International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 49 (2007) 3953

Indentation of ring-stiffened cylinders by wedge-shaped

indentersPart 2: Scale model tests
C.G. Karroum
a
, S.R. Reid
b
, S. Li
a,
a
School of Mechanical, Aerospace and Civil Engineering, University of Manchester, P.O. Box 88, Sackville Street, Manchester M60 1QD, UK
b
Department of Engineering, College of Physical Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen AB24 3UE, Scotland
Received 15 November 2004; received in revised form 8 August 2006; accepted 8 August 2006
Available online 20 October 2006
Abstract
The main objective of this account was to examine the effects of scale on the deformation and penetration processes of ring-stiffened
thin metal cylindrical shells with fully xed ends under quasi-static loading by wedge-shaped indenters. To this end three sizes of
geometrically similar shells of the same material with outer diameters of 157.7, 236.5 and 315.4 mm were tested under geometrically
identical conditions. The shells, which incorporated at ring-stiffeners and deep frames (bulkheads), were loaded laterally at the
midsection to failure. The results demonstrate that they conform to simple scaling laws.
r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Wedge-shaped indenter; Ring-stiffened cylinder; Plastic deformation; Experimental stress analysis; Scale
1. Introduction
Experimental testing is important to validate the
numerical codes used by design engineers and to ascertain
the actual behaviour and failure modes that could
otherwise be overlooked in the design and in the numerical
modelling. Experimental testing also gives a basis for
empirical design formulations. The main problem with
experimental testing is that full scale testing can be
prohibitively expensive, especially if the purpose of the
tests is to provide design information that may require a
range of tests covering a range of parameters. Scale model
testing, on the other hand, is not necessarily valid,
especially when fracture is part of the deformation process.
It is, therefore, important that in any small-scale model
testing that the results can be directly and successfully
correlated to the full-scale situation.
To this end the present work has examined the
indentation behaviour of ring-stiffened cylinders, with
internal bulkheads, by wedge-shaped indenters. Flat
rectangular ring-stiffened cylinders loaded laterally at the
midsection were examined for a range of scale model tests
on geometrically similar specimens tested under geome-
trically identical conditions. Fully xed end conditions
were imposed on the shells. The intention of these scaling
tests was to identify those features, which do and those,
which do not scale according to simple scaling laws. No
general relationships between the critical parameters such
as failure load and failure deection and the geometrical
and material properties of the specimens for this type of
loading appear to exist in the literature. Hence the aim here
was to test for scalability at a very basic level by
investigating the relationship between these parameters
and the geometrical scale factor to seek a simple correla-
tion between the three sizes of specimens of the same
material from the tests.
For the set of specimens investigated in this work, it is
shown that the response is indeed scalable and the resulting
relationship allows the prediction of the load-deection
characteristics of geometrically similar specimens.
2. Test specimens
Three sizes of geometrically similar specimens of the
same material were manufactured with machined integral
rectangular section rings from commercially available
Hollomeck 510 steel tubing. To ensure repeatability in
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doi:10.1016/j.ijmecsci.2006.08.013

Corresponding author. Tel.: +44 161 306 3842; fax: +44 161 306 3849.
E-mail address: shuguang.li@manchester.ac.uk (S. Li).
test observations and allowing for the importance of
sample size in the process of data accumulation it was
decided to test a minimum of two specimens for each size
considered.
The individual specimen details are shown in Figs. 1a
and b and are summarised in Table 1. The radius of the
loading wedge indenter for each specimen is also given in
Table 1.
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Table 1
Specimen details
Specimen Outer diameter
(mm)
Mean shell
thickness (mm)
Mean bay width
a
(mm)
Overall specimen
length 2L
t
(mm)
Machined bay
section 2L (mm)
Wedge radius
(mm)
A1 157.8 0.7870.02 11.7970.89 298.45 191.67 0.83
A6 157.7 0.7470.001 11.7670.89 298.45 191.67 0.83
B1 236.5 1.1270.04 17.6571.28 447.7 287.5 1.25
B2 236.5 1.1370.02 17.6571.28 447.7 287.5 1.25
C1 315.4 1.5170.22 23.5271.75 597.1 383.2 1.66
C2 315.3 1.5070.05 23.5271.76 384.4
b
384.40 1.66
C3 315.4 1.5170.05 23.4471.86 597.1 383.2 1.66
a
The bay width is the distance between two consecutive ring stiffeners.
b
The overall specimen length of C2 was made equal to the machined bay section length. This was done to test the effect, if any, of the overhang (the
unmachined thick tubular portion beyond L to the specimen end) on the test results. The effect was observed to be insignicant.
Fig. 1. (a) Basic specimen geometry and (b) specimen details (all dimensions in mm unless otherwise specied).
C.G. Karroum et al. / International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 49 (2007) 3953 40
2.1. Test specimen manufacture
The manufacturing processes for all of the specimens
were identical. Commercially available Hollomeck 510
steel tubing was acquired with the following initial
dimensions:
(1) 168.3 mm outer diameter 19 mm thick for the speci-
mens labelled with prex A, i.e. A1 and A6;
(2) 244.5 mm outer diameter 25 mm thick for the speci-
mens labelled with prex B, i.e. B1 and B2;
(3) 323.8 mm outer diameter 28.6 mm thick for the
specimen labelled with prex C, i.e. C1C3.
The tubes were cut to the approximate lengths required,
stress relieved by heating in an oven to 870 1C for 1 h and
then allowed to cool inside the oven. Each specimen
was then machined with integral rings to the required
dimensions with great care to ensure that the manu-
facturing stresses were kept to a minimum. The specimen
then had anges welded on to their ends. Specimen C2
was manufactured to check the effect of the overhang
on the specimen test results. For this specimen the
overall specimen length (2L
t
) was made equal to the length
2L, the machined length of the specimen, and anges
welded on the inside, of the last half bay, to the thin shell
thickness t. The results for specimen C2 were not
signicantly different from C1 or C3 from which it was
concluded that the specimen results were not affected by
the overall length of the shell beyond the machined
portion.
The deep frames (bulkheads), see Fig. 1b, were cut from
mild steel plate and screw threaded into the cylinders to
give a tight t.
Although the manufacturing processes for small scale
models are somewhat different to full scale, machining as
compared to welding, this has been shown not to affect the
quality of the results [1].
3. Experimental procedure
3.1. Strain gauging
After datum lines had been scribed on the specimens, a
set of YFLA-2 120 O, post-yield strain gauges of 2 mm
length with quarter bridge 3 wire connections were
attached to each one. The gauges were attached with a
100% epoxy solid adhesive, AE-15, which, after the
application of a suitable pressure, had to be cured inside
an oven at approximately 70 1C for about 2 h. Where
possible the specimens were gauged at geometrically
similar locations. Additional gauges were attached to the
larger specimens. The layout of the gauges for the test
specimens is shown in Fig. 2 for the A1 and A6 specimens
and in Figs. 3ab for the B and C sized specimens.
3.2. Testing rigs
Two rigs for imposing xed-end conditions on the
specimen shells were designed and manufactured. These
are described in the rst part of this account [2], see Figs. 4
and 5.
3.3. Loading wedge indenter
Three geometrically similar wedge-shaped indenters
manufactured from gauge steel plates were used to load
the cylinders. The radius of the loading wedge to that of
the specimen was approximately 0.0109, i.e. 0.83, 1.25
and 1.66 mm, respectively for the A, B and C specimens.
The length of each indenter in the loading plane was
as much as half the circumference of the tube to ensure
that full wedge contact was maintained all the way to
failure. The basic geometry of the loading wedges is as
shown in Fig. 6.
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Fig. 2. Gauge layout for specimens A1A6.
C.G. Karroum et al. / International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 49 (2007) 3953 41
3.4. The prolometers
Two instruments, hereafter referred to as the prolo-
meters, and described in Ref. [2] were used to measure the
deformed proles of the models. Essentially these were
designed to mount and locate onto the testing rigs such
that by means of a linear voltage differential transducer
LVDT the deformation around and along the shell could
be measured. Figs. 4 and 5 show the prolometers in
position with an A and B model, respectively.
Basically each prolometer consists of two parallel bars,
which are connected by two mounting blocks (one xed
and one variable), a sliding block and a rigid end frame.
Two incomplete rings (one of which is slot indexed at
intervals of 51 up to 1801) permanently xed to the loading
rig locate on to the rollers of the mounting blocks once the
desired specimen is bolted into the rig. With the use of a
spring-loaded stopper attached to the xed mounting
block, the prolometer can be rotated and indexed to the
desired position. The sliding block, guided on the two
parallel bars, carries the LVDT used to measure the radial
displacement of the deformed prole. The longitudinal
position of the LVDT along the length of the cylinder was
accurately measured by means of a potentiometer wire
stretched between and around the xed mounting block
and the rigid end frame.
3.5. Test procedure
The cylindrical specimen, when mounted in the rig and
placed on the bed of the testing machine, was oriented so
that its middle section was in the same vertical plane as the
loading edge of the wedge, see Fig. 6. Loading was
achieved by moving the wedge against the specimen at a
precise rate of 3 mm/min. The loading was stopped
intermittently and the gauges scanned. This procedure
was carried out at approximately every 0.5 mm of cross-
load transverse for the rst 10 mm then every 2 mm
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Fig. 3. (a), (b) Gauge layout for B and C sized specimens.
C.G. Karroum et al. / International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 49 (2007) 3953 42
subsequently. To enable the cross-sectional changes of the
test specimens to be monitored, the loading was stopped at
various intervals (typically every 5 mm of cross-head
travel), the specimen unloaded at the same loading rate,
until the wedge was clear of the specimen and the
prolometer rotated into place. By means of the LVDT,
the deformed prole around the load line of the cylinder
was scanned every 51 and also along the top generator
wherever the gauges and wiring allowed.
The initial prole of each cylinder was measured before
loading. The data was stored on the PC for future plotting.
The development of the deformed shapes could therefore
be traced. For a typical test some 1200 data were recorded.
4. Material properties
The mechanical properties of each batch of tube material
used in the manufacture of the test specimens were
obtained from tensile tests. The tensile test specimens were
cut from the parent material after it had been stress
relieved. For each batch of tube material, six tensile
specimens were tested and the average mechanical proper-
ties determined. The geometry of the tensile test specimens
complied with BS18. The key average material properties
are summarised in Table 2 below. The standard deviation
of the ultimate tensile strength was calculated and is also
given in Table 2.
5. Results
The failure loads, maximum crosshead displacements,
failure location and energy under the loaddeection curve
for the specimens are summarised in Table 3 below. The
detailed results are presented in the form of graphs. The
loaddeection (Pd) curves for all specimens are plotted
as load vs. displacement in Fig. 7a and as load vs.
deection/diameter (d/D) in Fig. 7b. For ease of compar-
ison between the different batches and sizes of test
specimens the strain measurement results are plotted as
normalised strain vs. non-dimensional deection (d/D).
The normalised strain is simply the observed strain e
divided by the yield strain of the material, e
y
. The results of
nominally identical specimens were similar and hence the
proles and strain gauge results of only one specimen for
each size considered are reported here.
5.1. Failure locations
The failure location of A1 and B1 was at the loadline
under the indenter. All of the other specimens failed at a
bulkhead. The term loadline is used to describe the vertical
plane in which the load is applied rather than the contact
condition at the point of loading. The latter starts as a
single point at the top generator when the wedge is at rst
contact then grows along the loaded cross-section, i.e.
circumference, of the specimen as the load increases and
the contact area along the wedge increases. Throughout all
the tests in this account the sides of the loading wedge
beyond the radius of curvature never came into contact
with the specimen as it deformed.
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Fig. 4. The rig and prolometer for specimens A1 and A6.
Fig. 5. The rig and prolometer for specimens B and C with
specimen B1.
C.G. Karroum et al. / International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 49 (2007) 3953 43
5.2. Loaddeection curves
For all of the specimens failure was observed to occur
at an average indentation d/D value of approximately
0.15870.008 (i.e. 75.06%). In an attempt to correlate
the behaviours of the different-sized specimens the
loaddeection characteristics were plotted non-dimen-
sionally in Fig. 8 as P/s
y
t
2
vs. d/D and in Fig. 9 as
P/s
u
t
2
vs. d/D. The form of this relationship is discussed
latter.
5.3. Shell proles
The deformed proles of the loaded sections and the
top generators of specimens A3, B1 and C3 are shown in
Figs. 10a12b. The proles of the nominally identical
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Fig. 6. Basic geometry of loading wedge.
Table 2
Mean material properties
Specimen Youngs modulus E (GPa) Yield stress s
y
(MPa) Ultimate tensile strength
s
u
(MPa)
Yield strain e
y
(%)
A1, A6 210.2 402.2 564.672.1 0.191
B1 207.4 327.2 482.478.8 0.158
B2 200.8 333.9 503.276.7 0.166
C1 202.6 296.9 466.271.8 0.147
C2, C3 219.0 376.6 546.974.3 0.172
Table 3
Results of at ring stiffened cylindrical shell under quasi-static loading by a wedge-shaped indenter
Specimen Failure load, P
f
(kN) d/D Failure location Energy, E (J) P
f
/s
u
t
2
E/s
u
t
2
D
A1 39.0 0.150 Loadline 426.54 113.54 7.87
A6 41.9 0.164 Bulkhead 429.0 135.52 8.80
B1 87.1 0.161 Loadline 1500.38 146.54 10.48
B2 98.1 0.169 Bulkhead 1705.38 152.68 11.22
C1 137.0 0.155 Bulkhead 2871.83 128.88 8.57
C2 153.3 0.159 Bulkhead 2790.78 124.58 7.19
C3 142.8 0.146 Bulkhead 2841.73 114.52 7.23
C.G. Karroum et al. / International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 49 (2007) 3953 44
specimens tested were similar and are not reported. The
deformed shapes of specimen A6 and B1 can also be seen in
Figs. 4 and 5, respectively.
Only the results for quarter of the tube cross-section are
presented. The deformation was observed to be symme-
trical about the top generator and about the midsection
and did not extend to the lower half of the cylinder. The
deformation was also observed to be contained in the
area between the bulkheads. This starts as two equi-
lateral triangular shapes with a common base about the
loadline, which progressively grow and move outward as
the indentation increases. When the deformation reaches
the bulkhead, each of the triangular shapes have reached
their maximum height. At higher levels of indentation
as the contact area along the loadline increases the sides
of each equilateral triangular shape move away from
each other at the bulkhead, whilst maintaining their equal
angles to the loadline, to form a trapezoidal shape which
grows progressively till failure. The nal deformed region
between the bulkheads is generally hexagonal-shaped
consisting of two trapezoids with a common base, the
loadline. Fig. 13 shows the nal deformed region of
specimen A6. This deformed shape was similar for all
specimens.
5.4. Strain measurements
In the rst part of this account [2] a comprehensive strain
gauge data analysis for a C-sized specimen was
presented. Some key data is also presented in this part.
As the specimens were gauged identically at geometri-
cally similar locations, where this has been physically
possible, the strain data for particular sets of gauges are
directly comparable and show good overall similarity
between the three sizes of specimens examined. The results
are presented in Figs. 1420.
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Fig. 7. (a) Loaddeection for rectangular frame ring-stiffened cylindrical
shells and (b) load vs. non-dimensional displacement, d/D, for rectangular
frame ring-stiffened cylindrical shells.
Fig. 8. P/s
y
t
2
vs. d/D for rectangular frame ring-stiffened cylindrical
shells.
Fig. 9. P/s
u
t
2
vs. d/D for rectangular frame ring-stiffened cylindrical
shells.
C.G. Karroum et al. / International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 49 (2007) 3953 45
6. Discussion
The main objective of this work was to examine the
results for evidence of scalability in the tests results for
geometrically similar rectangular frame ring-stiffened thin
metal cylinders under geometrically identical loading
conditions.
At the simplest level, scalability can be claimed if
the key parameters vary with the scale factor a
according to elementary scaling laws. Thus in a quasi-
static loading problem which is governed by elastic,
plastic deformation, the forces involved will be related
to the key material properties which have the dimen-
sions of stress. Therefore, assuming that the material
for each specimen is the same, the loads should be
proportional to a
2
from simple dimensional arguments.
This should be the case irrespective of the detailed
relationship between the load and the geometrical
parameters in the problem and, as discussed below,
Fig. 9 demonstrates this form of scalability. Similarly,
equivalent deections, d (e.g. the deection at failure),
should be proportional to a which, alternatively, means
that d/D would be a constant for each specimen which
it was.
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Fig. 10. (a) Prole of loaded cross-section of A6 at various stages of
unloading and (b) prole of top generator of A6 at various stages of
unloading.
Fig. 11. (a) Prole of loaded cross-section of B1 at various stages of
unloading and (b) prole of top generator of B1 at various stages of
unloading.
C.G. Karroum et al. / International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 49 (2007) 3953 46
In producing the non-dimensional loaddeection char-
acteristics in Fig. 9, the ultimate tensile stress, s
u
, was
chosen as the most appropriate material property to use.
Whilst this does not produce dramatic changes when
compared to s
y
(see Fig. 8), its relevance to the tensile
failure of the material makes it a more rational choice.
Similarly other groups could be used instead of t
2
, e.g.
stiffener dimensions.
6.1. Failure of the specimens
There is a good agreement in the deection to diameter
ratio at which the specimens failed. All of the specimens
failed at d/D value of approximately 0.158. The failure
location was either at a bulkhead or under the indenter.
For identical sized specimens A1 and A6 the former
failed at the loadline whilst the latter failed at the bulkhead.
All other results for those specimens were very similar. The
failure load of A1 was about 7% lower than that of A6.
The deection depth d/D at failure for A1 was about 9%
lower than that for A6.
Similarly, B1 failed under the indenter whilst B2 failed at
a bulkhead with the failure load of B1 about 12.6% lower
than that of B1. This small variation in failure load may be
attributed to batch-to-batch variation in material proper-
ties. The standard deviation in the measured uniaxial
ultimate tensile strength, s
u
, for B1 and B2 were between
3.4 and 4.7 times higher than the standard deviation in s
u
values of any other specimen (see Table 2). The indentation
depth, d/D, at failure for B1 was only about 5% lower than
that for B2.
The failure location of the specimen, whether at the
loadline or the bulkhead, is therefore not considered to
signicantly affect the deection level for failure. The
indenter deection at failure therefore scales directly with
the scale factor. In [2] a nite element analysis showed that
at an indentation d/D of 0.158 the effective plastic strains
under the indenter and at the bulkhead are high and of
almost equal intensity presumably because at both loca-
tions there is a combination of membrane tension and local
bending.
6.2. Loaddeection curves
The loaddeection curves for all of the specimens are
plotted in the non-dimensional form as P
f
/s
u
t
2
vs. d/D in
Fig. 9. There is good agreement between the curves for all
sizes of specimens. This demonstrates that for geometri-
cally similar at ring-stiffened specimens tested under
geometrically identical conditions, this form of the
loaddeection characteristic is virtually identical, i.e. the
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Fig. 12. (a) Prole of loaded cross-section of C1 at various stages of
unloading and (b) prole of top generator of C1 at various stages of
unloading.
Fig. 13. Specimen A6 after testing.
C.G. Karroum et al. / International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 49 (2007) 3953 47
results are scalable. Using the relationship represented in
Fig. 8 it would, therefore, be possible to predict the
failure load, P
f
, of any-sized geometrically similar cylind-
rical shell (provided all dimensions are proportionate).
It is also further possible to predict the load at a certain
dent depth or vice versa. The value of P
f
/s
u
t
2
for each
specimen is shown in Table 3. The mean value is
130.89715.02.
The loaddeection curve consists of three portions,
the transitions between them being in the form of
slope changes. At d/D of about 0.015 the slope reduces
due to tripping of the two stiffeners adjacent to the
loadline [2]. The second transition occurs at an inden-
tation level, d/D, of approximately 0.1 and corresponds
to the dent reaching the bulkhead. Beyond this value
the behaviour is dominated by membrane stretching in
the shell.
6.3. Energy absorption
The area under the loaddeection curves shown
in Fig. 7a is the energy required to fail the individual
test specimens. This energy, E, has been calculated by
graphical evaluation of the area under each curve and is
recorded in Table 3. The non-dimensional value for the
energy, E/s
u
t
2
D, for each specimen was also calculated
and given in Table 3. The mean value of E/s
u
t
2
D
is 8.7771.56 (i.e. 718%). This variation is attributed to
the variation in s
u
of specimens B1 and B2 as discussed
above.
Alternately, using the relationship represented in
Fig. 9 it is possible to predict the energy to failure
of geometrically similar cylinders tested under geo-
metrical identical loading. The relationship represented
in Fig. 9 has the following simple form for the energy
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Fig. 14. (a) Outer axial strain gauge results along the top generator of A6, (b) outer axial strain gauge results along the top generator of B2 and (c) outer
axial strain gauge results along the top generator of C3.
C.G. Karroum et al. / International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 49 (2007) 3953 48
to failure:
E
Z
P
s
u
t
2
d
d
D

A or
Z
Pdd ADs
u
t
2
,
where A is the average non-dimensional area under the
curve in Fig. 9 and is approximately 8.7771.56.
6.4. Deformed prole data
The deformed cross-sectional changes at various stages
of unloading for the three sizes of specimens are shown in
Figs. 10a12b. For ease of comparison, and as a further
check on scalability, these have been plotted non-dimen-
sionally in the following form:
(1) y/R vs. x/R for a quarter of the shell cross-sections at
the loadline (Figs. 10a, 11a and 12a) where x and y are
Cartesian co-ordinates measured from the centre of the
shell along the radius, R, (at x/R 0, y/R 2d/D).
(2) As the dent depth/radius, d/R, vs. axial distance x/L
along the top generators of the shells (Figs. 10b, 11b,
and 12b) where x is the distance along the length L of
the specimen.
There is overall good agreement between the proles of
the three sizes of specimens at the various stages of
unloading, i.e. the deformed shapes exhibit scalability
characteristics.
6.5. Strain gauge data
The strain gauge measurements for all specimens are
plotted non-dimensionally as e/e
y
vs. d/D. For the same
gauge locations the variations in the strain gauge data
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Fig. 15. (a) Inner axial strain gauge results along the top generator of A6, (b) inner axial strain gauge results along the top generator of B2 and (c) inner
axial strain gauge results along the top generator of C3.
C.G. Karroum et al. / International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 49 (2007) 3953 49
showed similar trends for the three sizes of the specimens
up to gauge failure, where this occurred, as can be seen
from Figs. 14a20c which are grouped according to the
gauge locations. Strain is a non-dimensional parameter
and as such is not subject to scaling. However, the
reproducible nature of the variations with deection
at all deection levels and all locations is a strong
indication that the intrinsic behaviour of each of the shells
is the same.
Both the outer and inner axial strain gauge results along
the top generator are tensile with approximately the same
magnitude and general trends for the same inner and outer
locations (see Figs. 14a15c) indicating axial membrane
stretching of the shell. These strains are higher closer to the
dent in the region between the bulkheads although strains in
excess of yield were also observed outside the bulkhead (e.g.
see gauges 1416 in Fig. 14b and gauges 3637 in Fig. 15b).
Over the bulkhead these strains are generally small; gauge 33
for B2 (Fig. 14b) is well below yield up to failure while for C3
(Fig. 14c) some initial tension of up to 2.7 e
y
were observed
dying out at indentations grater than 0.07D. These latter are
attributed to small elastic movements of the rig support,
which for C3 was measured by two LVDTs placed at the
opposite fully xed ends and observed to be approximately
0.03% of the full length 2L
t
of the shell.
The inner and outer axial strain gauge results along
the 151 and 301 generators are also generally tensile
(Figs. 16ac) decreasing in magnitude away from the
centre of the dent (e.g. note magnitude in decreasing order
in gauges 17, 27, 26 and 20 in Fig. 16c). Some initial small
compressive behaviour, changing to tensile at higher
indentation levels, was also observed to occur away from
the top generator close to the loadline (more noticeable in
the larger specimens). This seems to indicate that at low
loads the tension in the top generator is equilibrated by
local membrane compression in those generators further
out. At higher indentations, as the shell in the region of the
dent attens, more generators support axial tension.
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Fig. 16. (a) Inner and outer axial strain gauge results along 151 and 301 generators of A6, (b) inner and outer axial strain gauge results along 151 and 301
generators of B2 and (c) Inner and outer axial strain gauge results along 151 and 301 generators of C3.
C.G. Karroum et al. / International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 49 (2007) 3953 50
The inner and outer hoop strain gauge results along the
151 and 301 generators (Figs. 17ac) are virtually the
reverse of their corresponding axial counterparts, i.e.
mainly compressive with some initial tension in the 301
generator close to the loadline (gauge 25) changing to
compression as d/D becomes greater than 0.1. Further
away from both the loadline and the top generator gauge
19 on the outer surface is in tension up to about failure
while gauge 8 is in compression indicating a circumferential
bending strain eld. Nearer the centre of the dent (gauges 6
and 18) compressive hoop strains occur on both surfaces of
the shell being higher on the outside.
Along the top generators of B2 and C3 (Figs. 18a19b)
compressive hoop strains occur on both inner and outer
surfaces being marginally higher on the outer surface
indicating a state of membrane circumferential compres-
sion. These compressive hoop strain gauge results nearer
the centre of the dent along the top generator are almost of
the same magnitude as the axial tension strain gauge results
at the same locations for the same indentation levels.
Further away from the dent along the top generator the
hoop strain gauge results were negligible (gauges 3032 and
4546 in Figs. 18a19b).
The inner hoop gauges on the loadline (gauges 14 in
Figs. 20ac) all exhibit fairly similar behaviour, mainly
compressive with some levelling-off for gauge 4 at the 451
generator as the specimens tended to atten as the contact
area under the loading wedge increased. Gauge 40 at the
601 generator exhibited some very small tensile strains
below yield throughout (see Figs. 20b and c).
The strain gauge results at locations away from the
dented area were all small compared with the strains in the
main deformed region and are not presented.
Axial strain gauge results from gauges mounted on the
rings of the top generator also showed small values of
tensile strain, these reaching a maximum value of about
four times yield at failure.
The gauge failures were mainly due to peeling off of the
gauges due to the excessive strain levels. Strain values as
high as 40 times the material yield strain were recorded
particularly along the top generator near the centre of the
indentations. A comprehensive analysis of the strain gauge
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Fig. 17. Inner and outer hoop strain gauge results along 151 and 301 generators of A6, (b) inner and outer hoop strain gauge results along 151 and 301
generators of B2 and (c) inner and outer hoop strain gauge results along 151 and 301 generators of C2.
C.G. Karroum et al. / International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 49 (2007) 3953 51
data performed in conjunction with nite element analysis
for this problem can be found in Ref. [1]. These can be
summarised are as follows:
(1) From the hoop gauges under the load line, Figs. 20ac,
it appears that up to a non-dimensional indentation
d/D of about 0.1 the shell under the indenter deforms in
membrane compression in the hoop direction. The
axial strain eld also shows predominantly tensile
membrane deformation along the top generator.
(2) At d/D40.1 signicant changes occur simultaneously
in three aspects of the data. The Pd curve increases in
slope; the dent has reached the bulkhead and the mode
of deformation of the central section changes from
attening to bulging (i.e. hoop bending).
The shell response is considered therefore intermediate
between thin and thick shells, the mode of deformation
being initially dominated by axial membrane stretching and
hoop compression followed by an axial stretching/hoop
bending phase.
7. Conclusions
For the range of scales tested the experiments in-
dicate that the indentation and failure processes are
scalable, provided that the same material is used. The
failure load, P
f
, is given by 130.9s
u
t
2
and the average
energy to failure is given by 8.77s
u
t
2
D. At failure
the value of d/D is approximately 0.158 and is inde-
pendent of material properties. Using the relationship
depicted in Fig. 9 the load at a certain dent depth can be
deduced.
The shape of the deformed region is hexagonal
consisting of two trapeziums about the loadline. The
deformation is contained in the area between the bulkheads
and in the upper half of the cylinder and outside the
deformed region, the shell is relatively unaffected by the
denting process.
It is, therefore, possible to conclude that all deforma-
tions and failure characteristics of geometrically similar at
ring-stiffened shells tested under geometrically similar
conditions are scalable.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Fig. 18. (a) Outer hoop strain gauge results along the top generators of B2
and (b) outer hoop strain gauge results along the top generator of C3. Fig. 19. (a) Inner hoop strain gauge results along the top generator of B2
and (b) inner hoop strain gauge results along the top generator of C3.
C.G. Karroum et al. / International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 49 (2007) 3953 52
References
[1] Karroum CG. Indentation of ring-stiffened cylinders by wedge-shaped
indenters. PhD thesis, University of Manchester Institute of Science
and Technology; May 1995.
[2] Karroum CG, Reid SR, Li S. Indentation of ring-stiffened cylinders by
wedge-shaped indenters, part 1: an experimental and nite element
investigation. International Journal Mechanic Science 2006, in press,
doi:10.1016/j.ijmecsci.2006.08.020.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Fig. 20. (a) Inner hoop strain gauge results along the loadline of A6, (b) inner hoop strain gauge results along the loadline of B2 and (c) inner hoop strain
gauge results along the loadline of C3.
C.G. Karroum et al. / International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 49 (2007) 3953 53