The urinary system consists of the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra.

The kidneys
filter the blood to remove wastes and produce urine. The ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra
together form the urinary tract, which acts as a plumbing system to drain urine from the kidneys,
store it, and then release it during urination. Besides filtering and eliminating wastes from the
body, the urinary system also maintains the homeostasis of water, ions, pH, blood pressure,
calcium...

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Full Urinary System Description
[Continued from above] . . . and red blood cells.
Urinary System Anatomy
Kidneys
The kidneys are a pair of bean-shaped organs found along the
posterior wall of the abdominal cavity. The left kidney is located slightly higher than the right
kidney because the right side of the liver is much larger than the left side. The kidneys, unlike
the other organs of the abdominal cavity, are located posterior to the peritoneum and touch the
muscles of the back. The kidneys are surrounded by a layer of adipose that holds them in place
and protects them from physical damage. The kidneys filter metabolic wastes, excess ions, and
chemicals from the blood to form urine.
Ureters
The ureters are a pair of tubes that carry urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder. The
ureters are about 10 to 12 inches long and run on the left and right sides of the body parallel to
the vertebral column. Gravity and peristalsis of smooth muscle tissue in the walls of the ureters
move urine toward the urinary bladder. The ends of the ureters extend slightly into the urinary
bladder and are sealed at the point of entry to the bladder by the ureterovesical valves. These
valves prevent urine from flowing back towards the kidneys.
Urinary Bladder
The urinary bladder is a sac-like hollow organ used for the storage of urine. The urinary
bladder is located along the bodys midline at the inferior end of the pelvis. Urine entering the
urinary bladder from the ureters slowly fills the hollow space of the bladder and stretches its
elastic walls. The walls of the bladder allow it to stretch to hold anywhere from 600 to 800
milliliters of urine.
Urethra

The urethra is the tube through which urine passes from the bladder to the exterior of the body.
The female urethra is around 2 inches long and ends inferior to the clitoris and superior to the
vaginal opening. In males, the urethra is around 8 to 10 inches long and ends at the tip of the
penis. The urethra is also an organ of the male reproductive system as it carries sperm out of the
body through the penis.
The flow of urine through the urethra is controlled by
the internal and external urethral sphincter muscles. The internal urethral sphincter is made of
smooth muscle and opens involuntarily when the bladder reaches a certain set level of distention.
The opening of the internal sphincter results in the sensation of needing to urinate. The external
urethral sphincter is made of skeletal muscle and may be opened to allow urine to pass through
the urethra or may be held closed to delay urination.
Urinary System Physiology
Maintenance of Homeostasis
The kidneys maintain the homeostasis of several important internal conditions by controlling the
excretion of substances out of the body.
Ions. The kidney can control the excretion of potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium,
phosphate, and chloride ions into urine. In cases where these ions reach a higher than
normal concentration, the kidneys can increase their excretion out of the body to return
them to a normal level. Conversely, the kidneys can conserve these ions when they are
present in lower than normal levels by allowing the ions to be reabsorbed into the blood
during filtration. (See more about ions.)

pH. The kidneys monitor and regulate the levels of hydrogen ions (H+) and bicarbonate
ions in the blood to control blood pH. H+ ions are produced as a natural byproduct of the
metabolism of dietary proteins and accumulate in the blood over time. The kidneys
excrete excess H+ ions into urine for elimination from the body. The kidneys also
conserve bicarbonate ions, which act as important pH buffers in the blood.

Osmolarity. The cells of the body need to grow in an isotonic environment in order to
maintain their fluid and electrolyte balance. The kidneys maintain the bodys osmotic
balance by controlling the amount of water that is filtered out of the blood and excreted
into urine. When a person consumes a large amount of water, the kidneys reduce their
reabsorption of water to allow the excess water to be excreted in urine. This results in the
production of dilute, watery urine. In the case of the body being dehydrated, the kidneys
reabsorb as much water as possible back into the blood to produce highly concentrated
urine full of excreted ions and wastes. The changes in excretion of water are controlled
by antidiuretic hormone (ADH). ADH is produced in the hypothalamus and released by
the posterior pituitary gland to help the body retain water.

Blood Pressure. The kidneys monitor the bodys blood pressure to help maintain
homeostasis. When blood pressure is elevated, the kidneys can help to reduce blood
pressure by reducing the volume of blood in the body. The kidneys are able to reduce
blood volume by reducing the reabsorption of water into the blood and producing watery,
dilute urine. When blood pressure becomes too low, the kidneys can produce the enzyme
renin to constrict blood vessels and produce concentrated urine, which allows more water
to remain in the blood.
Filtration
Inside each kidney are around a million tiny structures called nephrons. The nephron is the
functional unit of the kidney that filters blood to produce urine. Arterioles in the kidneys deliver
blood to a bundle of capillaries surrounded by a capsule called a glomerulus. As blood flows
through the glomerulus, much of the bloods plasma is pushed out of the capillaries and into the
capsule, leaving the blood cells and a small amount of plasma to continue flowing through the
capillaries. The liquid filtrate in the capsule flows through a series of tubules lined with filtering
cells and surrounded by capillaries. The cells surrounding the tubules selectively absorb water
and substances from the filtrate in the tubule and return it to the blood in the capillaries. At the
same time, waste products present in the blood are secreted into the filtrate. By the end of this
process, the filtrate in the tubule has become urine containing only water, waste products, and
excess ions. The blood exiting the capillaries has reabsorbed all of the nutrients along with most
of the water and ions that the body needs to function.
Storage and Excretion of Wastes
After urine has been produced by the kidneys, it is transported through the ureters to the urinary
bladder. The urinary bladder fills with urine and stores it until the body is ready for its excretion.
When the volume of the urinary bladder reaches anywhere from 150 to 400 milliliters, its walls
begin to stretch and stretch receptors in its walls send signals to the brain and spinal cord.
These signals result in the relaxation of the involuntary internal urethral sphincter and the
sensation of needing to urinate. Urination may be delayed as long as the bladder does not exceed
its maximum volume, but increasing nerve signals lead to greater discomfort and desire to
urinate.
Urination is the process of releasing urine from the urinary bladder through the urethra and out of
the body. The process of urination begins when the muscles of the urethral sphincters relax,
allowing urine to pass through the urethra. At the same time that the sphincters relax, the smooth
muscle in the walls of the urinary bladder contract to expel urine from the bladder.
Production of Hormones
The kidneys produce and interact with several hormones that are involved in the control of
systems outside of the urinary system.
Calcitriol. Calcitriol is the active form of vitamin D in the human body. It is produced by
the kidneys from precursor molecules produced by UV radiation striking the skin.
Calcitriol works together with parathyroid hormone (PTH) to raise the level of calcium
ions in the bloodstream. When the level of calcium ions in the blood drops below a
threshold level, the parathyroid glands release PTH, which in turn stimulates the
kidneys to release calcitriol. Calcitriol promotes the small intestine to absorb calcium
from food and deposit it into the bloodstream. It also stimulates the osteoclasts of the
skeletal system to break down bone matrix to release calcium ions into the blood.

Erythropoietin. Erythropoietin, also known as EPO, is a hormone that is produced by the
kidneys to stimulate the production of red blood cells. The kidneys monitor the condition
of the blood that passes through their capillaries, including the oxygen-carrying capacity
of the blood. When the blood becomes hypoxic, meaning that it is carrying deficient
levels of oxygen, cells lining the capillaries begin producing EPO and release it into the
bloodstream. EPO travels through the blood to the red bone marrow, where it stimulates
hematopoietic cells to increase their rate of red blood cell production. Red blood cells
contain hemoglobin, which greatly increases the bloods oxygen-carrying capacity and
effectively ends the hypoxic conditions.

Renin. Renin is not a hormone itself, but an enzyme that the kidneys produce to start the
renin-angiotensin system (RAS). The RAS increases blood volume and blood pressure in
response to low blood pressure, blood loss, or dehydration. Renin is released into the
blood where it catalyzes angiotensinogen from the liver into angiotensin I. Angiotensin I
is further catalyzed by another enzyme into Angiotensin II.

Angiotensin II stimulates several processes, including stimulating the adrenal cortex to
produce the hormone aldosterone. Aldosterone then changes the function of the kidneys
to increase the reabsorption of water and sodium ions into the blood, increasing blood
volume and raising blood pressure. Negative feedback from increased blood pressure
finally turns off the RAS to maintain healthy blood pressure levels.
urinary system, group of organs of the body concerned with excretion of urine, that is, water
and the waste products of metabolism. In humans, the kidneys are two small organs situated
near the vertebral column at the small of the back, the left lying somewhat higher than the
right. They are bean-shaped, about 4 in. (10 cm) long and about 2 1-2 in. (6.4 cm) wide. Their
purpose is to separate urea, mineral salts, toxins, and other waste products from the blood, and
to conserve water, salts, and electrolytes. At least one kidney must function properly for life to
be maintained. Each kidney contains 1.2 million filtering units called nephrons. One end of the
nephron is expanded into a structure called the renal corpuscle, or glomerulus, which surrounds
a cluster of blood capillaries. The remainder of the nephron consists of a very long narrow
tubule, in alternately convoluted and looping sections. Blood containing waste products enters
the glomerulus through an afferent arteriole from the renal artery. The cells of the glomerulus
extract the water and waste products as the blood leaves through the outgoing blood vessel
(the efferent arteriole) of the glomerulus, in a process called filtration. Blood leaving the
glomerulus flows through the network of capillaries that surrounds each tubule; there the
substances that the body still needs, such as water and certain salts, are restored to the blood.
The purified blood returns to the general circulation through blood vessels leading to the renal
vein. The ends of the tubules unite to form collecting tubules, which empty the urine into the
kidney pelvis, a collecting chamber in the middle of the kidney. Urine from the kidney pelvis
then passes into the ureters, a pair of tubes 16 to 18 in. (4045 cm) long. Muscles in the walls of
the ureters send the urine in small spurts into the bladder, a collapsible sac found on the
forward part of the cavity of the bony pelvis that allows temporary storage of urine. The outlet
of the bladder is controlled by a sphincter muscle. A full bladder stimulates sensory nerves in the
bladder wall that relax the sphincter and allow release of the urine. However, relaxation of the
sphincter is also in part a learned response under voluntary control. The released urine enters
the urethra, a tube lined with mucus membrane that conveys the urine to the outside. The male
urethra, about 8 in. (20 cm) long, terminates at the tip of the penis, and serves as the passage
through which semen is released (see reproductive system
). The female urethra is less than 2 in. (5 cm) long and opens just in front of the entrance to the
vagina; it has no function other than excretion of urine. There are many types of urinary system
disorders, including congenital malformation, injury, infection, presence of kidney stones, or
calculi, other types of obstruction, and tumors. See cystitis
; nephritis
; nephrosis
. Abnormal urine output may indicate other diseases, such as diabetes.
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia Copyright 2013, Columbia University Press. Licensed
from Columbia University Press. All rights reserved. www.cc.columbia.edu/cu/cup/

urinary system
or renal system
System that produces and discharges urine to rid the body of waste products. It consists
of the kidneys, which balance electrolytes in blood, retaining and adding needed ones and
removing unneeded or dangerous ones for excretion; the ureters, two thin muscular tubes
1012 in. (2530 cm) long that move the urine by peristalsis; the hollow, muscular
bladder, which receives and stores it; and the urethra, through which it leaves the body. In
women the urethra is 1.5 in. (4 cm) long. In men it is longer (since it passes through the
penis), about 8 in. (20 cm), and carries semen from the prostate gland as well as urine.
Urinary disorders, which can lead to dehydration or edema and to a dangerous buildup of
waste and toxic substances, include kidney failure, tumours, and bladder and kidney
stones.
For more information on urinary system, visit Britannica.com. Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Copyright 1994-2008 Encyclopdia Britannica, Inc.

urinary system [ ne sistm]
(anatomy)
The system which functions in the elaboration and excretion of urine in vertebrates; in humans
and most mammals, consists of the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra.
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific & Technical Terms, 6E, Copyright 2003 by The
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Urinary system
The urinary system consists of the kidneys, urinary ducts, and bladder. Similarities are
not particularly evident among the many and varied types of excretory organs found
among vertebrates. The variations that are encountered are undoubtedly related to
problems with which vertebrates have had to cope in adapting to different environmental
conditions.

Sagittal section of a human metanephric kidney (semidiagrammatic)
Kidneys
In reptiles, birds, and mammals three types of kidneys are usually recognized: the
pronephros, mesonephros, and metanephros. These appear in succession during
embryonic development, but only the metanephros persists in the adult.
The metanephric kidneys of reptiles lie in the posterior part of the abdominal cavity,
usually in the pelvic region. They are small, compact, and often markedly lobulated. The
posterior portion on each side is somewhat narrower. In some lizards the hind parts may
even fuse. The degree of symmetry varies.
The kidneys of birds are situated in the pelvic region of the body cavity; their posterior
ends are usually joined. They are lobulated structures with short ureters which open
independently into the cloaca.
A rather typical mammalian metanephric kidney (Fig. 1) is a compact, bean-shaped organ
attached to the dorsal body wall outside the peritoneum. The ureter leaves the medial side
at a depression, the hilum. At this point a renal vein also leaves the kidney and a renal
artery and nerves enter it. The kidneys of mammals are markedly lobulated in the
embryo, and in many forms this condition is retained throughout life. See Kidney
Urinary bladder
At or near the posterior ends of the nephric ducts there frequently is a reservoir for urine.
This is the urinary bladder. Actually there are two basic varieties of bladders in
vertebrates. One is found in fishes in which the reservoir is no more than an enlargement
of the posterior end of each urinary duct. Frequently the urinary ducts are conjoined and a
small bladder is formed by expansion of the common duct. The far more common type of
bladder is that exhibited by tetrapods. This is a sac which originates embryonically as an
outgrowth from the ventral side of the cloaca. Present in all embryonic life, it is exhibited
differentially in adults. All amphibians retain the bladder, but it is lacking in snakes,
crocodilians, and most lizards; birds, also, with the exception of the ostrich, lack a
bladder. It is present in all mammals.

A mammalian metanephric tubule, showing the renal corpuscle and secretory and collecting
portions
Physiology
Urine is produced by individual renal nephron units which are fundamentally similar
from fish to mammals (Fig. 2); however, the basic structural and functional pattern of
these nephrons varies among representatives of the vertebrate classes in accordance with
changing environmental demands. Kidneys serve the general function of maintaining the
chemical and physical constancy of blood and other body fluids. The most striking
modifications are associated particularly with the relative amounts of water made
available to the animal. Alterations in degrees of glomerular development, in the
structural complexity of renal tubules, and in the architectural disposition of the various
nephrons in relation to one another within the kidneys may all represent adaptations made
either to conserve or eliminate water.
Regulation of volume
Except for the primitive marine cyclostome Myxine, all modern vertebrates, whether
marine, fresh-water, or terrestrial, have concentrations of salt in their blood only one-
third or one-half that of seawater. The early development of the glomerulus can be
viewed as a device responding to the need for regulating the volume of body fluids.
Hence, in a hypotonic fresh-water environment the osmotic influx of water through gills
and other permeable body surfaces would be kept in balance by a simple autoregulatory
system whereby a rising volume of blood results in increased hydrostatic pressure which
in turn elevates the rate of glomerular filtration. Similar devices are found in fresh-water
invertebrates where water may be pumped out either as the result of work done by the
heart, contractile vacuoles, or cilia found in such specialized kidneys as flame bulbs,
solenocytes, or nephridia that extract excess water from the body cavity rather than from
the circulatory system. Hence, these structures which maintain a constant water content
for the invertebrate animal by balancing osmotic influx with hydrostatic output have the
same basic parameters as those in vertebrates that regulate the formation of lymph across
the endothelial walls of capillaries. See Osmoregulatory mechanisms
Electrolyte balance
A system that regulates volume by producing an ultrafiltrate of blood plasma must
conserve inorganic ions and other essential plasma constituents. The salt-conserving
operation appears to be a primary function of the renal tubules which encapsulate the
glomerulus. As the filtrate passes along their length toward the exterior, inorganic
electrolytes are extracted from them through highly specific active cellular resorptive
processes which restore plasma constituents to the circulatory system.
Movement of water
Concentration gradients of water are attained across cells of renal tubules by water
following the active movement of salt or other solute. Where water is free to follow the
active resorption of sodium and covering anions, as in the proximal tubule, an isosmotic
condition prevails. Where water is not free to follow salt, as in the distal segment in the
absence of antidiuretic hormone, a hypotonic tubular fluid results.
Nitrogenous end products
Of the major categories of organic foodstuffs, end products of carbohydrate and lipid
metabolism are easily eliminated mainly in the form of carbon dioxide and water.
Proteins, however, are more difficult to eliminate because the primary derivative of their
metabolism, ammonia, is a relatively toxic compound. For animals living in an aquatic
environment ammonia can be eliminated rapidly by simple diffusion through the gills.
However, when ammonia is not free to diffuse into an effectively limitless aquatic
environment, its toxicity presents a problem, particularly to embryos of terrestrial forms
that develop wholly within tightly encapsulated eggshells or cases. For these forms the
detoxication of ammonia is an indispensable requirement for survival. During evolution
of the vertebrates two energy-dependent biosynthetic pathways arose which incorporated
potentially toxic ammonia into urea and uric acid molecules, respectively. Both of these
compounds are relatively harmless, even in high concentrations, but the former needs a
relatively large amount of water to ensure its elimination, and uric acid requires a specific
energy-demanding tubular secretory process to ensure its efficient excretion. See Urea,
Uric acid
Urine concentration
The unique functional feature of the mammalian kidney is its ability to concentrate urine.
Human urine can have four times the osmotic concentration of plasma, and some desert
rats that survive on a diet of seeds without drinking any water have urine/plasma
concentration ratios as high as 17. More aquatic forms such as the beaver have
correspondingly poor concentrating ability.
The concentration operation depends on the existence of a decreasing gradient of solute
concentration that extends from the tips of the papillae in the inner medulla of the kidney
outward toward the cortex. The high concentration of medullary solute is achieved by a
double hairpin countercurrent multiplier system which is powered by the active removal
of salt from urine while it traverses the ascending limb of Henle's loop (Fig. 2). The salt
is redelivered to the tip of the medulla after it has diffused back into the descending limb
of Henle's loop. In this way a hypertonic condition is established in fluid surrounding the
terminations of the collecting ducts. Urine is concentrated by an entirely passive process
as water leaves the lumen of collecting ducts to come into equilibrium with the
hypertonic fluid surrounding its terminations. See Urine