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Geologi Struktur
(Aplikasi Struktur Geologi : Mineralasasi-Migas)
Oleh :
Irvani
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Referensi :
Van Der Pluijm, B. A. and Marshak, S. 2004. Earth Structure. 2nd Edition. W. W. Norton &
Company, Inc., USA.
Rowland, S.M., Duebendorfer, E.M. and Schiefelbein, I.M. 2007. Structural Analysis and
Synthesis : A Laboratory Course in Structural Geology. 3th Edition. Blacwell Publishing Ltd.
Voctoria, Australia.
Bates, R.L. and J ackson, J .A., 1987. Glossary Geology. 3th Edition. American Geological Institute
Elexandria, Virginia.
Davis, G.H. 1984. Structural Geology of Rocks and Regions. J ohn Wiley & Sons, New York.
Ragan, D.M. 2009. Structural Geology : An Introduction to Geometrical Techniques. 4th Edition.
Cambridge University Press, New York.
Twiss R.J . And Moores, E.M. 2007. Structural Geology. 2nd Edition. W.H. Freeman and
Company, USA.
Ramsey J . and Huber, M. 1983. The Techniques of Modern Structural Geology : Strain Analysis.
Vol. 1. Academic Press, Inc., London.
Ramsey J . and Huber, M. 1987. The Techniques of Modern Structural Geology : Fold and
Fractures. Vol. 2. Academic Press, Inc., London.
Ramsey J . and Huber, M. 2000. The Techniques of Modern Structural Geology : Applications of
Continuum Mechanics in Structural Geology. Vol. 3. Elsevier Academic Press, Inc., California.
Cox, A. and Hart, R.B. 1986. Plate Tectonics : How It Works. Blacwell Scienific Publications, Inc.,
California.
Trouw, R.A.J . and Passchier, C.W. 1996. Microtectonics. Springer Verlag Berlin Heidelberg,
Germany.
Moon, C.J ., Whateley, M.K.G. And Evans A.M., 2006. Introduction to Mineral Exploration. 2nd
Edition. Blacwell Publishing, USA.
Reichard, J .S. 2011. Environmental Geology, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Montgomery, C.W. 2003. Environmental Geology, 6th Edition, McGraw-Hill, New York.
DLL.
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Pokok Bahasan :
I Pendahuluan (P.1)
II Tektonika & Orogenesa (P.2-3)
a. Tektonik lempeng
b. Orogenesa
III Gaya, Tegangan, Strain &
Deformasi (P.4-5)
a. Gaya & Tegangan
b. Strain & Deformasi
IV Struktur Geologi (P.6-9)
a. Unsur struktur
b. Lipatan
c. Kekar
d. Sesar/Patahan
V Identifikasi Struk. Geologi (P.10-11)
a. Pengukuran dan analisis
struktur geologi
b. Analisis geofisika struktur
geologi
VI Aplikasi Struk. Geologi (P.12-13)
a. Mineralisasi
b. Migas
c. Kebencanaan geologi
VII Geologi Struk. Indonesia (P.14)
a. Umum
b. Sumatra&J awa
c. Bangka Belitung
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Hydrothermal
Hydrothermal ore deposits form in various ways. (A) Ore deposition
in veins around a magma chamber. Less-concentrated ore is
disseminatedthrough the rock as fluids seep outward from magma.
(B) Sulfides can also be deposited by hydrothermal circulation
around a spreading ridge. Photographs (C and D) by W. R. Normark, USGS
Photo Library, Denver, CO.
Montgomery (2008)
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I Mineralisasi
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Hydrothermal Deposits
Naturally, the intense heat from the magma body raises the
temperature of any groundwater that is present in the country rocks.
The combination of these waters results in hot, mineral-rich fluids
that transport ions and chemically react with rocks ina zone around
an igneous intrusion. Minerals that crystallize from these highly
enriched fluids form what are referred to as hydrothermal deposits.
Vein and disseminated ore deposits
result from hot, mineral-rich fluids
that chemically react with minerals
in an igneous intrusion and
surrounding rocks, and then transfer
elements within a zone around the
igneous intrusion. The photo shows
a vein deposit containing valuable
tungsten and tin minerals in a
Portuguese mine.
Reichard (2011)
Uni versi tas Bangka Bel i tung J urusan Tekni k Pertambangan
Massive sulfide deposits (A) form whenhydrothermal fluids discharge from mid-
oceanic ridges and then mix with cool seawater. Here metallic ions bond with
sulfur, forming sulfide minerals that eventually accumulate on the seafloor. Note
how heat convection pulls coldseawater into the ridge, where it reacts chemically
with basalt to form hydrothermal fluids. Photo (B) shows sulfide minerals
precipitating as hydrothermal fluids escape fromvents on the seafloor.
Reichard (2011)
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The hot, mineral-laden water streams out into the ocean at black
smoker chimneys (C). (D) Hydrothermal sulfides permeate this
basaltic rock. The most visible are pyrite (brassy gold crystals).
Photographs (C and D) by W. R. Normark, USGS Photo Library,
Denver, CO.
Montgomery (2008)
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Lutgens et al. (2012)
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Illustration of the relationship between a parent igneous body
and the associated pegmatite and hydrothermal deposits.
Inset photo shows light-colored vein deposits emplaced along
a series of fractures in dark-colored metamorphic rock. (Photo
by J ames E. Patterson)
Lutgens et al. (2012)
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High grade gold ore from a mine in Ghana, West Africa.
(Photo by Greenshoots Communications/Alamy)
Lutgens et al. (2012)
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Tabular orebodies
Vein occupying a normal fault and exhibiting pinch-and-
swell structure, giving rise to ribbon ore shoots. The
development of a flat beneathimpervious cover is shown also.
Moon et al. (2006)
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Irregular replacement deposits
Skarn deposit at Iron Springs, Utah.
(After Gillulyet al. 1959.)
Moon et al. (2006)
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Concordant orebodies
Cross-section through the ore zone, Sullivan Mine,
British Columbia. (After Sangster & Scott 1976.)
Moon et al. (2006)
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Distribution of pay streaks (gold
orebodies) in the Main Leader
Reef in the East Rand Basin of the
Witwatersrand Goldfield of South
Africa. The arrows indicate the
direction of dip at the outcrop or
suboutcrop. (After DuToit 1954.)
Moon et al. (2006)
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Generalized diagram of an
unconformity associated
uranium deposit. (After
Clark et al. 1982.)
Moon et al. (2006)
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Sketch map of the geology
in the vicinity of the Trinity
silver deposit, Nevada.
(After Ashleman1988.)
Moon et al. (2006)
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Carlin-type deposits
These deposits are
responsible for the majority
of gold production in
Nevada, 261 t in 2001.
Typically the gold occurs
as micron meter-sized
grains which are invisible
to the naked eye
(noseeum gold), within
impure limestones or
calcareous silstones.
Diagram for the formation of
Carlin style deposits. (After
Sawkins1984.)
Moon et al. (2006)
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Moon et al. (2006)
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Underground Mining
Underground mining involves blasting shafts and horizontal tunnels to access
mineral deposits. Although safety has greatly improved, surface mining is
generally preferred over underground mining as it presents fewer hazards
and lower operating costs.
Reichard (2011)
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Petroleum
Petroleum is a general term geologists use to describe
both oil and natural gas. Oil and gas are composed of
similar types of organic molecules and are commonly
found together in the subsurface under similar geologic
conditions.
Reichard (2011)
II Migas
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Hydrocarbon molecules form when organic-rich source rocks are buried to
the point where temperatures reach the oil and gas windows. The molecules
rise until encountering a permeable reservoir rock, then flow laterally with
the groundwater until reaching a trap where the lighter hydrocarbons
accumulate on top of the water. Aerial photo shows the characteristic pattern
that a dome trap makes at the surface. Note the individual wells that are
extracting petroleum trapped in the rocks below.
Reichard (2011)
Genetic
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Types of petroleum traps. (A) A simple fold trap. (B) Petroleum
accumulated in a fossilized ancient coral reef. (C) A fault trap. (D)
Petroleumtrapped against an impermeable salt dome, which has risen up
froma buried evaporitedeposit.
Montgomery (2008)
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In addition to folded domes,
there other common types of
petroleum traps andreservoirs.
All trapsmust be overlain bya
low-permeability cap rock in
order to limit the ability of oil
and gas to escape over time.
The reservoir rock itself must
be quite porous in order to
store significant quantities of
petroleum, and also permeable
enough to allow petroleumto
be extracted.
Reichard (2011)
Uni versi tas Bangka Bel i tung J urusan Tekni k Pertambangan
American Petroleum Institute, 1986
Hydrocarbon Trap Types
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Gluyas & Swarbrick (2003)
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Structural Traps (Tectonics)
(Beydoun, 1991)
A simplified map and cross-section of the Zagros orogeni c bel t (Iran).
Almost all of the oil and gas fields lie within the area of the Dezful Structural
Embayment, which is some 600 km long (NW-SE) and 200 km wide.
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a. Contractional folds and thrust-fault structures
-Traps may develop along contractional faults without any element of folding.
- These may be in thehangingwall or footwall of the fault.
Bailey & Stoneley(1981)
Uni versi tas Bangka Bel i tung J urusan Tekni k Pertambangan
b. Extensional structures
Traps formed by extensional faults
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Bailey & Stoneley(1981)
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c. Gravitational structures
Varieties of roll-over structure forming petroleum traps in the Niger
Delta area (Weber et al., 1978)
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d. Compactional structures
The most important trap type
formed by compactional
processes is the drape
anticline, caused by
differential compaction.
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Shddin, 2011
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e. Diapiricstructures
Diapiric traps result from the movement of salt or over-pressured
clay.
At depths in excess of 6001000 m, salt is less dense than its
overburden, andliable to upward movement through buoyancy. Salt
can flow at surprisingly low temperatures and over long periods of
geological time.
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Shddin, 2011
Seismic profile of salt diapir showing keystone normal faulting in
overlying units (Sunwall et al., 1983).
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(Harding, 1985)
Anticlinal culminations
along and adjacent to a
major right-lateral
wrench fault, Andaman
Sea.
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Analisis Struktur Geologi
Model Harding (1985)
Reichard (2011)
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Ex. Anticli ne
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Seismic exploration
techniques use an energy
source to generate
vibrational waves that
reflect and refract off rock
layers of different
densities. Based on data
obtained by instruments
that record those waves
that return to the surface,
detailed views can be
obtained of subsurface rock
structure that may contain
oil and gas.
Reichard (2011)
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Large production platforms (A) aretowed out to sea and then placed on the
seabed where oil reserves have been confirmed by exploration wells.
Modern land and offshore operations utilize directional drilling technology
to install multiple production wells (B) froma single platform.
Reichard (2011)
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Terima Kasih
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