Chapter 1

We consider a three dimensional elastic body in static equilibrium with external forces P 1 , P 2 , etc. Equilibrium implies that these forces and their
moments add up to zero.
P4
P3
A

P1

Tn
n

P2

P1
P2

Figure 1.1: Traction vector at a point on a section.

As shown in Fig. 1, if we separate this body into two parts by an arbitrary
cut, the two parts have to be in equilibrium. This reveals internal distributed
forces on the area A at the cut to balance the external forces. A close-up
look at a small triangular area A shows, what is called, a traction vector
T n , where the superscript n indicates the unit normal n to the cut. The
dimension of T n is force per unit area. The traction vector will vary from
point-to-point on the section A. Also, the cut we have made produces two
surfaces: one with normal n and the other with normal n. If T n is the
traction vector on the surface with normal n, the surface facing it has the
normal n and the traction vector T n . In order to describe the rules
1

CHAPTER 1. ELEMENTS OF ELASTICITY

y

T x

Ax

Tn
n

T z
Az
x

Ay
z

A
T

Figure 1.2: Traction vectors on coordinate facets.

governing the variation of T n across the cut we need a coordinated system.
At this stage, all we require is a locally orthogonal system. This may be a
Cartesian system with x, y, and z axes, a cylindrical system with r, and
z, or a spherical system with R, and . For the sake of clarity we will use
the Cartesian system.
By drawing parallels to the coordinate axes through the corners of our
triangular area A, we create a tetrahedron with its inclined facet being A
with unit normal
n = nx i + ny j + nz k.
(1.1)
The normals to the three facets which are parallel to the coordinate planes
are: i, j, and k. We refer to these four normals as outward normals.
As shown in Fig. 2, the area of the facet normal to the coordinate direction x
is denoted by Ax , etc. The traction vectors on the three coordinate facets
are denoted by T x , T y and T z . The minus signs are needed as the
normals are along i, etc. Balancing the forces on the tetrahedron, we see
T n A T x Ax T y Ay T z Az + f V = 0,

(1.2)

where f is the body force density (weight per unit volume) and V is the
volume of the tetrahedron. If we assume the maximum length of an edge
of the tetrahedron is L, the surface areas are of the order of L2 and the
volume, L3 .
As Ax , Ay , and Az are projections of A along the coordinate

3
y
yy
11
00
yz
11
00
11
00
1
zy 0
1
0
1
0

zz

1
0yx
1
0 xy

1
0
1
0

xx

zx
11 111
00 000
11
00
xz

z
111
000
111
000

11
00
11
00

Figure 1.3: Stress components on the three coordinate planes.

directions, we have
lim

L0

Ax Ay Az
,
,
A A A

= {nx , ny , nz },

lim

L0

V
= 0.
A

(1.3)

Dividing Eq. (2.2) by A and taking the limit, we get

T n = T x nx + T y ny + T z nz .

(1.4)

The implication of this fundamental relation is that if we know the three

traction vectors, T x , T y , and T z , on the three coordinate facets, we can
compute the traction vector, T n , on any inclined plane with normal n.
It is conventional to refer to coordinate planes as xy-plane, yz-plane and
zx-plane. Using the direction of the normal to these planes, we may refer to
them as z-plane, x-plane, and y-plane, respectively.
1.0.1 Stress Components
Let us look at the traction vector T x acting on the x-facet (now facing in
the i direction). As shown in Fig. 1.3, we may express it using its components
as
T x = xx i + xy j + xz k,
(1.5)

CHAPTER 1. ELEMENTS OF ELASTICITY

where xx is the normal stress and xy and xz are shear stresses. The rst
subscript indicates the plane and the second subscript the direction of the
force. Similarly, the other two traction vectors can be resolved as
T y = yx i + yy j + yz k
T z = zx i + zy j + zz k.

(1.6)
(1.7)

In terms of the stress components the traction vector T n can be written

as
Tn =

(xx i + xy j + xz k)nx
+(yx i + yy j + yz k)ny
+(zx i + zy j + zz k)nz .

(1.8)

Collectively, we need nine components of stress to create three traction vectors on coordinate planes; they in turn can give us the traction vector on any
inclined plane. We started with a cut and a point on the cut to introduce
the nine components of the stress. There are these nine components at every
point of our three dimensional body. These nine components form the stress
matrix or the stress tensor,

xx xy xz
[] = yx yy yz .
(1.9)
zx zy zz
The rows of the matrix indicate the planes and the columns the directions
of the forces. It is called a tensor based on how the components transform
under rotation of coordinates. Fig. 1.3 shows the nine components of stress.
If we write the unit normal to any inclined plane as a column vector

nx
ny
{n} =
,
(1.10)

nz
using matrix multiplication we get
n

xx yx zx nx
Tx
Tn
= xy yy zy ny
,
y

n
xz yz zz
nz
Tz

(1.11)

Figure 1.4: Components of the traction vector normal and parallel to the
plane.
where the column matrix on the left hand side represents the components of
T n.
With n being the unit normal to the inclined plane, please note that, in
general, the traction vector is not aligned with the normal. The component
of T n along n is the normal stress on this plane. This can be expressed in
multiple ways as
n
n
= n T n = nx Tx + ny Ty + nz Tzn = {n}T []T {n},

(1.12)

= xx n2 + yy n2 + zz n2
(1.13)
x
y
z
+(xy + yx )nx ny + (yz + zy )ny nz + (zx + xz )nz nx , (1.14)
where the superscript, T , indicates transpose of the matrix. The component
of T n parallel to the plane is the shear traction vector
= T n n.
1.0.2 Example: traction vector on a plane
Consider the stress matrix at a point (the units may be MPa)

3 3 0
[] = 3 4 2
0 2 5

(1.15)

CHAPTER 1. ELEMENTS OF ELASTICITY

and the a plane with the unit normal

1
n = (2i + 2j + k).
3
Here, the matrix is symmetric and
Then
n

Tx 1 3 3
Tn
= 3 4
y 3
n
0 2
Tz

its transpose is the

0 2
1
2 2
=
3
5
1

same as the matrix.

12
16 .

1
T n = (12i + 16j + 9k).
3
The normal stress on this plane is the normal component of T n ,
= n Tn =

65
= 7.222.
9

The shear traction vector on this plane is

1
65
= T n n = (12i + 16j + 9k) (2i + 2j + k)
3
27
1
=
(12i + 14j + 16k),
27
which has a magnitude
= 0.904.

1.1

Equilibrium Equation

The equilibrium equations are three partial dierential equations describing

the changes in the stress components from point-to-point. Consider the parallelepiped shown in ??, which has side lengths of x, y, and z along x, y,
and z -directions, respectively. The origin of the axes is located at the point
(x, y, z). If the negative facing x-facet has the traction vector T x , the positive facing facet, which is x away, will have the traction vector T x + x T x .
By x T x , we mean a small change in T x (x, y, z) when x changes to x + x
while y and z are kept constant. This can also be interpreted as a small
change along the x-direction. In fact,
T x
x T x
=
.
x0 x
x
lim

(1.16)

1.1. EQUILIBRIUM EQUATION

T y + y T y
T z

T x + x T x

T x
y

x
f

z
T y

T z + z T z

Figure 1.5: Forces on the facets of a parallelepiped.

Let us use the notation for areas of the facets and the volume of the parallelepiped,
Ax = yz,

Ay = zx,

Az = xy,

V = xyz.
(1.17)
As the areas of the positive and negative x-facets are the same, the net force
from these two facets is x T x Ax Including the pairs of traction vectors on
the y and the z -facets and the body force f V , we balance the forces to
get
x T x Ax + y T y Ay + z T z Az + f V = 0.
Dividing by V and simplifying, we have
x T x y T y z T z
+
+
+ f = 0.
x
y
z
Taking the limit, we get
T x T y T z
+
+
+ f = 0.
x
y
z

(1.18)

f = fx i + fy j + fz k,

(1.19)

Using

CHAPTER 1. ELEMENTS OF ELASTICITY

yy
yx

xx
xy

xx

y
x

xy

yx
yy
Figure 1.6: Moment balance in the z-plane
and the expressions for the traction vectors from 1.5-1.7, the above vector
equation can be written as
xx yx zx
+
+
+ fx = 0,
x
y
z
xy yy zy
+
+
+ fy = 0,
x
y
z
xz yz zz
+
+
+ fz = 0,
x
y
z

(1.20)

These equations are easy to remember: The partial dierential operator

agrees with the rst subscript of the stress and the equation number agrees
with the second subscript.
1.1.1 Moment Equilibrium
In order to balance the parallelepiped in moment, we may use the in-plane
forces creating a moment about the z-axis. As shown in ??, in computing
the moment about O, the forces normal to the facets have no eect; the shear
stresses give
2xy yzx/2 2yx xzy/2 = 0.
This and similar equations about the other two axes yield
xy = yx ,

yz = zx ,

zx = xzx .

(1.21)

1.2. PLANE STRESS

Thus, the stress matrix is symmetric. Up to this point we were careful to

distinguish the o-diagonal elements of the stress matrix, but from now on
we need not do this. The number of stress components reduces to six when
symmetry is applied.
1.1.2 Boundary Conditions
On certain parts of the boundary of the elastic body we may apply distributed
forces. This is equivalent to prescribing the traction vector T n at every point
on those parts of the body. In component form, we prescribe
n
xx nx + xy ny + xz nz = Tx ,
n
xy nx + yy ny + yz nz = Ty ,

xz nx + yz ny + zz nz = Tzn ,

(1.22)
(1.23)
(1.24)

where the bar over T indicates that these are known (given) functions.

1.2

Plane Stress

If the elastic body is thin in one direction compared to the other two directions and if there is no force applied in that direction, we can orient our
coordinates to have the z-axis perpendicular to the thin plate and use the
approximation
zz = 0, xz = 0, yz = 0.
(1.25)
This is called the plane stress approximation. The remaining three stress
components satisfy the equations of equilibrium
xx,x + xy,y + fx = 0,
xy,x + yy,y + fy = 0,

(1.26)
(1.27)

and the boundary conditions

n
xx nx + xy ny = Tx ,
n
xy nx + yy ny = Ty .

(1.28)
(1.29)

As most of the aero structures are thin and the in-plane stresses are large
compared to the applied load perpendicular to these plates, we encounter
plane stress approximation frequently.

10

CHAPTER 1. ELEMENTS OF ELASTICITY

x
Figure 1.7: Curved panel
1.2.1 Curved Panels
If the curvature of a thin panel is small, we may, locally, use a Cartesian
system with coordinates x, s, and z, where the s coordinate changes in the
direction of curvature. This is shown in Fig. ??. We can adapt the plane
stress equations above with y replaced by s. Then
xx,x + xs,s + fx = 0,
xs,x + ss,s + fs = 0,

(1.30)
(1.31)

and the boundary conditions

n
xx nx + xs ns = Tx ,

xsnx + ss ns = Tsn .

1.3

(1.32)
(1.33)

Transformation of Vectors and Tensors

In the z-plane, if we introduce a new coordinate system x , y with the same

origin as that of the x, y-system, but rotated by angle , anti-clockwise, the
components of a vector v will be dierent in the two systems. As shown if

Fig. (??), let vx and vy be the components in the x, y-system and vx and vy

be in the x , y -system. From geometry, we obtain the relations

vx = vx cos + vy sin ,

vy = vx sin + vy cos .

(1.34)

1.3. TRANSFORMATION OF VECTORS AND TENSORS

y

11

vy

vy

vx

vx

Figure 1.8: Vector components and coordinate rotation.

If we replace the vector v by the position vector
r = xi + yj,

(1.35)

we nd that its components in the two systems satisfy

x = x cos + y sin ,
y = x sin + y cos .

(1.36)

We mentioned earlier that the stress matrix is also called the stress tensor.
In the plane stress case it is a 2 2-matrix,
[] =

xx xy
xy yy

(1.37)

In the rotated coordinate system, we expect the stress matrix to have the
form

xx xy
.
(1.38)
[ ] =

xy yy
We assume unit thickness for the wedge OAB and, rst, balance the forces
along the x and y -directions to get

xx AB = (xx OB + xy OA) cos + (xy OB + yy OA) sin ,

(1.39)

12

CHAPTER 1. ELEMENTS OF ELASTICITY

y
B
xy

xy

xx

xx

O
yy

xy A

Figure 1.9: Stress transformation using static equilibrium.

xy AB = (yy OA + xy OB) cos (xx OB + xy OS) sin .

(1.40)

Dividing by AB and noting

OB/AB = cos c,

OA/AB = sin s,

we have

xx = xx c2 + yy s2 + 2xy cs,

xy = (yy xx )cs + xy (c2 s2 ).

The stress component yy is the normal stress on a plane 90 from the x plane. If we replace by + 90 , we get

cos( + 90 ) = s,

sin( + 90 ) = c,

(1.41)

and

yy = xx s2 + yy c2 2xy cs.

Thus,

xx = xx c2 + yy s2 + 2xy cs,

yy = xx s2 + yy c2 2xy cs.

xy = (yy xx )cs + xy (c2 s2 ).

(1.42)

13

1.3. TRANSFORMATION OF VECTORS AND TENSORS

In comparison to the vector component transformation, Eq. (refeq: vec),

here we have a more complex relation among the components of stress. This
relation applies to tensor components (of rank two). With the column vectors
v, v and the rotation matrix [Q], dened as
v=

vx
vy

vx

vy

v =

[Q] =

c
s
s c

(1.43)

you can verify the relations

v = [Q]v,

[ ] = [Q][][Q]T .

(1.44)

Using the double-angle relations

c2 =

1 + cos 2
,
2

s2 =

1 cos 2
,
2

sc =

sin 2
,
2

the stress transformations relations can be written as

xx yy

xx = m +
cos 2 + xy sin 2,
2
xx yy

cos 2 xy sin 2,
yy = m
2
yy xx

xy =
sin 2 + xy cos 2,
2

(1.45)

(1.46)

where the mean stress m is dened as

m =

xx + yy
.
2

(1.47)

Adding the rst two equation in ??, we nd

xx + yy
.
m =
2

(1.48)

Thus, the mean stress remains an invariant under the coordinate rotation.
1.3.1 Principal Stresses
Having a formula for the normal stress on an arbitrary plane, we are interested in nding the angle which makes the normal stress a maximum (or a
minimum). For this, we let

dxx
= 0.
d

14

CHAPTER 1. ELEMENTS OF ELASTICITY

This gives

xx yy
sin 2 xy cos 2 = 0.
2
Denoting the solution of this equation by p , we get
tan 2p =

xy
.
(xx yy )/2

(1.49)

This equation has two solutions for 2p , which are separated by 180 . Before
we discuss these solutions fully, we observe from Eq. (??),

xx yy
2

xy

xx yy
cos 2 + xy sin 2,
2
yy xx
=
sin 2 + xy cos 2.
2

Squaring and adding these two relations we get another invariant,

xx yy
R =
2
2

[xy ]2

xx yy
=
2

+ [xy ]2 .

(1.50)

As shown in Fig.??, the angle in Eq. (??) can be expressed two ways:

xx yy
2

A
2p
R

xy
B

Figure 1.10: Angles of principal planes.

1.3. TRANSFORMATION OF VECTORS AND TENSORS

cos 2p =

xx yy
,
2R

sin 2p =

xy
,
R

15
(1.51)

or

xx yy
xy
, sin 2p =
.
(1.52)
2R
R

Substituting these in the equation for xx in Eq. (??), we get the maximum
and minimum values,
cos 2p =

1 = m + R,

2 = m R.

(1.53)

These are the principal stresses; their planes, the principal planes, will be
referred as p-planes.

Substituting the angles in the equation for the shear stress xy shows
xy = 0.

(1.54)

Thus, the principal planes have pure normal stresses.

1.3.2 Maximum Shear stress

We use the same procedure to maximize the shear stress xy in Eq. (??) to
get
xx yy
sin 2 = 0.
(1.55)
xy cos 2 +
2
The solution of this equation is denoted by s for the maximum shear planes
(s-planes); and we have

tan 2s =

xx yy
.
2xy

(1.56)

This also has two solutions s at 90 apart. We observe

tan 2s tan 2p = 1,

(1.57)

which is the condition for 2s to dier from 2p by 90 (or 270 ).

When we substitute
sin 2s =

xx yy
,
2R

cos 2p =

xy
,
R

(1.58)

in xy and xx we get

xy = R,

xx = m .

(1.59)

16

CHAPTER 1. ELEMENTS OF ELASTICITY

1.3.3 Mohrs Circle

A visual representation of the state of plane stress at a point can be obtained using the Mohrs circle. First, we note from the stress transformation
relations, Eq. (??), that

(xx m )2 + (xy )2 = R2 ,

(1.60)

which shows that the normal stress = xx and the shear stress = xy are
coordinates of a point lying on a circle of radius R and center at (m , 0) in
a , -plane. The principal stresses 1 and 2 are the extreme values of
along a diameter where = 0. The maximum shear stresses correspond to
points (m , R).
We maintain the convention for measuring angles as counter clock-wise
being positive. Then, as shown in Fig ??, the state of stress on the x-plane
must be below the point corresponding to (1 , 0), subtending an angle 2p
at the center. The sign convention for shear stresses is as follows: If we view
the shear stress from below the plane to see it creating a clock-wise moment
then it is positive. On the x-plane xy creates a counter clock-wise moment
and hence it is negative. We have to keep in mind that in the Cartesian
system we see two planes x and y but on the Mohrs circle each point on the
circles is one plane. While the real planes dier by an angle , they dier by
2 on the Mohrs circle. As shown if Fig. ??, the arc BC subtends 2p at

s1

p2
F

2p

p1
C
B

xy

xx

s2
Figure 1.11: Mohrs circle showing principal stress planes, p1 , p2 , maximum
shear stress planes, s1 , s2 and the x-plane.
the center and p at F on the circumference. We can use the point F , called
the focus, to get real angles.

17

1.4. STRAIN

1.3.4 Example: Principal Stresses and the Maximum Shear Stresses

Consider the state of stress shown in Fig. ??. Obtain the principal stresses
and their planes and the maximum shear stresses and their planes. Also,
include the x and y planes. All stresses are in MPas. The center of the
4

10

10

Figure 1.12: Mohrs circle showing all relevant planes.

circle is at
m = (10 + 4)/2 = 7,
and its radius is
R2 = [(10 4)/2]2 + 42 ,

R = 5.

We draw the Mohrs circle as shown in Fig. ??. On the x-plane the normal
stress is = 10 MPa and the shear stress of xy = 4 MPa creates a clockwise moment and, so, it is positive. The x-plane is at (10, 4). We draw a line
parallel to the axis to locate the focus F . The angle 2 is found from
tan 2 =

1.4

xy
= 4/3;
(xx yy )/2

2 = 53.13 ,

= 26.57 .

Strain

With respect to a xed Cartesian system, x, y, z, a body occupying a volume

B in space moves to the position B under applied loads. A material particle

P in B moves to P . The vector P P is called the displacement vector,

u(x, y, z), which has the component form
u = ui + vj + wk.

(1.61)

18

CHAPTER 1. ELEMENTS OF ELASTICITY

s1

5
x

10

p2

p1

2
O

12

s2
4

2
4

Figure 1.13: Mohrs circle for the example problem.

The position vector r is given by
r = xi + yj + zk.

(1.62)

The small element P Q = r becomes P Q = bsr during the deformation

process. Noting QQ = u + u , we can express the deformed length

r = r + u + u u = r + u.

(1.63)

In order to account for large displacement gradients and large rotation of elements we have to modify the denition of normal strain from the simple form
of change in length over original length.The normal strain of an element
r oriented in the direction of the unit vector n is dened by
(r )2 (r)2
,
r0
2r)2

nn = lim

(1.64)

where r is the magnitude of the vector r, etc. When the deformed length
is close to the original length and if the rotation of the element is small, this
denition reduces to the classical denition. In order to calculate the shear
strain as a change in angle between two elements which are initially at 90,

19

1.4. STRAIN
B
P
y

Q
r

Q
r

r
r

x
z
Figure 1.14: Displacement vector for deformation.
we choose two orthogonal elements r1 and r2 along the unit vectors n and
m and dene
r 1 r 2
.
(1.65)
nm = mn =
2r 1 r2
The dot product in this expression will be zero if the deformed elements are
still at 90 and we get zero shear strain.
These general denitions can be specialized by selecting r along the
coordinate directions. For example, if we choose r oriented along the xdirection
r
u
r
(r )2
(r )2 (r)2
xx

=
=
=
=
=

xi, r = x,
x u = [x ui + x vj + x wk],
[(x + x u)i + x vj + x wk],
(x + x u)2 + (x v)2 + (x w)2 ,
2xx u + (x u)2 + (x v)2 + (x w)2,
2xx u + (x u)2 + (x v)2 + (x w)2
= lim x 0
.
2(x)2

20

CHAPTER 1. ELEMENTS OF ELASTICITY

This gives the strain in the x direction xx , as

xx

u 1
+
=
x 2

u
x

v
x

w
x

(1.66)

Similarly,
yy

v 1
=
+
y 2

u
y

zz

w 1
+
=
z
2

u
z

v
y

v
z

w
y

w
z

.
2

To obtain the shear strain between the x and y directions, we choose

r 1 = xi,

r 2 = yj.

(1.67)

r 2 = yj + y u.

(1.68)

These give
r 1 = xi + x u,

Using this in the shear strain formula, Eq. (??), we nd

xy =

1 u v u u v v w w
+
+
+
+
2 y x x y x y
x y

(1.69)

Similar calculations using element vectors along the y and z directions and
z and x directions result in
1
2
1
=
2

yz =
zx

v w u u v v w w
,
+
+
+
+
z
y
y z y z
y z
w u u u v v w w
.
+
+
+
+
x
z
y z y z
y z

(1.70)
(1.71)

We note that the shear strains are symmetric by denition, i.e. xy = yx ,

etc. These nonlinear, large strains are known as the Green-Lagrange strains.
We may form a strain matrix

xx xy xz
[] = xy yy yz .
(1.72)
xz yz zz

21

1.4. STRAIN

When the magnitude of the displacement derivatives and the rotation of the
elements during deformation are small, we neglect the nonlinear terms and
use the linear small strain expressions
xx =

u
x

v
y

yy =

zz =

w
,
z

(1.73)

1 u v
1 v w
1 w u
xy = [
+
], yz = [ +
] zx = [
+
].
(1.74)
2 y x
2 z
y
2 x
z
If we superimpose the origins of the undeformed elements xi and yj and
y

D
B

2
1

A
x

Figure 1.15: Superposition of elements OA and OB before deformation with

OA and OB after deformation.
their deformed images xi + x u and yj + y u we get the picture shown
in Fig. ??. From this, we can see the geometrical meanings of the small
normal strains as change in length over original length and shear strains as
half of the reduction in the included angle from the original /2 radians.
We have
OA = x,

OA OC = x(1+
xx =

u
),
x

OC OA
u
=
OA
x
1 =

v
CA
=
OC
x

OB = y,
yy =

2 =

OB OD = y(1+

OD OB
v
=
.
OB
y
DB
u
=
.
OD
y

v
),
y

22

CHAPTER 1. ELEMENTS OF ELASTICITY

xy =

1 + 2
1 u v
= [
+
].
2
2 y x

The shear strains we have dened are known as mathematical shear strains
which are calculated using the average of 1 and 2 . Engineering shear strains
are dened as the total change is angle, 1 + 2 . These are denoted by xy ,
etc. We have
xy = 2xy , yz = 2yz , zx = 2zx .
(1.75)
1.4.1 Plane Strain
If
zz = 0,

zx = 0,

zy = 0,

the state of strain is referred to as plane strain. We may visualize a body kept
at constant length in the z-direction using rigid blocks and with a uniform
cross section. The loading on the surface should not vary along z to achieve
plane strain. conditions. In this case, elasticity problems involve three nonzero strains: xx , yy and xy , given by
xx =

u
,
x

yy =

v
,
y

1 u v
xy = (
+
).
2 y x

(1.76)

.
1.4.2 Strain Transformation
Under a coordinate rotation by an angle from the x, y-system to x , y system, in the context of stress transformation, we have seen the transformation law for vector components:
x = cx sy ,

y = sx + cy ,

u = cu + sv,

v = su + cv,

where c and s are cos and sin , respectively. The normal strain in the
x -direction is dened as
u

x
y
= [cu + sv] = [
+ ][cu + sv],

x
x
x x x y

= [c
+ s ][cu + sv],
x
y
2
2
= c xx + s yy + 2csxy ,

xx =

(1.77)
(1.78)
(1.79)

23

1.4. STRAIN

which, interestingly, is the same law for the stress components. This derivation is based on geometry while the stress transformation is based on statics.
We may complete the list as
yy = s2 xx + c2 yy 2csxy ,
xy = cs(yy xx ) + (c2 s2 )xy .

(1.80)
(1.81)

Because of this transformation law, we refer to the collection of strain components as the strain tensor.
Now, we can apply the same approach we used for stresses to nd the
direction and magnitude of the maximum normal strain, those of the maximum shear strain and to draw the Mohrs circle. The sign convention for
shear strains in the Mohrs circle representation would be clear if we associate it with the shear stress. In the Cartesian form, we associate positive
shear strain with positive shear stress, which for the x-plane is negative and
for the y-plane is positive.
From the expression for xx , cos and sin are expressed as nx and ny ,
the components of a unit vector, the strain in the direction n can be written
as
nn = nT []n.
(1.82)
This is analogous to the normal stress expression obtained using the stress
matrix and the unit vector.
1.4.3 Displacement Boundary conditions
In elasticity problems, certain surfaces of the body may have prescribed displacements. For example, for a cantilever beam one end has zero displacements. In general
u = u, v = v ,

(1.83)
where, as before, u and v are given functions.

1.4.4 Compatibility equations

The strain-displacement relations, Eq. (??), can be viewed as three partial
dierential equations for two functions, u and v, if we know the strains.
This leads to a redundancy in the number of equations. The solution to
this puzzle is to recognize that the three strains are not independent. They

24

CHAPTER 1. ELEMENTS OF ELASTICITY

satisfy a dierential equation which is known as the compatibility equation.

We have
2 xx
3u
2 yy
3v
=
,
= 2 .
(1.84)
y 2
xy 2
x2
x y
Adding these two relations, we obtain the compatibility equation,
2 xy
2 xx 2 yy
+
=2
.
y 2
x2
xy

(1.85)

Thus, we cannot choose three strains arbitrarily; they have to satisfy the
compatibility equation. In the three dimensional case there are six such
equations.

1.5

Generalized Hookes Law

The stress and strain descriptions we have seen so far are independent of
the material. The relations between stress and strain are called constitutive
relations. An elastic material is called linear elastic if the stresses are linearly related to the strains. Generalizing the simple one-dimensional case
where stress is proportional to strain, we have, for a linear, isotropic, elastic
material,
xx =
yy =
zz =
xy =
yz =
xz =

1
[xx (yy + zz )],
E
1
[yy (zz + xx )],
E
1
[zz (xx + yy )],
E
xy
,
2xy =
G
yz
2yz =
,
G
xz
2xz =
,
G

(1.86)
(1.87)
(1.88)
(1.89)
(1.90)
(1.91)

where E is the Youngs modulus, is the Poissons ratio, and G is the shear
modulus which can be written as
G=

E
.
2(1 + )

(1.92)

1.5. GENERALIZED HOOKES LAW

25

This set of relations with just two independent material constants is dictated
by the requirement of isotropy. If we rotate the coordinate system stresses
and strains would change, but the Hookes law should be independent of the
coordinates used. We will discuss this further when we present anisotropic
relations.
1.5.1 Hookes law for plane stress
Under the plane stress assumption zz = xz = yz = 0, and the Hookes law
reduces to
1
[xx yy ],
(1.93)
xx =
E
1
[yy xx )],
(1.94)
yy =
E
1
xy =
xy ,
(1.95)
G
The strain in the z-direction can be obtained as

(1.96)
zz = [xx + yy ].
E
1.5.2 Hookes law for plane strain
From zz = 0, we nd
zz = [xx + yy ].

(1.97)

We use this equation to eliminate zz from the generalized Hookes law to

get
1 2

[xx
yy ],
(1.98)
E
1

1 2
[yy
xx )],
(1.99)
yy =
E
1
1
xy =
xy .
(1.100)
G
The plane stress and plane strain constitutive relations can be cast in a
similar form if we introduce the eective Youngs modulus E and Poissons
ration ,
xx =

E = E/(1 2 ), = /(1 ), Plane strain,

E = E,
= ,
Plane stress.

(1.101)

26

CHAPTER 1. ELEMENTS OF ELASTICITY

y

P
x
x=

2c
b

Figure 1.16: Cantilever beam under a tip load.

This way, if we have a solution for a plane strain problem for a domain in
the x, y-plane, we can transform it into a plane stress solution by changing
the elastic constants.
1.5.3 Example: Cantilever beam under plane stress
Let us consider a cantilever beam with length , height 2c and depth b subjected to a tip load P . If b << c, we may assume plane stress conditions
with the z-axis in the direction of the depth. We neglect gravitational forces.
We begin with the elementary beam theory approximation
xx =

My
,
I

M = P ( x),

2
I = bc3 .
3

(1.102)

The equilibrium equation

xx xy
+
= 0,
x
y

(1.103)

xy
P
= y,
y
I

(1.104)

gives

which can be integrated to get

xy =

P 2
y + K,
2I

(1.105)

where K is a constant. At the top and bottom surfaces of the beam there are
no shear stresses. That is xy = 0 when when y = c. Then K = P c2 /(2I)
and
P
xy = (c2 y 2 ).
(1.106)
2I

1.5. GENERALIZED HOOKES LAW

27

This is the parabolic distribution of shear stress in the y direction. The

second equilibrium equation in conjunction with the conditions yy = 0 at
y = c gives yy = 0. Also, the tip load P is the resultant of this parabolically distributed shear stress. It can be seen
1
2

(c2 y 2 )bdy = I.

(1.107)

From the Hookes law for plane stress

xx
u
=
,
x
E
u
P
= ( x)y,
x
EI

v
xx
=
,
y
E
v
P
=
( x)y.
y
EI

(1.108)

We integrate these equations, with the understanding that integration with

x will introduce an arbitrary function of y and vice versa, to obtain
x2
P
u(x, y) = [(x )y+f (y)],
EI
2

P
y2
v(x, y) =
[(x) +g(x)], (1.109)
EI
2

where f (y) and g(x) are the arbitrary functions. Next, we substitute u and
v in the shear strain constitutive relation,
xy =

xy
,
G

x2
dg
y2
E c2 y 2
df
+ x

+ =
.
dy
2
dx
2
G 2
Separating the variables,
df
y 2 E c2 y 2
=
+ C,
dy
2
G 2
dg
x2
= x
+ C,
dx
2
where C is a new constant. Integrating these two equations
y 3 E c2 y y 3
+ Cy + D1 ,

6
G 2
6
x2 x3

+ Cx + D2 .
g =
2
6

f =

(1.110)

(1.111)
(1.112)

28

CHAPTER 1. ELEMENTS OF ELASTICITY

with two new constants of integration, D1 and D2 . Substituting in the displacements, we nd

x2
y 3 E c2 y y 3
P
+ Cy + D1 ], (1.113)
[(x )y

EI
2
6
G
2
6
y 2 x2 x3
P
[( x) +

+ Cx + D2 ].
(1.114)
v =
EI
2
2
6

u =

Although, we would like to satisfy the boundary conditions at the xed end,
namely, u = 0, v = 0, at x = 0 for all y between c and c, these solutions
do not allow it for all values of y. The next step is to try to meet these
requirements at x = 0 and y = 0. This gives D1 = 0 and D2 =0. That leaves
C. The contributions due to C can be viewed as those due to a small counter
clock-wise rigid body rotation of the beam about the point (0, 0). We may
set
u
= 0, at x = 0, y = 0.
(1.115)
y
This leads to
C=

Ec2
,
2G

and to the nal expressions

x2
y 3 Ey 3
P
[(x )y +
)],
EI
2
6
6G
P
y 2 x2 x3 Ec2
v =
[( x) +

+
x].
EI
2
2
6
2G

u =

(1.116)
(1.117)

The tip deection of the beam measured at the point x = , y = 0 is obtained

as
3Ec2
P 3
[1 +
].
(1.118)
v(, 0) =
3EI
2G2
When we compare this with the elementary beam result, P 3 /(3EI), we see
an additional contribution, 3Ec2 /(2G2 ), which is attributed to the shear
strains and called the shear correction. As it is proportional to (c/)2 , we
may neglect it when >> c. Recall, we are not able to satisfy the boundary
conditions at the xed end exactly. Generally, the shear correction factor is
included as
P 3
Ec2
v(, 0) =
[1 + k 2 ],
3EI
G

1.6. ANISOTROPIC MATERIALS

29

where, our present approximation gives, k = 1.5. This is attributed to Timoshenko. The value of k = 6/5 was obtained by Reissner for static cases and
k = 12/ 2 by Mindlin for dynamic cases.

1.6

Anisotropic Materials

When the elastic properties of a material is direction dependent, the material

is called anisotropic. This general category can be subdivided into dierent
groups depending on the symmetry property of the material. For example,
the simplest sub-group of isotropic materials have elastic properties invariant
under arbitrary rotations about any of the three chosen axes. If the properties
are invariant under rotation about one axis, say the z-axis, we have transverse
isotropy. If they are invariant under reection about three orthogonal axes,
we call it orthotropy. In material science, we assume metals are made of three
dimensional array of basic crystals tted together to ll the three dimensional
space without any gaps. The classication of anisotropy is based on the shape
of the basic crystal. If the material is made from randomly oriented basic
crystals or from crystals of dierent size and orientation, it has no directional
properties and we assume isotropic behavior. Many alloys fall under this
group.

1.7

Non-homogenous structures

Mathematically, the term non-homogenous implies the materials properties

vary from point-to-point. There are functionally graded materials in which
the properties do vary continuously. More commonly, we have composite
materials such as epoxy-ber mixtures. In these, the bers have high values
for the Youngs modulus and the epoxys role is to keep the bers in position
without contributing to the stiness. Fig. ?? (a) shows the epoxy-ber
arrangement as a non-homogeneous material. In practice, we may idealize
this as a homogeneous material with high stiness in the ber direction and
low stiness perpendicular to it. This idealized orthotropic material is shown
in Fig. ?? (b). The stress-strain relations for orthotropic materials can be

30

CHAPTER 1. ELEMENTS OF ELASTICITY

(a)
Ez
(b)

Ex
Ey

Figure 1.17: Epoxy-Fiber composite and an equivalent orthotropic material.

written as
1
[xx xy yy xz zz ],
Ex
1
[yy yx xx yz zz ],
yy =
Ey
1
zz =
[zz zx xx zy yy ],
Ez
yz
xz
xy
yz =
, xz =
, xy =
,
Gyz
Gxz
Gxy
xx =

where

1.8

xy
yx
=
,
Ex
Ey

xz
zx
=
,
Ex
Ez

yz
zy
=
.
Ey
Ez

(1.119)

(1.120)

Commonly used Aircraft Materials

In aircraft construction, critical structural components such as brackets,

bulkheads, spars and landing gears are usually made of steel, which has
a Youngs modulus of 200 GPa and Poissons ratio of 0.32. Depending on
the added alloying components the yield stress and ultimate strength may
vary around 1500 MPa and 1800 Mpa, respectively. This high stiness and
strength is obtained at the expense of a high density of 7.8 gram per cubic
centimeter.
Most of a conventional aircraft is made of aluminum, which has a Youngs
modulus of 71 GPa and Poissons ratio of 0.33. The yield stress varies from
324 MPa (2024-T3 heat treated alloy) to 490 MPa (7075-T6). It has density
of 2.78 g/cm3 . Another, expensive, material used for its high strength and

1.8. COMMONLY USED AIRCRAFT MATERIALS

31

low density is titanium. This is particularly suitable for high temperature

applications such as engine components.
More and more non-critical components are made of composites these
days. The basic epoxy-ber arrangement of orthotropic layers are stacked
at dierent angles to form laminated composites. These have exceptional
stiness in the desired directions, low density and high durability under cyclic
loading. The carbon bers have, approximately, E = 240GPa and glass bers
have E = 80 GPa, with densities of 1.8 g/cm3 and 2.5 g/cm3 , respectively.
A good reference for additional materials and their properties is Aerospace
Materials Handbook, and the Handbook of Composite Materials.

Exercises