Activities may include the creation of
comprehensive" pro-active tools that help decide where to focus funding and efforts in
risk reduction. <ig. -.52 shows the typical flood risk management cycle generally
adopted to mitigate a disaster.
!i". 2.:: T9'i$a% !%))# Risk Mana"e&ent C9$%e
@ome e$amples of mitigation measures include?
)azard mapping
Adoption and enforcement of land use and zoning practices
(mplementing and enforcing building codes
Disasters due to climate changes Page ->
<lood plain mapping
:einforced tornado safe rooms
9urying of electrical cables to prevent ice build-up
:aising of homes in flood-prone areas
!isaster mitigation public awareness programs
(nsurance programs
2.-.2 Miti"ati)n )3 !%))#s
<loods can occur due to the spilling of water out of the normal course from rivers"
channels or lakes" overflow of urban drainage systems" accumulation of rain" rise in
groundwater in coastal areas" storm surges" tsunamis" glacial lake outbursts" levee failures
or dam breaks. (t is important to identify all potential sources of flooding. Gnderstanding
flood hazard and flooding re%uires hydrometerological analysis" hydrologic and hydraulic
simulation of surface runoffs" floods and inundations and mechanism of flooding.
The e$tent of the impact depends on the characteristic of the flooding in the e$posed area"
i.e." the depth" duration of flooding and the velocities of the flows. Hther factors such as
the concentration and type of pollutants carried by flood waters also influence the
intensity of impact. (dentification of flood hazards is often carried out in con=unction with
other related hazards such as mudflows" debris flows and landslides in order to produce
multi-hazard maps and management programs" essentially taking the river basin as the
unit of assessment.
<lood hazards can be reduced by adopting different approaches" say" by moderating the
flood peaks or delaying flood peaks by retarding the surface runoff. @ome of the options
for reducing flood risks are shown in Table -.4.
Ta7%e 2.5: Di33erent 3%))# &iti"ati)n &eas*res
Re#*$e ha@ar# Re#*$e e?')s*re Re#*$e 8*%nera7i%it9
:etaining water where
it falls (increasing
infiltration" rooftop storing
:etention basins
(natural wetlands or
depressions" man-made like
school playgrounds"
household underground
tanks
!ams and reservoirs
!iversion channel
Jand use management
(e.g." house building codes
in urban areas" infrastructure
building practices"
@tructural
measures on the river
(dykes" river training
work such as flood
walls" raised
infrastructure such as
roads and railways
@tructural and
non-structural
measures& actions by
individual
Jand use
regulations
<lood emergency
measures (flood
Physical: by
improving the
infrastructure" well-
being" occupational
opportunities and living
environment.
Constitutional: by
facilitating e%ual
participation
opportunities" education
and awareness" providing
ade%uate skills and social
support system.
Motivational: by
building awareness and
Disasters due to climate changes Page -4
appropriate spatial planning warning and
evacuation
facilitating self-
organization.
@ome measures that could be adopted to reduce the effect of flooding are?
(5 @andbags to protect property? (f flood water does get into the house" people can use a
pump to remove this water. 9ut this takes a lot of time" and damage can still be done.
/eople can evacuate their houses" if there is time. They may take precious belongings"
pets and essential items such as clothes" food and money. They will have to stay
somewhere else during the flood. 9ut damage is still done to the property and has to be
dealt with when the owners return.
Governments can spend money to make river banks higher. @oil or concrete can be used
to make the river banks higher. This is called a levee. Fhen there is more water in the
river" it should stay in the channel as the banks are higher.
(- :aising banks before a flood? @ometimes a flood wall can be built by the river bank to
protect the town from floods. (f the river bursts its banks" the water should stay in front of
the flood wall. The water will not reach the town as it is trapped between the river bank
and the flood wall. <lood walls are usually white.
(> !ams? !ams are also used to control floods. (n times of really heavy rainfall" more
holes can be opened to allow more water to flow into the river downstream. The water
can be released %uickly before it has a chance to build up.
<loodways are artificial river channels which can be built to divert the flow of e$tra water
in rivers. The water then has two channels to flow through in times of heavy rainfall"
meaning that the river banks shouldnDt burst.
(4 <loodways? <lood barriers can be built across rivers. These are like walls and are
similar to dams. They are usually built near the mouth of a river. <lood barriers protect
against floods caused by high tides or strong winds. The flood gate is closed to keep the
water out of the river. (n times of normal water level" the gates are kept open to allow
ships to pass through. The Thames <lood 9arrier is an e$ample.
2.-.1 Dr)*"hts
Fater management strategies seem to be the only solution to conserve the precious
resource of water and at the same time increase its effective utilization for agriculture
development. Government of (ndia provides immediate assistance in the form of financial
funding through ;ational 8alamity 8ontingency <und (;88<. The following steps
needs to be incorporated in our day to day life to preserve the water?
o @toppage of e$ploitation of ground water below annual recharge levels.
o !esalination of sea water for irrigation or consumption.
Disasters due to climate changes Page -,
o :educing e$cess of surface runoff of water into rivers will be a ma=or mechanism.
The runoff can be checked to allow seepage into the ground. This will increase
ground water level and also protect rivers from silting and erosion.
o 8arefully planned crop rotation can help to minimize erosion and allow farmers to
plant less water-dependent crops in drier years.
o (ncreasing recharge of ground water through construction of rainwater harvesting
structures like3 check dams" reservoirs" ponds" roof-top harvesting etc.
o <ormer wastewater (sewage that has been treated and purified for reuse.
o 9uilding canals or redirecting rivers as massive attempts at irrigation in drought-
prone areas.
o Fater use may be regulated (particularly outdoors. This may involve regulating the
use of sprinklers" hoses or buckets on outdoor plants" the washing of motor vehicles
or other outdoor hard surfaces (including roofs and paths" topping up of swimming
pools" and also the fitting of water conservation devices inside the home (including
shower heads" taps and dual flush toilets.
o 8loud seeding - an artificial techni%ue to induce rainfall.
2.-.5 Lan#s%i#es
Jandslide mitigation refers to lessening the effect of landslides by constructing various
man made pro=ects on slopes which are vulnerable to landslides. The simplest means of
dealing with landslide hazards is to avoid construction on steep slopes and e$isting
landslides3 however" this is not always practical. :egulating land use and development to
ensure that construction does not reduce slope stability is another approach. (n cases
where landslides affect e$isting structures or cannot be avoided" physical controls can be
used. /lanting or encouraging natural growth of vegetation can also be an effective means
of slope stabilization.
@oil slopes can also be stabilized by adopting following measures?
@tability increases when ground water is prevented from rising in the slide mass by
directing surface water away from the landslide"
!raining ground water away from the landslide to reduce the potential for a rise in
ground-water level"
8overing the landslide with an impermeable membrane" and (or
0inimizing surface irrigation. @lope stability is also increased when weight or
retaining structures are placed at the toe of the landslide or when mass (weight is
removed from the head of the slope.
2.-.6 C9$%)nes
The first and probably most comple$ task of cyclone mitigation is to map the hazard" risk
and vulnerabilities of cyclone at all levels" analyze and assess the levels of risk and
monitor it continuously. (n the face of increasing risk of cyclonic hazards" mitigation
would remain the key and the most effective strategy to reduce the risks of cyclone.
Kvery country and community has to decide its own mitigation strategy according to its
Disasters due to climate changes Page -2
own risks" resources and capabilities. The structural mitigation measures generally refer
to capital investment on physical constructions of other development works" which
include engineering measures and construction of hazard-resistant and protective
structures and other protective infrastructure. ;on-structural measures refer to awareness
and education" policies" techno-legal systems and practices" training" and capacity
development.
@tructures like seawalls and embankments are probably the most effective and capital-
intensive investment to mitigate the risks of cyclones. A seawall is constructed usually of
reinforced concrete on the inland part of a coast to prevent the ingress of storm surges
arising out of cyclones. @eawalls are essential to protect coastal cities and harbours"
saline water embankments are recommended to protect rural settlements and to prevent
saline water ingress into agricultural and horticultural land. @uch embankments are
usually a ridge built with earth or rock to contain the storm surges.
9ioshields like mangroves" casuarinas" salicornia" laucaena" striple$" palms" bamboo and
other tree species and halophytes and other shrub species that can inhabit lower tidal
zones can also be adopted to reduce the effect of cyclones. These can block or buffer
wave action with their stems" which can measure up to >. m and several metres in
circumference. They trap sediment in their roots" thereby maintain a shallow slope on the
seabed that absorbs the energy of tidal surges. They also break the high velocity of winds
and thus protect agricultural crops besides providing shelter and grazing lands for the
livestock and farms. They reduce evaporation from the soil" transpiration from the plants
and moderate e$treme temperatures. They also protect fertile coastal agricultural land
from erosion. They even serve as carbon sinks as they help enhance carbon se%uestration
which makes coastal communities eligible for carbon credit to earn additional income.
9esides" they promote sustainable fisheries by releasing nutrients into the water.
8yclone shelters constructed at appropriate places within easy access of the vulnerable
communities can also provide an immediate protection from deaths and in=uries due to
collapse of their houses. @uch shelters are usually built on pillars above the danger level
of the storm surges&inundation" are spacious enough to accommodate a few hundred
people of the neighbouring villages and provide provisions of drinking water" sanitation"
and kitchen and so on. !uring the normal season" such shelters can be utilized as schools"
dispensaries or other community purposes.
2.-.: Ts*na&is
Tsunamis" like most natural disasters" are beyond human control. There are" however" a
number of techni%ues that can minimize the harmful effects of tsunamis to the physical
environment (including built structures and to individuals and communities.
Accompanied by an effective warning system" thoughtful design and strong community
organization can reduce harm from Tsunamis and other natural disasters.
S'e$i3i$ Site P%annin" Strate"ies t) Re#*$e Ts*na&i Risk
Disasters due to climate changes Page -7
. A8)i# In*n#ati)n Areas: @ite 9uildings or infrastructure away from hazard area or
locate on a high point.
2. S%)2 4ater: <orests" ditches" slopes" or berms can slow down waves and filter out
debris. The success of this method depends on correctly estimating the force of the
tsunami.
1. Steerin": Fater can be steered to strategically placed angled walls" ditches and paved
roads. Theoretically" porous dikes can reduce the impact of violent waves.
5. >%)$kin": Falls" hardened terraces" berms and parking structures can be built to block
waves.
In#i$at)r )3 ts*na&is: @ome tsunamis are generated by physical disturbances" they
produce physical indicators of their presence and intensity. Enowledge of these indicators
can be used to mitigate the damage to a coastal community. (f a tsunami is generated by a
large earth%uake" then the ground-shaking associated with the earth%uake is a clear
indicator of tsunami potential. Karth%uake waves travel -, times faster than tsunami
waves. )owever" at least ,6 of the tsunamis are not generated by strong shaking
earth%uakes. These earth%uakes are AslowB and at-risk population may feel only a mild
shaking. Another indicator of tsunami is an abrupt change in sea level. A rapid drawdown
of a harbour coastline well below low-tide level is the most reliable indicator of an
approaching tsunami. As the e$posed sea floor is rapidly filled by the approaching wave"
the tsunami produces a loud roar similar to a =et plane. (f the tsunami occurs at night
when the e$posed seafloor cannot be seen" this roar may be the most reliable indicator
that a tsunami is approaching the coastline.
@ome measures when tsunami warning system is sounded"
(f you are at the beach or near the ocean and you feel the earth shake" move
immediately to higher ground" do not wait for a tsunami warning to be announced.
@tay away from rivers and streams that lead to the ocean as you would stay away
from the beach and ocean if there is a tsunami. A regional tsunami from a local
earth%uake could strike some areas before a tsunami warning could be announced.
Tsunamis generated in distant locations will generally give people enough time to
move to higher ground. <or locally-generated tsunamis" where you might feel the
ground shake" you may only have a few minutes to move to higher ground.
)igh" multi-story" reinforced concrete hotels are located in many low-lying
coastal areas. The upper floors of these hotels can provide a safe place to find refuge
should there be a tsunami warning and you cannot move %uickly inland to higher
ground. Jocal 8ivil !efense procedures may" however" not allow this type of
evacuation in your area. )omes and small buildings located in low-lying coastal areas
are not designed to withstand tsunami impacts. !o not stay in these structures should
there be a tsunami warning.
Hffshore reefs and shallow areas may help break the force of tsunami waves" but
large and dangerous wave can still be a threat to coastal residents in these
areas. @taying away from all low-lying areas is the safest advice when there is a
tsunami warning.
Disasters due to climate changes Page -1
2.2 PROTECTION O! COASTAL AONE
A coastal zone is the interface between the land and water. These zones are important
because a ma=ority of the worldDs population inhabit such zones. 8oastal zones are
continually changing because of the dynamic interaction between the oceans and the
land. Faves and winds along the coast are both eroding rock and depositing sediment on
a continuous basis" and rates of erosion and deposition vary considerably from day to day
along such zones. The energy reaching the coast can become high during storms" and
such high energies make coastal zones areas of high vulnerability to natural hazards.
Thus" an understanding of the interactions of the oceans and the land is essential in
understanding the hazards associated with coastal zones. Tides" currents" and waves
bring energy to the coast.
8oastal zones in (ndia assumes importance because of high productivity of its
ecosystems" concentration of population" e$ploitation of renewable and nonrenewable
natural resources" discharge of waste effluents and municipal sewage" industrialization
and spurt in recreational activities. 8oastal zones are continuously changing because of
the dynamic interactions between the ocean and land. Krosion and accretion" inundation
due to sea level rise and storm surge" shifting of shoreline caused by natural or
anthropogenic forces" such as construction of artificial structure" port and harbors leads to
changes in the coastal zone and its environment.
Thus" regular monitoring of coastal zone is indispensable. 0oreover" preparation of a
suitable coastal zone management plan as well as implementation of regulations in the
coastal zone re%uire spatial information on the coastal land use and land forms along with
high tide and low tide lines" the inventory and status of coastal habitats and information
on K@As (Kcologically @ensitive Areas.
(ntegrated coastal zone management ((8N0 is a process dealing with planning and
management of development" keeping in view the interest of all stake holders and
sustainability of natural resources. 0ain ob=ectives of (8N0 are conservation of critical
habitats" maintaining biodiversity and sustainable use of coastal resources. (8N0
comprise of two components" management and administration. The coastal resources like
beaches" mudflats" corals" mangroves and submerged sea grass are uni%ue and not
available anywhere other than the coast. !evelopmental activities along the coast pose
the threats to the productivity and e$istence of these ecosystems&habitats. (8N0 should
address these coastal resources issues and socio economic implications of coastal
communities while going for economic development. Thus" environmentally effective
coastal zone management depends upon accurate and comprehensive scientific data on
which policy decisions can be based. :emote sensing data because of its repetitive"
multispectral and synoptic nature have proved to be e$tremely useful in providing
information on various components of the coastal environment and therefore for (8N0.
Disasters due to climate changes Page -+
The concept of integrated 8oastal None 0anagement" involves zoning of the coastal area
in to preservation" conservation buffer" utilization and development zones. The first step
towards this was to develop ecological sensitivity inde$ for the vital coastal habitats
using remote sensing data. @atellite data of two time frames are re%uired to prepare maps
for vital coastal habitats such as coral reefs and mangrove maps at 5?-,... scale. These
maps pertaining to two or more time frames are used for change detection in order to
assess the ecological conditions of these important habitats. (ntegrating this information
with spatial information like water depth" turbidity" socioeconomic data" and industries
etc." %ualitative ecological sensitivity inde$ are generated to classify the habitats in good"
degrading and degraded condition. The ne$t step is to identify the vulnerability inde$ of
these habitats using the ecological sensitivity inde$ as input. Anthropogenic pressure and
various other related parameters like pro$imity of the habitation" population"
approachability" e$istence and development of industries" port" =etty etc are considered in
deriving the vulnerability inde$. As an outcome of this" vital habitats are %ualitatively
classified into high risk" medium risk and least risk. 9ased on information on the risk
zonations of the habitats" preservation zone" conservation zone" utilization zone and
development zone are suggested for coastal zone management.
RE!ERENCES
5. !isaster management and sustainable development * Kmerging issues and concerns by
:a=esh Anand" ;. 8. Cana and @udhir @ingh published by /entagon press" -..+.
-. !isaster management * Global challenges and local solutions by :a=ib @haw and :. :.
Erishnamurthy published by Gniversities press" -..+.
Disasters due to climate changes Page >.