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Physics Revision
Topic 1: Physics and Physical Measurement:
The realm of physics:

The order of magnitude is i.e. 10
x
.
Range of masses (kg): 10
-32
(electron) to 10
52
(mass of the observable universe)
Range of lengths (m): 10
-15
(diameter of proton) to 10
26
(radius of universe)
Range of times (s): 10
-23
(passage of light across a nucleus to 10
19
(age of the universe)
Measurement and uncertainties:

Fundamental units:
Quantity SI unit SI symbol
Mass Kilograms Kg
Length Meters m
Time Seconds s
Electric Current Ampere A
Amount of Substance Mole mol
Temperature Kelvin K

Derived units are different combination of the fundamental units
For example speed = distance/time = meters/seconds =m/s =ms
-1
Remember to state answers in the format ms
-1
Important Prefixes:
Giga G 10
9
mega M 10
6
kilo k 10
3
centi c 10
-2
milli m 10
-3
micro 10
-6
nano n 10
-9
pico p 10
-12
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Random errors are errors in measurement caused by different factors
Random errors include the readability of the instrument and the effects of a change in
surroundings. Repeated readings do reduce random errors.
Systematic errors are errors due to faulty equipment/calibration.
Systematic errors include an instrument being wrongly calibrated. Repeated readings do not
reduce systematic errors.
Individual measurements: the error is the smallest value e.g. .5mm
When we take repeated measurements and find an average, we can find the uncertainty by
finding the difference between the average and the measurement that is furthest from
the average.

A precise experiment is one with a small random error, i.e. the more significant figures the
more precise.
An accurate experiment is one with a small systematic error, i.e. the nearer the real value
the more accurate.

Give answers to the same amount of significant figures as the least precise value used.

If you have the measurement for a football pitch of 100m1m
The absolute uncertainty is 1m
The fractional uncertainty is 1/100 = .01
The percentage uncertainty is .01 x 100 = 1%

For addition and subtraction, the absolute uncertainties can be added
When 2 quantities are multiplied or divided the overall uncertainty is equal to the addition
of the percentage uncertainties
Powers = # of power x uncertainty.
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For other functions such as trigonometric function, the mean, highest and lowest answers
may be calculated to obtain the uncertainty range.

Uncertainties in graphs: Error bars. Note that a line of best fit should pass through all error
bars. Some easy ways to get round this are just to plot the first and last value of error
bars or just the worst value and assume the same for all.
Uncertainty in slopes is shown by max and min gradients using the first and last gradients
The same can be done for the uncertainty in intercepts.
1.3 Vectors and Scalars:
A vector has magnitude and direction. A scalar only has magnitude. E.g. all forces are
vectors.
Vectors: Displacement, Velocity, Acceleration, Force, Momentum
Scalars: Distance, Speed, Mass, Temperature
Additional:
Proportional is a straight-line that passes through the origin.
Gradients units are the y-axis/x-axis i.e. rise/run. Only if the x-axis is a measurement
of time des the gradient represent the rate at which the quantity on the y-axis
increases.
Area under a straight-line graph is y-axis x x-axis.
Topic 2: Mechanics:
2.1 Kinematics:
Displacement is a vector quantity and is the distance moved in a particular direction
Velocity is a vector quantity and is the rate of change of displacement
Speed is a scalar quantity and is the rate of change of distance
Acceleration is a vector quantity and is the rate of change of velocity

Average velocity is the change in displacement divided by the change in time.
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Instantaneous velocity is the change in displacement as the change in time becomes
infinitely small.
Speed and acceleration work in the same way

Equations for uniformly accelerated motion can only be used when the acceleration is
constant, i.e. uniformly accelerating in the same distance.
Equations of uniform motion:
u = initial velocity
v = final velocity
a = acceleration
t = time
s = distance

v=ut+at
s=(u+v/2)t
v
2
=u
2
+2as
s=ut+.5at
2

In absence of air resistance, all falling objects have the same acceleration of free-fall,
independent of their mass, 9.8 ms
-2
When the drag force reaches the magnitude of the force providing the acceleration, the
falling object will stop accelerating and fall at a constant velocity. This is called the
terminal velocity
Relative velocity is determined by frames of reference i.e. if one car is at 20 and another is
at 25, then from the first car the other car looks to be going at 5.
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Additional: Ways to record the motion of velocity/acceleration: light gate, strobe photography,
ticker timer.
2.2 Forces and Dynamics:
Weight = mg
Forces include: gravitational force, friction, tension, the normal force, etc
In a free-body diagram only one object is chosen and all the forces and shown and labelled.

Newtons first law of motion states that an object continues in uniform motion in a straight
line or at rest unless acted upon by a resultant external force. The law of inertia.
An example of this is a ball rolling on a frictionless surface will roll forever unless an external
force acts on it.

The condition for translational equilibrium is that the net force on an object is zero.
Objects in equilibrium must either be constantly at rest or moving with constant velocity.
Static equilibrium would be a book on a table. Dynamic equilibrium would be a book
being dragged across a table at a constant speed.

F=ma. The net force acting on an object is the product of the objects' mass and the net
acceleration of the object.

Linear momentum is the product of mass and velocity. P=mv. It is measured in kg ms
-1
.
Impulse in the change in momentum (I=Ft). Impulse also equals (p p) Ft=mv
The impulse of a time-varying force is represented by the net area under the function (the
integral) of the force-time graph.
Law of conservation of momentum: The total momentum of a system remains constant
provided there is no resultant external force.

Newtons third law states that when a force acts on a body, an equal and opposite force
acts on another body somewhere in the universe.
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One example would be two roller-skaters pushing off one-another
Additional:
Mass is the amount of matter contained in an object measured in kg, whilst weight is a force
measured in N.
2.3 Work, energy and power:
Work done = Fs cos.
The amount of energy transferred is equal to the amount of work done
If the force and displacement are in the same direction then Work done = Fs
Work is measured in N m = Joules.
The area below a Force-displacement graph is equal to the work done.
Work done in compressing or extending a spring = .5 kx
2

Gravitational potential energy = mgh
Kinetic energy is the energy a body possesses due to motion. =.5mv
2

Principle of conservation of energy: Energy cannot be created or destroyed, it just changes
form.
0.5mv
2
=mgh

There are many different forms of energy.

Thermal energy includes the kinetic energy of atoms and molecules.
Chemical energy is the energy that is associated with the electronic structure of atoms and
is therefore associated with the electromagnetic force. An example where chemical
energy is converted into kinetic (thermal) energy is the combustion of carbon. Carbon
combines with oxygen to release thermal energy along with light and sound energy.
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Nuclear energy is the energy that is associated with the nuclear structure of atoms and is
therefore associated with the strong force. An example is the splitting of uranium nuclei
by neutrons to produce energy.
Electrical energy is associated with electric current. Boiling water can turn a turbine with a
magnet which rotates in a coil to induce electrical energy.

An elastic collision is when there is no mechanical energy that is lost. In other words, the
total kinetic energy of the objects is the same before and after the collision. An inelastic
collision is where mechanical energy is lost. Almost always in reality collisions are
inelastic as energy is lost as sound and friction.

Power is the rate at which energy is transferred or which work is done.
Power = work done/time or energy transferred/time.
Power = force x velocity

Efficiency is the ratio of useful energy to the total energy transferred.
Efficiency = useful/total
Uniform Circular Motion: An object going round a circle at constant speed
For an object to move around in a circle, it must be travelling in a direction at the tangent
to the circle where the object is at, and direction of the force being applied must be
perpendicular to the direction the object is travelling in. The direction of the force is
pointing to the centre of the circle
The acceleration of a particle travelling in a circular motion is centripetal acceleration
The force needed to cause the centripetal acceleration is called the centripetal force.
Centripetal force does not do any work as work done = force x distance in the direction of
the force.
Examples of forces which provide centripetal forces are gravitational forces (planets
orbiting in a circle), frictional forces (car driving in circles), magnetic forces or tension
(string). F=ma. a = v^2/r. Therefore, F=mv^2/r

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Topic 3 Thermal Physics:
Temperature is a scalar quantity that gives indication of the degree of hotness or coldness
of a body.
Temperature determines the direction of thermal energy transfer between two bodies in
contact; from the body at higher temperature to the body at lower temperature.
Thermal equilibrium occurs when all parts of the system are at the same temperature.
There is no exchange of heat.
T(Kelvin) = T(Celsius) +273. They have different zero points.

Internal energy of a substance is the total kinetic and potential energy that molecules
possess. They have kinetic energy from their random/translational/rotational
movement and potential energy from the intermolecular forces.
Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the molecules in a substance.

A mole is the basic SI unit for amount of substance. One mole of any substance equals the
same number of atoms as 12 grams of carbon.
Molar mass is the mass of one mole of substance. If an element has mass number A, then
the molar mass will be A grams.
Avogadros constant is the number of atoms in 12 g of carbon-12. It is 6.02 x10
23
.
3.2 Thermal properties of matter:
Thermal capacity (C) is the energy required to raise an objects temperature by 1K. C=Q/T
Specific heat capacity is the energy required to raise a unit mass of substance by 1K. c=Q/
(mT)
The difference is that thermal capacity measures the substances ability to absorb heat as
an entire object, whereas specific heat capacity measures the substances ability to
absorb heat per unit mass.
If an object is raised above room temperature it starts to lose energy. The hotter it becomes
the greater rate at which it loses energy.

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Molecules are arranged in different ways depending on the phase of the substance, (i.e.
solid, liquid or gas)
Solids: Fixed volume and fixed shape. The molecules vibrate about a fixed position.
The higher the temperature the greater the vibrations.
Liquids: Fixed volume but shape can change. Molecules are vibrating but not
completely fixed in position, still strong forces between molecules.
Gases: Not fixed volume or shape, will expand to fill the container. Forces between
molecules are weak. Molecules are essentially independent but will occasionally
collide.

While melting, vibrational kinetic energy increases and particles gain enough thermal
energy to break from fixed positions. Potential energy of system increases
While freezing, particles lose potential energy until thermal energy of the system is
unable to support distance between particles and is overcome by the attraction force
between them. Kinetic energy changes form from vibrational, rotational and part
translational to merely vibrational. Potential energy decreases.
While evaporating, certain particles in the liquid gain enough potential energy to
escape the intermolecular bonds as a gas. The escape of the higher-energy particles will
lower the average kinetic energy and thus lower the temperature.
While boiling, substance gains enough potential energy to break free from inter-particle
forces. Similar to evaporation, the only difference being that energy is supplied from
external source so there is no decrease in temperature
When condensing its the opposite of boiling.

During a phase change, the thermal energy gained or lost will go towards increasing or
decreasing the potential energy of the particles to either overcome or succumb to the
inter-molecular force that pulls particles together. In the process, the average kinetic
energy will not change.
The energy given to molecules does not increase kinetic energy so it must increase potential
energy. Intermolecular bonds are broken are being broken and this takes energy. When
a substance freezes, bonds are created and this releases energy. Molecules do not
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speed up during a phase change.

Evaporation differs from boiling as evaporation is a change from the liquid state to the
gaseous state that occurs at a temperature below the boiling point.

Specific latent heat is the amount of energy per unit mass absorbed or released during a
change of phase. Specific latent heat (L). L=Q/m
Fusion: The change of phase from solid to liquid
Vaporization: The change of phase from liquid to gas

Pressure is the force gas molecules exert due to their collisions (with an object). P=F/A i.e.
force per unit area.
Assumptions of the kinetic model of an ideal gas:
Newtons laws apply to molecular behaviour
There are no intermolecular forces
The molecules are treated as points
The molecules are in random motion
The collisions between molecules are elastic
There is no time spent in these collisions.

Decrease in volume results in a smaller space for gas particles to move, and thus a greater
frequency of collisions. This results in an increase in pressure.
PV/T = PV/T
Topic 4 Oscillations and Waves:
Examples of oscillations include the swinging of a pendulum
Displacement (x) is the instantaneous distance of the moving object from its mean position
Amplitude (A) is the maximum displacement from the mean position
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Frequency (f) is the number of oscillations completed per unit time. Measured in Hertz (Hz)
Period (T) is the time taken for one complete oscillation. T=1/f
Phase difference is a measure of how instep different particles are. If they are 180
degrees or (pi) off, they are completely out of phase by half a cycle.

Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM) is motion that takes place when the acceleration of an
object is always directed towards and is proportional to its displacement from a fixed
point.
This acceleration is caused by a restoring force that must always be pointed towards the
mean position and also proportional to the displacement from the mean position.
a=-w
2
x where w is the angular frequency and is a constant. The negative sign signifies that
acceleration is always pointing back towards the mean position.
4.1.5 p 34 4.1.6
4.2 Energy changes during simple harmonic motion (SHM):
During SHM energy is interchanged between KE and PE
If there are no resistive forces then energy remains constant and the oscillation is said to be
undamped.
E
k
=.5mv
2
=.5mw
2
(A
2
-x
2
)
E
p
=.5mw
2
x
2
Total energy, E
t
=E
k
+E
p
=1/2mw
2
A
2
4.3 Forced Oscillations and Resonance:
Damping involves a frictional/dissipative force that is always in the opposite direction to the
direction of motion of the oscillating particle.
As the particle oscillates it does work against this force and loses energy
Underdamping: The resistive force is so small that a small fraction of energy is removed
every cycle. Time taken for oscillations to die out can be long
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Overdamping: involves large resistive forces and can completely prevent oscillation from
taking place. Again the time taken for the particle to return to zero displacement may be
long.
Critical damping: Involves an intermediate value of resistive force such that the time taken
for the particle to return to zero displacement is at a minimum. Effectively there is
no overshoot. Example: door closing mechanism.

If the system is temporarily displaced from the equilibrium position the system will oscillate.
The oscillation will be at the natural frequency of vibration of the system.
Forced oscillations when an external force is applied on a free system with a frequency
f , the system may respond by switching to oscillations with a frequency equal to the
driving frequency f
0

For a small degree of damping, the peak of the curve occurs at the natural frequency of the
system.
The lower the degree of damping, the higher and narrower the curve.
As the amount of damping increases, the peak shifts to lower frequencies.
At very low frequencies, the amplitude is essentially constant.
Resonance occurs when a system is subject to an oscillating force at exactly the same
frequency as the natural frequency of oscillation of the system.
Where resonance is useful: microwave oven, radio.
Where resonance is harmful: bridges, aeroplane wings.
4.4 Wave Characteristics:
Waves:
Transfer energy from one place to another without a net motion of the medium in
which they travel
Involve oscillations in SHM
A continuous wave involves a succession of individual oscillations
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A wave pulse involves just one oscillation

Transverse waves are waves where the oscillations are at right angles to the direction
of energy transfer, such as light waves and water waves. Transverse waves cannot
propagate in a gas.
Longitudinal waves are waves where the oscillations are parallel to the direction of energy
transfer such as sound waves

The wavefronts highlight the part of the wave that are moving together
The rays highlight the direction of energy transfer
A crest is the top of the wave
A trough is the bottom of a wave
A compression is a point on the wave where there is high pressure (everything is bunched
up)
A rarefaction is a point on the wave where there is low pressure (everything is far apart)

Displacement is the amount by which a particle has moved from its equilibrium position
Amplitude is the maximum displacement from the mean position
Period is the time taken in seconds for one complete oscillation
Frequency is the number of oscillations that take place in a second.
Wavelength is the shortest distance along the wave between two points that are in phase
Wave speed is the speed at which wave fronts pass a stationary observer
Intensity is the power per unit area that is received by the observer. The intensity of a wave
is proportional to the square of its amplitude.
4.4.7: Graphs p39

Velocity = distance/time = wavelength/period. Since frequency = 1/period
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Velocity = Frequency x Period

Waves that carry various types of light are electromagnetic waves and they travel at the
speed 3x10
8
ms
-1
Wave Properties:
In general when any wave reaches the boundary between two different media it is partially
reflected and partially transmitted. P41
The law of reflection: when a wave is reflected, the angle of incidence equals the angle of
reflection and the incident ray, the normal line, and the reflected ray line in one plane.
Reflection (fixed end): when a pulse of a string attached to a support hits the wall it is
attached to, it is reflectedinverted with the same shape (undergone a 180 degree
change in phase).
Reflection (free end): like above, the pulse comes back but without being inverted

Snells Law states that sin i/sin r = constant for a given frequency
sin I / sin r =v
1
/v
2

Diffraction refers to the spreading around of waves about obstacles or when passing
through apertures.
Examples of diffraction are:
Why we can hear something even if we cannot see it

The principle of superposition: The effect of two separate causes is equal to the sum of the
separate causes.
Constructive interference occurs when two waves are in phase with eachother. The
resultant displacement is the sum of both displacements.
Destructive interference occurs when two waves are out of phase. The resultant
displacement is the difference of both displacements.
Read more on p42-44
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Topic 5: Electric Currents:
The potential difference is defined as the work done per unit charge to move a positive test
charge between A and B.
Potential Difference = Energy Difference/ Charge
The base unit for potential difference is the Joule per Coulomb (JC-1).
Change in potential energy = force x distance = Eqd

Electric potential energy is the energy a charge has as a result of its position in an electric
field
Change in EPE =(change in V) x q = (Vq)

An electronvolt is the energy y gained by an electron moving through a potential difference
of 1 volt.

Electric current is the rate at which charge flows past a given cross-section. I=Q/t
It can also be defined in terms of the force per unit length between parallel current carrying
conductors.
Resistance is the measure of how easily current flows. R=V/I, where V is the potential
voltage across an object and I is the current passing through the object
R=pl/A where p is the resistivity of the resistor, l is length and A is cross section

Ohms Law states that the current flowing through a metal is proportional to the potential
difference across it providing the temperature remains constant. V=IR
If current and potential difference are proportional then the device is ohmic.
If they are not like in a filament lamp they are non-ohmic.
Power Dissipation:
Power = Energy difference/time = E/t
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E/t = VI. P=VI
Since V = IR then P=I
2
R and V
2
/R
5.2: Electric Currents:
Electromotive force (emf) is the total energy difference per unit charge around a circuit.
Internal resistance is the resistance of a voltage source such as a battery

Draw Circuit Diagrams


Describe the use of ideal ammeters and ideal voltmeters:
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Ammeters are used to measure the current in a circuit. They are connected
in series with the component under test. In order to have no effect on the
circuit they should have a very small resistance. Ideal ammeters have zero
resistance. This means that no potential difference is dropped across them.
Voltmeters are used to measure the voltage in the circuit. They are connected
in parallel with the component under test. Voltmeters have a very high
resistance so that very little current is allowed to flow through them. An ideal
voltmeter has an infinite resistance.
A potential divider is an electric circuit with a cell and two resistors in series. It is called
so because the resistors divide up the potential difference of the battery.
A light dependent resistor (LDR) is a device whose resistance depends on the amount of
light shining on its surface. An increase in light causes a decrease in resistance.
A thermistor is a resistor whose value of resistance depends on its temperature. An
increase in temperature causes a decrease in resistance.
SOLVE CIRCUITS

Topic 6: Fields and Forces:
Newtons Law of Gravitation states that every mass in the Universe attracts all other masses
in the Universe given by F=Gm
1
m
2
/r
2
Gravitational field strength is the gravitational force exerted per unit mass. g=F/m, g=GM/r
2
6.2: Electric force and field:
There are two types of electric charge: positive and negative.
The Law of Conservation of Charge: In a closed system, the amount of charge is constant
Conductors:
A material that allows the flow of charge
All metals

Insulators:
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A material which charge cannot flow through
Plastics
Rubber
Glass
Note: There are no perfect insulators

Coulombs Law: The electric force between two point charges is proportional to the
product of their charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between them
F=kq
1
q
2
/r
2

Electric field strength at a point is the force felt by one unit test charge in an electric field.
Determine the electric field strength: E=F/q
2
=kq/r
2
Electric Field Drawings p53

6.3 Magnetic Force and Field
Moving charges give rise to a magnetic field, (either magnets or electric currents)
Draw Magnetic Fields p54
When a current-carrying wire is placed in a magnetic field the magnetic interaction between
the two results in a force. The direction of the force is perpendicular to the plane that
contains the field and the current. P55
Magnitude force on a current: Magnitude of the electric field: (B) = F/ILsin(O)
I=Current
L=Length of Current
Sin (O) = sin of the angle between the field and current
F=BIL sin (O) where F is in (T) for tesla.
Magnetic Force on a Moving Charge:
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F=Bqv
B=magnitude of magnetic field
Q= magnitude of charge
V=velocity of charge

=Circular motion
Topic 7: Atomic and Nuclear Physics:
The atom
Rutherford Model of the atom: the atom consists of a small dense positive nucleus,
surrounded by electrons that orbit the nucleus (as planets orbit the sun) as result of
electrostatic attraction between the electrons and the nucleus.
Evidence supporting the nuclear model of the atom:
Geiger-Marsden Experiment:
Alpha particles were fired at a golf-leaf. Due to the size and velocity of the particles
most were expected to travel straight through. However some alpha particles
were deflected through huge angles caused partly by a dense, positive nucleus
One limitation of the simple model of the nuclear atom:
Did not explain why electrons surrounding the nucleus were not drawn into the
nucleus by strong electrostatic attractions to the protons of the nucleus.
Did not specify composition of nucleus.
How did protons in the nucleus stay closely bound when electrostatic forces should
have forced them apart?
Emission Spectra: the spectrum of light emitted by an element
Absorption Spectra: a bright continuous spectrum covering the full range of visible colors,
with dark lines where the element absorbs light
Evidence for the existence of atomic energy levels:
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The emission spectra of each element is unique as electrons can only occupy specific
energy levels.
Movement between energy levels requires electron to emit or absorb energy. Energy
emitted or absorbed is in the form of packets of light called photons. E=hf (Energy of a
photon = Plancks constant*frequency of light in Hz). Energy is "quantized".
Nuclide: a particular type of atom whose nucleus have a certain number of protons and
neutrons
Isotope: different forms of the same element that contain the same amount of protons but
different amount of neutrons
Nucleon: A proton or a neutron

Nuclide: a nuclear isotope, where X is the chemical symbol of the element, A is the mass
number of the isotope, and Z is the atomic number of the element

Describe the interactions in a nucleus
Strong nuclear force: Since all protons are positive, like charges repel therefore
the strong nuclear force keeps the nucleus together. It is strong, short-ranged
and involves neutrons. Large nuclei need more neutrons to keep the nucleus
together.
7.2: Radioactive Decay:
Radioactive decay: process in which unstable atomic nucleuss loses energy by emitting
radiation in form of particles or EM waves, resulting in the transformation of parent
nuclide into daughter nuclide. Measured in Becquerels (Bq) transformations per
second.
Alpha decay: atomic nucleus emits alpha particle, equivalent to a Helium nucleus.
Atomic masses and numbers balance on both sides of the equation
Beta decay: atomic nucleus emits beta particle (electron or positron).
In -decay, the weak interaction converts a neutron into a proton while emitting an
electron and an anti-neutrino
In + decay, energy is used to convert a proton into a neutron, a positron and a neutrino
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Requires energy thus cannot occur in isolation.
Gamma radiation: electromagnetic waves (high-energy photons) are emitted during
radioactive decay. Nucleus is said to have changed from an excited state to a lower
energy state.
Property Alpha () Beta () Gamma ()
Effect on Photographic Film Yes Yes Yes
# of ion pairs produced in air 10
4
per mm 10
2
per mm 1 per mm
Material needed to absorb it Piece of Paper Few mm
aluminum
10cm lead
Penetration Ability Low Medium High
Path Length in Air A few cm Less than 1m Infinite
Deflection by E+B fields Positive Charge Negative charge Not deflected
Speed 10
7
ms
-1
10
8
ms
-1
3x10
8
ms
-1

Biological effects of ionizing radiation:
Radiation sickness + burns (at first)
Could cause damage to molecules such as DNA which could lead to it ceasing to
function.
Molecular damage could prevent cells from dividing and multiplying
Could cause malignant cells to grow which is called cancer

Why are some nuclei stable and unstable?
For elements with Z less than about 20, the protons and neutrons are in equal
numbers. Due to an increase in the electrostatic repulsion forces of protons
as the number of protons increases, more neutrons must be found in nucleus to
hold atom together. Each time protons and neutrons are added, they must go
into higher energy state, and eventually become unstable. Unstable nuclei emit
alpha particles (two protons and two neutrons) in order to reach a more stable
state.
Half Life:
Radioactive decay is a random process not affected by external conditions. The rate of
decay decreases exponentially with time.
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Radioactive half-life: The time taken for half the number of nuclides present in a sample to
decay.
Nuclear reactions: Fission and Fusion
An example of artificial transmutation: Artificial transmutation is causing particles to decay
by bombardment of particles. E.g. Uranium atoms bombarded with neutrons to start
fission reaction
Unified atomic mass unit: 1/12th the mass of a Carbon-12 nucleus. Units created to
compare atomic masses, since individual masses in nuclear reactions are very small. The
mass of a proton or a neutron are approximately 1 u. Approximately 1.66 x10
-27
kg

Mass defect The difference between the mass of a nucleus and the masses of its
component nucleons.
Binding energy The amount of energy that is released when a nucleus is assembled from
its component nucleons
E=mc
2
1eV=1.6x10
-19
J
1MeV=1.6x10
-13
J
1 u of mass converts into 931.5MeV

Fission: A nuclear reaction where large nuclei are induced to break up into smaller nuclei
and release energy in the process.
Used in nuclear reactors and atomic bombs
One such reaction is bombarding a uranium nucleus with a neutron causing it to
break up into two smaller nuclei.
1
0
n+
235
92
U=
141
56
Ba +
92
36
Kr + 3
1
0
n + energy.
Since the original neutron has created three more there is the chance of a chain
reaction occurring.

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Fusion: A nuclear reaction where small nuclei are induced to join together into larger nuclei
and release energy in the process.
The reaction that fuels all stars including the Sun.

Whenever a nuclear reaction (fission or fusion) releases energy, the products of the
reaction are in a lower energy state than the reactants. Mass loss is the source of this
energy,
A reaction is energetically feasible if the products of the reaction have greater binding
energy per nucleon when compared with the reactants.

Topic 8: Energy, power and climate change:
Thermal energy may be completely converted to work in a single process, but that
continuous conversion of this energy into work requires a cyclical process and the
transfer of some energy from the system.
Degraded energy is energy that is the energy that is transferred from the system to the
surroundings that is no longer able to produce useful work.
Sankey Diagram: The wider the arrow the more energy
Flow Diagrams

Electrical energy may be produced by rotating coils in a magnetic field

Non-renewable sources of energy are finite sources which are being depleted and will
run out. They include fossil fuels (oil, natural gas and coal) and nuclear fuels such
as uranium. The energy in these sources is a form of potential energy which can be
released by humans. Sources that can be used up and eventually run out.
Renewable sources include solar energy (and other forms indirectly dependent on solar
energy such as wind energy and wave energy) and tidal energy. They are sources that
cannot be used up. Most renewable sources are related to the sun.

Sachin

The energy density of a fuel is the energy that can be obtained from a unit mass of the fuel.
Energy density is measured in J/kg
The greater the energy density the better as it costs more money to move greater
the amount of fuel.
Energy Density = energy release from fuel/mass of fuel consumed

State the relative proportions of world use of the different energy sources that are
available.
Oil: 38%; Coal: 26%; Gas: 23%; Hydroelectric: 6%; Nuclear: 6%; Renewables: 1%.
Renewable energy: Solar: 44%; Wind: 27%; Geothermal: 17%; Biofuels: 12%
Fossil Fuel Production:
Industrialization led to a higher rate of energy usage, leading to industries being developed
near to large deposits of fossil fuels.
3 Main fossil fuels are coal, oil and natural gas
They are produced by the decomposition of buried animal and plant matter under the
pressure of material on top and bacteria.
Solar Energy Photosynthesis Chemical Energy In Plants Compression Chemical Energy
in Fossil Fuels Burning Thermal Energy etc.
Advantages
High Energy Density
Easy to Transport
Relatively Cheap
Disadvantages
Will run out
Pollution
Contributes to greenhouse effect

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Non-fossil fuel power-production:
How does a chain reaction happen:
Energy is required to split a U-236 nucleus. This can be supplied by adding a neutron
to the U-236 nuclei, which increases the binding energy and causes the nucleus
to split in two.
Extra neutrons are produced, which can go on to react with other U-236 nuclei in a
self-sustaining chain reaction. However they must be first slowed down to less
than 1 eV.
Critical mass is the minimum mass required for a chain reaction to occur.

Controlled nuclear fission : -used in power plants -prevents uncontrolled chain reactions -
only used as needed
Uncontrolled nuclear fission : -used in nuclear weapons -causes chaotic explosions for
maximum energy release

Fuel enrichment is the process where the fissionable material is increased to make nuclear
fission more likely
Energy transformations in a nuclear power plant:
Energy released in this reaction is in the form of kinetic energy, which is converted
into thermal energy before a coolant passing through the moderator extracts the
energy to turn water into steam which turns a turbine and produces electricity.

Moderator Slows down neutrons with atoms, it surround the fuel rods which are the
tubes containing Uranium-235.
Heat exchanger allows nuclear reaction to occur in a place that is sealed off from the rest
of the environment
Control rods A material that can absorb excess neutrons whenever this is necessary.

How does neutron capture of uranium-238 lead to plutonium-239:
1. Neutron collides with U-238 atom.
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2. U-238 atom fuses with neutron and creates U-239.
3. U-239 undergoes beta decay to produce Np-239.
4. Np-239 undergoes beta decay to produce Pu-239.

Importance of plutonium-239 as a nuclear fuel:
Pu-239 increases the efficiency of power station as it utilizes less-fissionable U-238

Safety issues and risks involving nuclear power:
Problems associated with mining uranium produces radon gas which when inhaled
is a major hazard
Possibility of producing materials for nuclear weapons
Radioactive waste is hard to dispose of
Potential meltdown

Problems with producing nuclear power using fusion:
Plasma needed for nuclear fusion requires high temperatures and pressure
(100000C) -Nuclear fusion is not a chain reaction (conditions must be sustained)
-Unfeasible with current technology
Solar Power:
Distinguish between a photovoltaic cell and a solar heating panel in terms of energy
transfers and uses
Solar panels are used for central heating or for making hot water for household use,
placed on roofs of houses, consisting of metal absorber, water pipes, and glass.
Energy is merely converted from solar power, electromagnetic waves of light, to
heat.
A photovoltaic cell converts solar radiation into electrical energy.

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Outline reasons for seasonal and regional variations in the solar power incident per unit
area of the Earths surface
The power per unit area received at a distance r from the sun is called the intensity I
and so I=P/4r^2
This amounts to about 1400 W/m
2
and is known as the solar constant. It is the
power received by one square meter placed normally to the path of the
incoming rays a distance of 1.5x 1011m from the sun.
-Varying solar constant -Earths elliptical orbit -Tilt of Earths axis -Weather -Altitude
of the Sun in the sky -Season Albedo
Hydroelectric Power:
Distinguish between different hydroelectric schemes:
1. Water storage in lakes
Used by hydro-electric dams
Water falling through dam spins turbine
Turbine powers generator
2. Tidal water storage
Used in coastal estuaries
Moons gravitational pull causes high tides and low tides
Dam lets high tide in and forces low tide to exit by pushing a turbine
Turbine powers generator
3. Pumped storage system
Used during low-demand hours
Excess electricity is used to pump water to a reservoir
Water is released during high-demand hours (spins a turbine)
Turbine powers generator

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Energy Transformation in hydroelectric schemes:
Gravitational PE of water
KE of water
KE of turbines
Electrical energy

P=pQgh
Wind Power:
Basic features of a wind generator:
Consists of a horizontal axis with two blades

P = pAv
3
-Merely theoretical -Real life restrictions (wind density variation, weather
conditions, wind not perfectly incident on blades)
Which shows that the power carried by the wind is proportional to the cube of the wind
speed and proportional to the area spanned by the blades.
Solar energy from the sun KE of wind KR of turbine Electric energy

Advantages of wind power
The source is the wind and its free
It is inexhaustible
Clean, without carbon emissions
Ideal for remote island locations
Disadvantages of wind power
Works only if there is wind
Low power output
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Aesthetically unpleasant
Best locations far from large cities
Maintenance costs high

Wave Power:
Oscillating water column Water capture chamber set into rock face. Total power forces
water into chamber. Air alternatively compressed and decompressed by OWC. Rushes
of air drive the Wells turbine, generating electrical power
The great advantage of the OWC is that the speed of the air through the column can be
increased by adjusting the diameter of the valves through which the air passes. In this
way high-air speeds can be attained.

A water save of amplitude A carries an amount of power per unit length of its wavefront
equal to pgA2v/2 where p is the density and v is the speed of energy transfer.
Greenhouse Effect:
Solar Radiation:
The sun may be considered to radiate as a perfect emitter and emits a total power
of 3.9x10
26
W.
P = IA. Solar constant = I = P/A = 3.9x10
26
/ 4(pi)(1.5x1011)
2
= 1400 W/m
2

Albedo
The albedo of a body is the ratio of the power of radiation reflected or scattered
from the body to the total power incident on a body.
Albedo = total scattered/reflected power/ total incident power
The albedo is a dimensionless number. Snow has a high albedo which means that
snow reflects most of the radiation incident on it.
The average global albedo is about 0.3. The variations depend on the season,
latitude or whether one is over desert land.

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The greenhouse effect is the warming of the Earth caused by infrared radiation, emitted by
the Earths surface, which is absorbed by various gases in the Earths atmosphere and is
then partly re-radiated towards the surface.

Greenhouse Gas Natural Sources Anthropogenic/Human Sources
Water Vapor Evaporation of water from
oceans, rivers and lakes

Carbon Dioxide Forest fires, volcanoes,
evaporation of water from
oceans
Burning fossil fuels in power plants and cars,
burning forests
Methane Wetlands, oceans, lakes and
rivers
Flooded rice fields, farm animals, termites,
processing of coal, natural gas and oil, and
burning biomass
Nitrous Oxide Forests, oceans, soil and
grasslands
Burning fossil fuels, manufacture of cement,
fertilizers, deforestation (reduction of nitrogen
fixation in plants)

Explain the molecular mechanisms by which greenhouse gases absorb infrared radiation:
Greenhouse gases absorb electromagnetic waves as a result of resonance. The
natural frequency of oscillation of the molecules of the greenhouse gases is
within that of infrared region.

The power radiated by a body is governed by the Stefan-Boltzmann Law.
The amount of energy radiated per second (i.e. the power) = e (5.67x10
-8
W/m
2
/K
4
)AT
4
The constant e is called the emissivity of the surface which is a dimensionless number
ranging from 0 to 1. When e=1 we have a black body which is a theoretical body that is
a perfect emitter. If a surface is black and dull such as charcoal it will have an emissivity
closer to 1.

Good emitters or heat are also good absorbers of heat which is why in winter people wear
dark clothes to absorb the radiation from the sun. Light-coloured surfaces are good
reflectors of radiation which is why you wear light colours during the summer.
Most of the energy radiated by a body is done so at a specific wavelength that is
determined by the temperature of a body. The higher the temperature, the shorter the
wavelength. For a body at ordinary room temperature 193K, the wavelength at which
most of the energy is radiated is an infrared wavelength.
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Graph:
The lower the emissivity the lower the curve.
We see that with increasing temperature, the peak of the curve occurs at lower
wavelengths and the height of the peak increases. The relation between temperature
and the peak wavelength, the wavelength at which most of the energy is emitted is
given by Wiens law.
Wiens law = (wavelength) T = 2.90x10
-3
mK
The Earths surface emits infrared radiation because the earths surface is at a temperature
of 288K
(wavelength) = 2.90x10
-3
/ 288 = 1.0 x 10
-5
m

Surface heat capacity
Cs, the surface heat capacity of the body is the energy required to increase the temperature
of 1m
2
of the surface by 1K.
The amount of thermal energy needed to increase its temperature by T is given by Q=ACsT
Cs = phc
I = Cs (T/T)

Students should appreciate that the change of a planets temperature over a period of time
is given by: (incoming radiation intensity outgoing radiation intensity) time / surface
heat capacity.

Possible models of global warming:
Changes in the composition of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere
Increased solar flare activity
Cyclical changes in the Earths orbit
Volcanic activity
Continental drift affecting the ocean currents and winds
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Enhanced greenhouse effect refers to additional warming due to increased quantitys of
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. The increases in the gas concentrations are due to
human activity.

Analyzing very old ice core samples collected in Antarctica and Greenland among many
things shows gas concentrations and atmospheric temperature at the time of freezing.
This shows there is a very close link between global warming and increased greenhouse
gas concentrations.
The Antarctic ice cores in particular have been analyzed to reveal a connection between
temperature changes and changes in carbon dioxide and methane concentrations.
The ice cores give a detailed account of global climatic conditions over a time period
spanning some 420,000 years.

Mechanisms that may increase the rate of global warming
global warming reduces ice/snow cover, which in turn changes the albedo, to
increase rate of heat absorption
temperature increase reduces the solubility of CO2 in the sea and increases
atmospheric concentrations
deforestation reduces carbon fixation

The melting of ice
Sea ice, when melted, will not result in a change of sea level, by contrast, land ice when
melted, will result in an increased sea level.
Estimating changes in sea level
Warming in general will result in a rise of sea level, not only because more land ice will melt
but also because warmer water occupies a larger volume.
Coefficient of volume expansion: V=(coefficient of volume expansion y) V
0
(theta)
The coefficient of volume expansion is the fractional change in volume per unit temperature
change.
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Example question: The area of the oceans of the Earth is 3.6x10
8
km
2
and the average
depth of water is about 3.7 km. Using a coefficient of 2x10
-4
K
-1
estimate the expected
rise in sea level after an increase of 2K.
The total volume of water isV
0
= A x d where A is the area and d is the average depth.
So A x d = 1.33x10
9
km
3
= 1.33x10
18
m
3
Putting the numbers into the formula we get 5.3x10
14
m
3
H=V/A = 5.3x10
14
/3.6x10
14
= 1.5m
This assumes a constant coefficient, uniform heating of the water and does not take into
account the initial water temperature. It also does not take into account the fact that
more evaporation would talk place, hence cooling the water.

One effect on climate of a rising sea level is the change in the albedo of the surface (more
water as opposed to dry land)
The expected change in temperature due to a change in albedo, because of more water
covering land are small. A more significant effect of ice melting and the sea level rising
is expected to be the fact that, with more water, and at a higher temperature, the
evaporation rate will increase and therefore more water vapour will be released into
the atmosphere. This means:
Cooling of the Earths surface (because latent heat is given to the water in order to
evaporate)
More cloud cover (and therefore more reflected radiation)
More precipitation (i.e. rain, but not necessarily in the region of interest.

An additional effect of higher temperatures on climate is the fact that carbon dioxide
solubility in oceans decreases which means more is left in the atmosphere.
Example question: Large areas of rainforests are being destroyed by cutting down (and
burning. Discuss the possible effects of this on the energy balance of the region.
Answer:
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Changing forests to dry land has 3 immediate consequences. The first is that a low albedo of
the dark, moist forests is replaced by a higher albedo which reduces temperatures since
more radiation is reflected rather than absorbed. The second is that the evaporation
rate was decreased this tends to increase temperatures since the surface no longer
has to supply the latent heat for evaporation. The third factor is that by removing and
burning the trees we remove a carbon dioxide sink and produce more carbon dioxide.
Measure to reduce global warming
Using fuel-efficient cars and developing hybrid cars further
Increasing the efficiency of coal-burning [plants
Replacing coal-burning power plants with natural gas-fired plants
Considering methods of capturing and storing the carbon dioxide known as carbon capture
and storage (CCS)
Increasing the amount of power produced by wind and solar generators
Considering nuclear power
Stopping deforestation
Being energy conscious with things such as buildings

The Kyoto protocol and the IPCC
The industrial nations agreed to reduce their emissions of greenhouse gases by 5.2% from
2008-2012. APPCDC asked for voluntary reductions of these emissions, it has been
called worthless as the reductions are voluntary

Topic 9: Motion in Fields:
The path in projectile motion is always a parabola (e.g. catching a ball). The only forces
acting in projectile motion are gravity and friction. It is moving horizontally and
vertically at the same time but the horizontal and vertical components of the motion are
independent of eachother.
Horizontal component: No forces in the horizontal direction, i.e. no acceleration i.e.
constant velocity.
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Vertical component: There is a constant vertical force acting down (gravity)

The effect of air resistance on the trajectory of a projectile:
The path is no longer parabolic
The maximum height and range decreases
The angle at which the projectile impacts the ground steepens

Gravitational potential: the work done per unit mass in bringing a small point mass from
infinity to a point. V=W/m (work done/test mass) = -Gm/r
Gravitational potential energy: The total work done in moving the mass from infinity to a
point. G
pe
=-Gmm/r
Equipotential surfaces and gravitational field lines are at right angles to each other
Escape speed is the speed needed to be able to escape the gravitational attraction of the
planet
0.5mv
2
=Gmm/R
V
escape
=2GM/R

Electric potential: Work done in moving the charge from infinity to that point. V=W/q
V=(k) x (Q/r)
Electric potential energy: The work done moving a positive unit charge from the point of
lower potential to the point of higher potential

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Potential due to more than one charge = Addition of all individual potentials due to the
individual charges.
P83!
9.4: Orbital Motion:
Gravitation provides the centripetal force for circular orbital motion.

Derive Keplars 3
rd
law
GMm/r
2
=mv
2
/r
Gm/r
2
=v
2
/r (where v =2(pi)r/T)
R
3
/T
2

Derive expressions for the kinetic energy, potential energy and total energy of an orbiting
satellite
PE = -GMm/r
KE = .5GMm/r
Total energy = KE+PE = -.5Gm/r
P84

Weightlessness:
If a lift breaks and the lift and passenger accelerate down at 10ms
-2
the person
would spear to be weightless for the duration of the fall
An astronaut in an orbiting space station would also appear weightless



Topic 10: Thermal Physics:
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The three ideal gas laws can be combined to form pV/T = constant
The constant will depend on the number of molecules in the gas
PV=nRT
Where R = molar gas constant = 8.314 J mol
-1
K
-1

Difference between ideal gases and real gases:
Ideal gases follow the gas laws for all values of p, V and T and thus cannot be
liquefied
Collisions are not perfectly elastic
There are intermolecular forces present
Real gases can approximate to ideal gases provided the intermolecular forces are
small enough to be ignored, the pressure is low, and the temperature is high.

Absolute zero and the Kelvin scale:
Absolute zero is 0 on the Kelvin scale and -273 on the Celsius scale. It is
characterized by the complete absence of heat the point at which all atomic
and molecular energy ceases. There is no kinetic energy between the molecules

Work done during expansion at constant pressure: Work = pressure (change in volume)

First law of thermodynamics: The thermal energy transferred to a system from its
surroundings is equal to the work done by the system plus the change in internal energy
of the system. OR Q=U + W
The first law of thermodynamics is a statement of the Law of Conservation of Energy in
which the equivalence of work and thermal energy transfer is taken into account

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Work done in a thermodynamic cycle is the area of the quadrilateral
Second Law of Thermodynamics and Entropy
The Second Law of Thermodynamics implies that thermal energy cannot spontaneously
transfer from a region of low temperature to a region of high temperature
Entropy is a system property that expresses the degree of disorder in the system
The entropy of the universe can never decrease.
Whenever thermal energy flows from a hot object to a colder object, overall the total
entropy has increased




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Topic 11: Wave Phenomena:
Nature of standing (stationary)waves
Standing wave Normal (travelling) wave
Amplitude All points on the wave have
different amplitudes. The
maximum amplitude is 2A at
the antinodes. It is zero at the
nodes.
All points on the wave have
the same amplitude
Frequency All points oscillate with the
same frequency
All points oscillate with the
same frequency
Wavelength Twice the distance from one
node to the next node
Shortest distance between
two points that are in phase
with one another
Phase All points between one node
and the next node are moving
in phase
All points along a wavelength
have different phases
Energy Energy is not transmitted by
the wave but it does have
energy associated with it
Energy is transmitted by the
wav

A standing wave is the product of the propagation of 1 wave against a wall and its reflected
wave with the same speed, same wavelength, same amplitude, opposite direction.
Because the wave is reflected, the energy that is propagated returns to the same point
of origin. Velocity=displacement / time, and since there is no displacement, the wave
has no velocity. As well, we say that no energy is propagated

Nodes are points that are always at rest
Antinodes are the places where maximum movement takes place

Formation of standing waves:
When two waves of the same speed and wavelength and equal or almost equal
amplitudes travelling in opposite directions meet, a standing wave is formed. It is
the result of the superposition of the two waves travelling in opposite directions.
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A standing wave has nodes, points at which the displacement is always zero, and
antinodes, points at which displacement is at maximum

The fundamental frequency is the first harmonic.
P93
V=f

11.2: Doppler Effect:
The Doppler effect us the change of frequency of a wave as a result of the movement of the
source or the movement of the observer.
When a source of sound is moving towards an observer, the pitch is higher than when the
source is at rest. When a source of sound is moving away from an observer the pitch is
lower than when the source is at rest.

Source moving towards an observer: F=f/ (1-vs/v)
Source moving away from an observer: F=f/ (1+vs/v)
Where v= the speed of sound = 343 m/s
f= the frequency at rest,
vs= velocity of the source

Observer moving towards stationary source: F= (1+ vs/v) f
Observer moving away from a stationary source: F= (1- vs/v) f

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Doppler Effect for light: = (1+v/c) / (1-v/c)



11.3 Diffraction:
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11.4: Resolution:
11.5: Polarization:




Topic 12: Electromagnetic Induction:
Describe the inducing of an e.m.f by relative motion between a conductor and a magnetic
field
When a conductor moves through a magnetic field, an electromotive force is
induced. It depends on the speed of the wire, strength of the magnetic field and
the length of wire in the magnetic field.

Derive the formula for an e.m.f induced in a straight conductor moving in a magnetic field.
F
e
=Eq = (V/I)q
F
m
= Bqv
V=BIv

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Magnetic flux is defined as = BA (field strength x area). If the field is not perpendicular
to the area in question, however, = BAcos, where is the acute angle between the
field direction and the normal to the area.
Flux linkage is basically the change in N, where N is the number of turns of wire, and is
the flux.

Faradays Law: The magnitude of an induced e.m.f i proportional to the rate of change of
flux linkage
Lenzs Law: The direction of the induced e.m.f is such that is an induced current were able
to flow it would oppose the change which caused it
12.2 Alternating Current:
Describe the emf induced in a coil rotating within a uniform magnetic field
The induced emf is sinusoidal if the rotation is at constant speed.
Increasing the speed of rotation will reduce the time period of the oscillation and
increase the amplitude of induced e.m.f.
Explain the operation of a basic alternating current (ac) generator
The coil if wire rotates in the magnetic field due to an external force. As it rotates
the flux linkage of the coil changes with time and induced an e.m.f.


Discuss what is meant by the root mean squared (rms) value of an alternating current or
voltage
The rms value of an alternating current (or voltage) is that value of the direct current
(or voltage) that dissipates power in a resistor at the same rate. The rms value is
also known as the rating.

State the relation between peak and rms values for sinusoidal voltage and currents
.

Sachin

Describe the operation of an ideal transformer
A useful device that makes use of electromagnetic induction is the ac transformer as
it can be used for increasing or decreasing ac voltages and currents.

Outline the reasons for power losses in transmission line and real transformers
Resistance of the windings of a transformers result in it warming up
Hysteresis losses cause the iron core to warm up as a reult of the continued cycl of
changes to its magnetism
Flux losses

Explain the use of high-voltage step-up and step-down transformers in the transmission of
electrical power.
A step-up transformer increases the voltage for economic reasons; there is no ideal
value of voltage for electrical transmission.

Suggest how extra-low-frequency electromagnetic fields such as those created by electrical
appliances and power lines induce currents within a body
A human body is a conducting medium, so when it is moving in an alternating
magnetic field at extra-low-frequency, then electric field is induced, hence
inducing current in human body.

Discuss some of the possible risks involved in living and working near high-voltage power
lines.
Current experimental evidence suggests that low-frequency fields dont harm
genetic material. There has been evidence that this may lead to infant cancer
and infant leukaemia. These risks are likely to be dependent on current (density)
frequency, and length of exposure.
Topic 13: Quantum Physics and Nuclear Physics:
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The photoelectric effect is the phenomenon where electrons are emitted from the surface
of a metal after being exposed to light (of a particular frequency called the threshold
frequency).
Light below the threshold frequency will not cause electrons to be emitted.
Above the threshold frequency, the maximum KE of the electrons depends on the
frequency of the incident light.
The number of electrons emitted depends on the intensity of light, and not the
frequency.
Emission of electrons is instantaneous, and considers that light can act as particles
called photons.

Light travels in discrete, packets of energy called photons.
The energy of the photon is given by the equation E=hf, where h is Plancks constant and f is
the frequency of the light.
The photon explains the photoelectric effect because it shows that light can act as particle
and not just a continuous wave of energy.
If light traveled solely as a wave, any frequency of light would cause an emission of
electrons. This is not the case.
The threshold frequency exists, below which no electrons are emitted. E
photon

= E
electron
+ E
kinetic
hf =+Ekhf = hf0 + Ek Ek(max) =hf

Describe and explain an experiment to test the Einstein model
Millikans experiment involving the application of a stopping potential would be
suitable. A simple circuit was used to determine the maximum KE of the emitted
electrons for various frequencies of light. The evacuated chamber consisted of
two electrodes. One electrodewas exposed to incident light. If the light was
above the threshold frequency for the metal electrode, a current registered
in the ammeter. The voltage was reversed sothat the electrons causing the
current would be repelled. The voltage that reducedthe current to zero, also
called the stopping voltage can be used to calculate themaximum KE of the
emitted electrons, Regardless of the intensity of thelight incident on the metal
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(which increases the current), the stopping voltage isalways the same for a
given frequency.

Describe the de Broglie hypothesis and the concept of matter waves
The de Broglie hypothesis states that all particles can act and travel as waves and
have an associated wavelength defined =p/h, where p is the momentum of the
particle, and h is Plancks constant.
Matter waves are the waves associated with particles or matter. They have an
associated de Broglie wavelength.

Outline an experiment to verify the de Broglie hypothesis
The Davisson and Germer electron diffraction experiment. Davisson and Germer
used an electron diffraction pattern to determine the wavelength of an
electron. The experimental wavelength corresponded to de Broglies calculated
wavelength.
KE = eV.
KE = .5mv
2
=p
2
/2m

Outline a laboratory procedure for producing and observing atomic spectra:
Matter emits light when heated to high temperatures or exposed to high electric
fields. This light can be split into its component wavelengths if put through a
spectrometer.
Emission spectrum: the spectrum of light that has been emitted by a gas
Absorption spectrum: the spectrum of light transmitted through a gas

Explain how atomic spectra provide evidence for the quantization of energy in atoms.
Spectral lines show that electrons shift orbits releasing or absorbing discrete
amounts of energy. Electrons occupy discrete energy levels. Movement between
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levels involves absorbing or emitting energy. When an electron moves from a
higher energy level to a lower energy level, it emits energy in the form of light
(photons).

Explain the origin of atomic energy levels in terms of the electron in a box model.
P106. Important

Outline the Schrdinger model of the hydrogen atom.
The model assumes that electrons in the atom may be described by wave functions.
The electron has an undefined position, but the square of the amplitude of the
wave function gives the probability of finding the electron at a particular point.
Electrons orbit in a probability region or electron cloud. The solution to the
equation predicts exactly the line spectra of the hydrogen atom.

Outline the Heisenberg uncertainty principle with regard to positionmomentum and time
energy.
P108
Students should be aware that the conjugate quantities, positionmomentum and
timeenergy, cannot be known precisely at the same time. They should know
of the link between the uncertainty principle and the de Broglie hypothesis.
For example, students should know that, if a particle has a uniquely defined de
Broglie wavelength, then its momentum is known precisely but all knowledge of
its position is lost.

13.2: Nuclear Physics:
Explain how the radii of nuclei may be estimated from charged particle scattering
experiments.
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One experiment that can be used is the Geiger Marsden experiment. An estimate
of the radii of nuclei can come about through the principle of the conservation
of energy. The KE of a particle approaching a nucleus is completely transformed
into electrostatic potential energy. At the distance of closest approach, the KE
will be converted entirely to PE. The particle will be momentarily at rest. Use of
energy conservation for determining closest-approach distances for Coulomb
scattering experiments is sufficient.

Describe how the masses of nuclei may be determined using a Bainbridge mass
spectrometer
Students should be able to draw a schematic diagram of the Bainbridge mass
spectrometer, but the experimental details are not required. Students should
appreciate that nuclear mass values provide evidence for the existence of
isotopes.


Describe one piece of evidence for the existence of nuclear energy levels.
When an alpha particle or a gamma photon is emitted from the nucleus, only
discrete energies are observed.

Describe + decay, including the existence of the neutrino.
In + decay, energy is used to convert a proton into a neutron, a positron and a
neutrino. Beta plus decay cannot occur in isolation, because it requires energy,
the mass of the neutron being greater than the mass of the proton.
Beta plus decay can only happen inside nuclei when the absolute value of the
binding energy of the daughter nucleus is higher than that of the mother
nucleus. The difference between these energies goes into the reaction of
converting a proton into a neutron, a positron and a neutrino and into the
kinetic energy of these particles.

State the radioactive decay law as an exponential function and define the decay constant.
Sachin

The decay constant is defined as the probability of decay of a nucleus per unit time.
If the number of nuclei present in a sample at t = 0 is N
0
, the number N still
present at time t later is given by N = N
o
e
-t
where is the decay constant (the
probability that a nucleus will decay in unit time).

Derive the relationship between decay constant and half-life.
T
1/2
=ln2/)
N=N
0
/2
N
0
/2 = N
0
e
-t

1/2 = e
-t
Ln(1/2) = -t
t=-ln(1/2) =ln2
T
1/2
=ln2/

Outline methods for measuring the half-life of an isotope.
For short half-lives, the half life can usually be measured directly. For longer half
lifes, values of activity can be measured and the decay law can be used to
calculate and thus t. Measure the activity A and chemically find the number
of atoms of the isotope. Use A = N and then t = ln2

Topic 14: Digital Technology:

Option G: Electromagnetic Waves:
Outline the nature of electromagnetic (EM) waves.
Oscillating electric charge produces varying electric and magnetic fields
Electromagnetic waves are transverse, have the same speed
Sachin

Oscillating (SHM) charge produces an electric, which produces a magnetic field that
is perpendicular.

Describe the different regions of the electromagnetic spectrum.

Describe what is meant by the dispersion of electromagnetic waves
Dispersion is the separating of white light into its component colours due to
refraction.

Sachin

Describe the dispersion of EM waves in terms of the dependence of refractive index on
wavelength.
A prism causes the dispersion of light because the refractive indexes slightly
different for each of the different colours
Refraction takes place at both surfaces of the prism
Red light is bent the least and blue light is bent the most
This is because the refractive index for red light is smaller than blue

Distinguish between transmission, absorption and scattering of radiation.
Transmission - electromagnetic radiation passing from one medium to another
Absorption - Photons are absorbed by material
Can cause temperature to increase and decrease the amount transmitted
Scattering - Deflection of electromagnetic radiation from original path due to
collision with particles of medium.

Discuss examples of the transmission, absorption and scattering of electromagnetic
radiation
Blue light is scattered in all directions as a result of interaction with small dist
particles in the atmosphere, this is why the sky appears blue
Harmful UV radiation is absorbed by the ozone layer in the atmosphere which would
otherwise be harmful to creatures living on the surface of the Earth

Explain the terms monochromatic and coherent.
Coherent Waves - have a constant phase relationship.
Laser light is coherent, a light bulb is not
Monochromatic Waves - single frequency (wavelength).
Contains only a very, very narrow band of frequencies
Sachin

Laser light is monochromatic, a light bulb is not

Outline the mechanism for the production of laser light.
Light photons are produced when an atomic electron falls from a higher energy level
to a lower energy level
The production of laser light involves a process that promotes a large number of
electrons to a higher energy level known as population inversion.
These electrons are stimulated to fall down and emit light of a particular frequency
Or: Lower energy level electrons are pumped up to higher energy levels and
stimulated to fall to energy levels corresponding to specific frequencies,
producing laser light.

Outline an application of the use of a laser
Technology (bar-code scanners, laser disks)
Reading and writing of CDs

G2: Optical Instruments:
Define the terms principal axis, focal point, focal length and linear magnification as applied
to a converging (convex) lens.
Principal axis The line going directly through the middle of the lens
Focal point - Location on the principal axis where parallel light rays converge after
passing through the lens.
Focal length - Distance between the focal point and the center of the lens.
Linear magnification The ratio between the size (height) of the image and the size
(height) of the object.
It has no units
Linear magnification = image size/object size
Sachin


Define the power of a convex lens and the dioptre
The power is the reciprocal of the focal length. P=1/f
1m
-1
= 1 dioptre

Construct ray diagrams to locate the image formed by a convex lens.
P159
Draw two lines, one straight across to the middle of the lens and then through the
focal point on the other side.
The other line goes through the principal axis in the middle of the lens and straight
through.

Distinguish between a real image and a virtual image.
Real image - formed when light rays actually converge on a location and can be
projected onto a screen
Virtual image - formed by light rays that only appear to converge on a location and
cannot be projected onto a screen.

The thin lens formula is 1/f = 1/u + 1/v
Apply the convention real is positive, virtual is negative to the thin lens formula
i.e. for a virtual image, the image distance will be negative, i.e. it is one the same
side as the lens
The simple magnifying glass:
Define the terms far point and near point for the unaided eye
Far point The distance between the eye and the furthest object that can be
brought into focus.
Sachin

For normal vision this is taken to be infinity
Near point The distance between the eye and the nearest object that can be
brought into clear focus.
For normal vision this is taken to be 25cm

Define angular magnification
Angle subtended at eye normally/Angle subtended at eye using instrument

Derive an expression for the angular magnification of a simple magnifying glass for an image
formed at the near point and at infinity
Image formed at the near point: M=D/f + 1
Image formed at infinity: M=D/F
The compound microscope and astronomical telescope:

Construct a ray diagram for a compound microscope with final image formed close to the
near point of the eye (normal adjustment)
A compound microscope consists of the objective lens and the eyepiece lens
P162

Construct a ray diagram for an astronomical telescope with the final image at infinity
(normal adjustment)
P162

State the equation relating angular magnification to the focal lengths of the lenses in an
astronomical telescope in normal adjustment
M=f
0
/f
e
Length of telescope = f
0
+f
e
Aberrations:
Sachin

Explain the meaning of spherical aberration and of chromatic aberration as produced by a
single lens
Spherical Aberration: Rays striking the outer regions of a spherical lens will be
brought to a slightly different focus point from those striking the inner regions of
the same lens
Chromatic Aberration: Rays of different colours will be brought to a slightly different
focus point by the same lens due to the difference in refractive indices

Describe how spherical aberration in a lens may be reduced
The shape of the lens could be altered, however the lens would no longer be
spherical
The effect could be reduced by decreasing the aperture. However the total amount
of light would be reduced and the effects of diffraction would be made worse

Describe how chromatic aberration in a lens may be reduced
The effect can be eliminated for 2 colours and reduced for all by using two different
materials to make up a compound lens. This lens is called an achromatic doublet,
the two types of glass produce equal but opposite dispersion

State the conditions necessary to observe interference between two sources
they must have the same phase
the phase difference between them must remain constant

Explain, by means of the principle of superposition, the interference pattern produced by
waves from two coherent point sources
When two coherent point sources interfere they produce an interference pattern
The dark lines are areas where the two waves interfere destructively, in between
the dark points are areas of maximum amplitude where the waves interfere
constructively
Sachin

When the two waves have both travelled an integer value of wavelengths they
interfere constructively (assuming the sources are in phase)
If the two waves have both travelled an integer value plus one half of a wavelength
they interfere destructively.

Outline a double-slit experiment for light and draw the intensity distribution of the
observed fringe pattern
Youngs double slit experiment

Describe the effect on the double-slit intensity distribution of increasing the number of slits.
as the number of slits increases:
- the number of observed fringes decreases
- the spacing between them increases
- the individual fringes become much sharper

Derive the diffraction grating formula for normal incidence
The slits are very small so that they can be considered to act as point sources
They are also very close together such that d is small (10
6
m)
Each slit becomes a source of circular wave fronts and the waves from each slit
interfere
Consider the light that leaves the slit at an angle , the path difference between
wave 1 and wave 2 is dsin and if this is equal to an integral number of
wavelengths then the two waves will interfere constructively in this direction,
similarly wave 2 will interfere constructively with wave 3 at this angle, and wave
3 with 4 etc., across the whole grating. Hence if we look at the light through a
telescope, that is bring it to a focus, then when the telescope makes an angle
to the grating a bright fringe will be observed. The condition for observing a
bright fringe is therefore:
dsin = n

Sachin

Outline the use of a diffraction grating to measure wavelengths
All elements have their own characteristic spectrum.
An element can be made to emit light either by heating it until it is incandescent or
by causing an electric discharge through it when it is in a gaseous state
If laser light is shone through a grating on to a screen, you will see just how sharp
and spaced out are the maxima
Measuring the line spacing and the distance of the screen from the laser, the
wavelength of the laser can be measured.
OR:
If white light is incident on a diffraction gradient the angle at which
constructive interference takes place depends on wavelength
Different wavelengths are observed at different angles
An accurate measurement of the angle provides an accurate measurement
of the exact wavelength and colour of light considered.
Spectrometer used to achieve an accurate measurement

G5

G.6.1: Explain the production of interference fringes by a thin air wedge
When the monochromatic light strikes the glass plate some of it will be reflected
down onto the wedge.
Some of the light reflected from the wedge will be transmitted through the glass
plate to the travelling microscope.
A system of equally spaced parallel fringes (fringes of equal thickness) is observed.
The travelling microscope enables the fringe spacing to be measured. The fringes
can also be observed by the naked eye

Explain how wedge fringes can be used to measure very small separations.
Sachin

Applications include measurement of the thickness of the tear film on the eye and
oil slicks.

Describe how thin-film interference is used to test optical flats
Wedge films can be used to test optical surfaces for flatness.
If a wedge is made of two surfaces one of which is perfectly plane but the other has
irregularities, the observed fringe pattern will be irregular in shape. The irregular
surface can then be re-polished until the fringes are all completely parallel and of
equal thickness

State the condition for light to undergo either a phase change of , or no phase change, on
reflection from an interface
When light is reflected back from an optically denser medium there is a phase
change of
When light is reflected back from a optically less dense medium there is no phase
change

Option H: Relativity