KSCE Journal of Civil Engineering

Vol. 10, No. 2 / March 2006

pp. 97~104
Highway Engineering
Vol. 10, No. 2 / March 2006 97
Viscoelastic Continuum Damage Finite Element Modeling of
Asphalt Pavements for Fatigue Cracking Evaluation
By Sungho Mun*, Murthy N. Guddati**, and Y. Richard Kim***

Abstract
This paper documents the findings from the study of fatigue cracking mechanisms in asphalt pavements using the finite element
program (VECD-FEP++) that employs the viscoelastic continuum damage model for the asphalt layer and a nonlinear elastic model
for unbound layers. Both bottom-up and top-down cracks are investigated by taking several important variables into account, such as
asphalt layer thickness, layer stiffness, pressure distribution under loading, and load level applied on the pavement surface. The
cracking mechanisms in various pavement structures under different loading conditions are studied by monitoring a damage contour.
Preferred conditions for top-down cracking were identified using the results from this parametric study. The conjoined damage
contours in thicker pavements suggest that the through-the-thickness crack may develop as the bottom-up and top-down cracks
propagate simultaneously and coalesce together, supporting observations from field cores and raising the question of the validity of
traditional fatigue performance models that account for the growth of the bottom-up cracking only.
Keywords: viscoelasticity, Continuum damage, finite element modeling, asphalt fatigue cracking

1. Introduction
A traditional approach to dealing with fatigue cracking in
asphalt pavements is based on the assumption that cracks initiate
at the bottom of the asphalt layer due to tensile stresses
developed from the flexure of the layer and propagate to the
pavement surface under repeated load applications (so-called
bottom-up cracking). However, recent field studies also suggest
that fatigue cracks can also initiate at the pavement surface and
propagate downward under traffic (so-called top-down cracking).
Myers et al. (2001) used linear elastic finite element analysis to
conclude that the major cause of top-down cracking is due to
tensile stresses resulting from the interaction between truck tires
and the pavement surface.
In order to accurately determine the initiation location and
cause of the fatigue cracking, it is imperative to use realistic
constitutive models for different pavement layers because the
cracking behavior of asphalt concrete is closely associated with
the stress-strain response of the material. In recent years, there
has been some success in developing a mechanistic constitutive
model of asphalt concrete. A series of experimental/analytical
studies by Kim et al. (1997), Daniel and Kim (2002), and
Chehab et al. (2002) has resulted in the viscoelastic continuum
damage (VECD) model that is based on the elastic-viscoelastic
correspondence principle using pseudo strain, continuum damage
mechanics, and time-temperature superposition principle with
growing damage. To take full advantage of this models strength,
the VECD model is implemented into the finite element code,
FEP++, developed by Guddati (2001). For aggregate base and
subgrade, the nonlinear stress-state dependent model is used.
The resulting VECD-FEP++ program is used in this study to
investigate the top-down and bottom-up cracking mechanisms in
various combinations of pavement structures, layer stiffnesses,
and loading conditions.
2. Viscoelastic Continuum Damage Model
Kim et al. (1997) developed a uniaxial viscoelastic continuum
damage model by applying the elastic-viscoelastic correspondence
principle based on pseudo strain to separate out the effects of
viscoelasticity and then employing internal state variables based
on the work potential theory to account for the damage evolution
under cyclic loading and the microdamage healing during rest
periods. From the verification study, it was found that the
constitutive model has the ability to accurately predict the stress-
strain behavior of asphalt concrete under varying loading rates,
random rest durations, multiple stress/strain levels, and different
modes of loading (controlled-stress versus controlled-strain). A
continued effort in refining this model resulted in the work by
Daniel and Kim (2002) in which a unique damage characteristic
curve between the normalized pseudo stiffness (C) and the
damage parameter (S) was discovered regardless of the applied
loading conditions (cyclic versus monotonic, amplitude/rate, and
frequency). This characteristic curve describes the reduction in
material integrity (C) as damage (S) grows in the asphalt concrete
specimen. In addition, Chehab et al. (2002) demonstrated that
*Member, Senior Researcher, HTTI, Korea Highway Corporation, Korea (Corresponding Author, E-mail: smun@freeway.co.kr)
**Assistant Professor, Campus Box 7908, Department of Civil, Construction & Environmental Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC,
U.S.A. (E-mail: mnguddat@ncsu.edu)
***Professor, Campus Box 7908, Department of Civil, Construction & Environmental Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, U.S.A.
(E-mail: kim@ncsu.edu)
Sungho Mun, Murthy N. Guddati, and Y. Richard Kim
98 KSCE Journal of Civil Engineering
the time-temperature superposition principle is valid not only in
the linear viscoelastic state, but also with growing damage. This
finding allows the prediction of mixture responses at various
temperatures from laboratory testing at a single temperature. The
damage characteristic curve and the time-temperature super-
position principle with growing damage are the foundations of
the VECD model employed in this study.
The major contribution of the VECD model is the significant
reduction in testing requirements for the determination of input
parameters. The model allows the prediction of the materials
behavior at any temperature from a test result obtained from a
single temperature and the time-temperature shift factors
obtained from temperature sweep complex modulus tests, as
long as the viscoplastic response is minimal in the stress-strain
behavior (i.e., low to intermediate temperature and intermediate
to fast loading rates). That is, one can perform a simple strength
test at a single temperature and dynamic modulus tests at
multiple temperatures and predict the cyclic fatigue life of the
mix under different testing conditions (i.e., load amplitudes and
frequencies, loading time, and temperatures).
More detailed descriptions of the VECD model can be found
in (Kim et al., 1997, Daniel and Kim, 2002, and Mun, 2003). The
finite element implementation of the VECD model was verified
using the uniaxial tension test results (Mun, 2003).
3. Structures, Material Properties, and Loading
Conditions
In this study, the VECD-FEP++ program is used to investigate
the effects of asphalt layer thickness, layer stiffness, contact
pressure distribution, and load level on the stresses and fatigue
cracking mechanisms in aggregate base pavements. Combinations
of these variables are selected so that the effects of individual
variables on stress and damage states can be evaluated separately
and effectively. Values selected for each variable are summarized
in Table 1.
Only one base thickness of 50 cm and infinite subgrade was
selected for this study. The Prony series constants and a damage
function, shown in Table 1, were obtained from the experimental
study by Chehab et al. (2002) in which the Maryland Superpave
12.5 mm mix was tested in uniaxial tension. The base and
subgrade material parameters of the nonlinear universal model
Table 1. Layer thicknesses and properties selected in this study
Pavement Layer
Thickness (cm)
(Poissons Ratio)
Material Parameter**
Asphalt Concrete
7.6, 17.8, 30.5
(0.30)
AC I AC II
Relaxation Time,

m
Prony Coefficients,
E
m
(kPa)
Relaxation Time,

m
Prony Coefficients,
E
m
(kPa)
0.02 4908141.9 0.02 1258989.3
0.2 5735749.4 0.2 2214693.3
2 4955029.9 2 3621321.1
20 2956638.2 20 5136030.7
200 1261172.2 200 5729228.2
2000 446992.8 2000 4459729.9
20000 157584.1 20000 2317303.2
E

: 58269.0 kPa E

: 155243.0 kPa
Damage Function:
Base
50
(0.35)
Type k
1
k
2
k
3
Stiff 5764.0 0.420 -0.240
Weak 354.0 0.484 -0.403
Subgrade
Infinite
(0.40)
Type k
1
k
2
Stiff 474.0 -0.366
Weak 771.0 -0.169
Type k
1
k
2
Combination Type of Base Type of Subgrade
Modulus SS Stiff Stiff
Modulus SW Stiff Weak
Modulus WS Weak Stiff
Modulus WW Weak Weak
**
where E

,
m
, and E
m
are infinite relaxation modulus, relaxation time, and Prony coefficients, respectively.
E t E

E
m
m 1 =
M

exp t
m
+ =
Viscoelastic Continuum Damage Finite Element Modeling of Asphalt Pavements for Fatigue Cracking Evaluation
Vol. 10, No. 2 / March 2006 99
that were used are found in Santha (1994) and Garg et al. (1998).
A moving load was represented by the haversine load with
peak magnitudes of 20 and 40 kN. A loading duration of 0.03 sec
and a rest period of 0.97 sec were selected. For a tire-pavement
contact pressure distribution on the pavement surface, both
uniform and nonuniform contact pressure distributions were
studied. The uniform contact pressure has been used most widely
for pavement response evaluation. However, recent studies
(Sebaaly and Tabatabaee, 1993, Groenendijk et al., 1997, and
Miradi et al., 1997) have revealed that the contact pressure is
nonuniform and that the effect of the nonuniform distribution of
the contact pressure is crucial in actual pavement response
computation. For the nonuniform tire pressure, the tire pressure
measured by Sebaaly (1992) and Siddharthan et al. (2002) was
selected for this study.
4. Investigation of Macrocrack Initiation Mecha-
nisms
The research performed in this study focuses on investigating
the fatigue failure mechanism(s) of top-down and bottom-up
cracking modes by monitoring the state of stresses and structural
damage. One unique feature of the VECD-FEP++ program is its
ability to determine the amount of damage in the asphalt layer as
the number of loading cycles increases. The amount of damage
is represented by a damage parameter calculated from the VECD
model.
This feature of the VECD-FEP++ program is quite different
from typical finite element analysis based on fracture mechanics,
such as the studies done by Jenq et al. (1991, 1993) and Myers et
al. (2001). In their studies, an artificial crack was introduced
before the load was applied and critical stresses that contribute
most to the macrocrack propagation were identified. In this
study, the approach allows the investigation of the location and
mechanisms of microcracks without any initialized artificial
cracks in the pavement structure.
The pavement structure is modeled by an axisymmetric finite
element model. Fig. 1(a) shows radial stress-strain curves at the
bottom of the asphalt concrete layer under nonuniform contact
pressure in the cyclic mode. The hysteresis loops shifted to the
right side, demonstrating the increase of radial strain in tension
as the damage in the asphalt layer increases. Fig. 1(b) presents
Fig. 1. VECD-FEP++ Analysis of a Pavement with Thick Asphalt Layer Thickness: (a) Cyclic Hysteresis Behavior; (b) Damage Contours
at Different Cycles
Sungho Mun, Murthy N. Guddati, and Y. Richard Kim
100 KSCE Journal of Civil Engineering
the damage contours at different numbers of cycles. It is noted
that the intensity of damage increases as the number of cycles
increases.
In Fig. 1(b), significant damage is found at the pavement
surface near the load center where the compressive stress is the
greatest. In the current formulation of the VECD-FEP++
program, the damage parameter is calculated from the absolute
value of stresses. Therefore, the damage observed at the
pavement surface around the load center is the damage
computed from the compressive stress and, therefore, should be
ignored as an error. This error can be corrected by assigning the
damage value of zero when the stress is in compression.
It was found that the comparison of stress and damage
contours at the peak load of the 1,000
th
cycle yields similar
conclusions to those made from longer cycles. For this paper,
therefore, stress and damage contours at the peak load of the
1,000
th
cycle are used for comparison. Fig. 2 to Fig. 6 show the
contours of damage and stresses for all the pavement structures
and loading conditions selected in this study. Fig. 2 to Fig. 5 were
generated using the soft asphalt stiffness (i.e., AC I) only, and the
effect of asphalt layer stiffness is shown in Fig. 6.
4.1. Effect of Asphalt Layer Thicknesses
The level of damage is found greatly affected by the asphalt
layer thickness. In Fig. 2, the damage value decreases signi-
ficantly as the asphalt layer thickness increases. For example, the
increase of the asphalt layer thickness from 7.6 to 17.8 cm results
in the decrease in the damage level by about 60 times, as seen in
the comparison between the maximum values of the contour
legends shown in Fig. 2.
The most important observation from Fig. 2 is the change in
the location of crack initiation as a function of the asphalt layer
thickness. When the thinnest layer is modeled in Fig. 2, the
severe damage is found at the bottom of the layer with negligible
damage at the top of the asphalt layer. As the asphalt layer
becomes thicker, damage right under the tire edge starts to
emerge, in addition to that at the bottom of the asphalt layer. In
the thickest asphalt layer case, the intensity of damage under the
tire edge is as high as that at the bottom of the asphalt layer. This
result can be attributed to the increased localization of punching
shear stresses in thicker pavements under the edge of the load.
The different cracking mechanisms between thin and thick
asphalt layers can be seen more effectively when Fig. 1(b) and
Fig. 3 are compared. In Fig. 3, for the thin asphalt layer, the
damage evolution is governed mostly by the damage that started
from the bottom of the asphalt layer. However, in Fig. 1(b), for
the thick asphalt layer, damage initiates from both the bottom of
the asphalt layer and right under the tire edge, and propagates
simultaneously to form a conjoined damage contour. This
conjoined damage contour, shown in Fig. 1(b) and Fig. 2 for the
Fig. 2. Damage Contours in Varying Asphalt Layer Thicknesses Under Nonuniform 40 kN Load for: (a) MODULUS SS; (b) MODULUS SW;
(c) MODULUS WS; (d) MODULUS WW
Viscoelastic Continuum Damage Finite Element Modeling of Asphalt Pavements for Fatigue Cracking Evaluation
Vol. 10, No. 2 / March 2006 101
Fig. 3. Damage Evolution in the Thin Asphalt Layer
Fig. 4. Damage Contours in Varying Asphalt Layer Thicknesses Under Uniform 40 kN Load for: (a) MODULUS SS; (b) MODULUS SW; (c)
MODULUS WS; (d) MODULUS WW
Sungho Mun, Murthy N. Guddati, and Y. Richard Kim
102 KSCE Journal of Civil Engineering
medium and thick asphalt pavements, supports the findings from
field studies of top-down cracking (Gerritsen et al., 1987); that is,
the top-down cracks are found in asphalt pavements with an
asphalt layer thicker than 25 to 30 cm.
Also, the conjoined damage contour suggests that the through-
the-thickness crack may develop as these bottom-up and top-
down microcracks propagate further and coalesce together.
Gerritsen et al. (1987) reported that they found field cores with
top-down cracking for about 10 cm, about 5 cm with no cracking
at all, and about 10 cm bottom-up cracking in the same core. The
conjoined damage contour in Fig. 1(b) and Fig. 2 explains the
reason behind this observation. This finding clearly demonstrates
the problem associated with the traditional approach to fatigue
performance prediction in which the tensile strain at the bottom
of the asphalt layer is related to the fatigue life of the pavement.
This approach cannot account for the additional crack growth
from the top of the pavement and, therefore, overestimates the
fatigue life of the pavement.
4.2. Effect of Contact Pressure Distributions
Sebaaly (1992) presented the nonuniform contact pressure
distribution measured from a moving surface load. Fig. 2 and
Fig. 4 show the results from the nonuniform and uniform contact
pressures, respectively. One observation that can be made from
the comparison of the figures is that the nonuniform pressure
distribution results in a greater amount of damage in all the cases.
For example, Fig. 2, with the nonuniform contact pressure,
shows greater damage than Fig. 4 with the uniform contact
pressure when the values of the contour legends are compared.
This difference suggests that the pavement responses, calculated
in the traditional way of treating the tire pressure as uniform,
may underestimate the actual damage in the field and thereby
overestimate the pavement service life. Also, it needs to be noted
that the propensity of top-down cracking becomes greater under
nonuniform pressure than under uniform pressure. This
observation supports findings from laboratory tests conducted by
Groenendijk et al. (1997) and Miradi et al. (1997) who showed
that a nonuniform load causes large stresses at the pavement
surface. Fig. 6 presents the medium thick asphalt layer cases for
uniform and nonuniform pressures and clearly shows the same
observation.
4.3. Effect of Load Levels
Damage contours under 20 kN loading are plotted in Fig. 5 for
the nonuniform and uniform contact pressures, respectively.
Compared to the damage contours in Fig. 2 and Fig. 4 for the 40
kN load, the magnitude of damage is dramatically reduced for
thin pavements due to the reduction of the load. Comparing the
values of contour legends for the thin asphalt layer cases in Fig. 2
to Fig. 5 reveals that a reduction in the load level by a factor of
two results in the reduction in the damage by more than five
times, regardless of structures, contract pressure distribution, or
layer properties.
One major use of the damage values calculated from different
load levels is the development of the Equivalent Axle Load
Factor (EALF). Traditionally, the damage under a load was
either represented by critical pavement responses or calculated
by performance equations. Using the damage computed from the
VECD-FEP++ program, one can directly determine the damage
ratios of different load levels and, therefore, EALFs.
4.4. Effect of Base and Subgrade Moduli
The effect of base and subgrade moduli can be evaluated by
comparing four subfigures under each response parameter in
each figure. First of all, it is found in and Fig. 4 that the effect of
the subgrade modulus on damage states is much less than the
effect of the base modulus. Regarding the crack initiation
location, the weaker base and/or weaker subgrade increases the
intensity of damage under the tire edge and, therefore, the
propensity of top-down cracking. In the thickest asphalt layer,
Fig. 5. Damage Contours in the Thin Asphalt Layer Under Nonuniform and Uniform 20 kN Load for: (a) MODULUS SS; (b) MODULUS SW;
(c) MODULUS WS; (d) MODULUS WW
Viscoelastic Continuum Damage Finite Element Modeling of Asphalt Pavements for Fatigue Cracking Evaluation
Vol. 10, No. 2 / March 2006 103
the weaker base resulted in more damage in general, but this
trend was more evident in the damage under the tire edge.
4.5. Effect of Asphalt Layer Stiffness
Fig. 6 presents the damage contours calculated using two
asphalt layer stiffnesses (AC I and AC II in Table 1) under both
nonuniform and uniform pressure distributions. It can be
concluded from this figure that the damage under the tire edge
becomes slightly greater as the stiffness of the asphalt layer
increases. This observation may become important when the
aging of the asphalt layer is considered. It is known that aging is
more severe at the top portion of the asphalt layer. The stiffening
effect of aging, therefore, makes the top portion of the asphalt
layer stiffer than the rest of the layer, which in turn increases the
tendency of top-down cracking.
5. Conclusions
It is demonstrated that the VECD-FEP++ program, with a
damage characteristic curve determined from a single monotonic
test and the time-temperature shift factor determined from the
complex modulus test, may be used to study the cracking
mechanisms of asphalt pavements. The findings from this study
show the effect of various pavement and load factors on
pavement responses as well as damage in the asphalt layer. It was
found that the propensity of top-down cracking increases as: (1)
the asphalt layer becomes thicker; (2) the contact pressure
becomes nonuniform; (3) base and/or subgrade become less stiff;
and (4) the asphalt layer becomes stiffer.
The conjoined damage contours in thicker pavements suggest
that the through-the-thickness crack may develop as these
Fig. 6. Damage Contours in the Medium Thick Asphalt Layer: (a) Nonuniform Pressure and AC I Stiffness; (b) Nonuniform Pressure and
AC II Stiffness; (c) Uniform Pressure and AC I Stiffness; (d) Uniform Pressure and AC II Stiffness.
Sungho Mun, Murthy N. Guddati, and Y. Richard Kim
104 KSCE Journal of Civil Engineering
bottom-up and top-down cracks propagate simultaneously and
coalesce together. This observation raises a serious question of
the validity of the traditional fatigue performance prediction
approach in which only the tensile strain at the bottom of the
asphalt layer is considered in predicting the fatigue life of asphalt
pavements.
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(Received September 8, 2005/Accepted February 8, 2006)