Good Math Lesson Plans

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Contents
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1 Introduction
2 A General-Purpose Lesson Plan
3 Discipline Specificity
4 hat is !ath"
o 4#1 So$e %ften-&uoted Ans'ers
o 4#2 Patterns and Lan(ua(e of a Discipline
o 4#3 So$e I$portant !ath )oncepts
o 4#4 Lon(-*ndurin( +esults
, So$e !ath-Specific Lesson Plan -opics
o ,#1 Increasin( !ath *.pertise
,#1#1 Pro/le$ Sol0in(
,#1#2 -he )oncept of Proof
,#1#3 Include a 1ocus on I$portant Pro/le$s
o ,#2 Prere2uisite3 +e0ie'3 and +e$ediation
,#2#1 Slo'er and 1aster Learners
,#2#2 Student and -eacher +esponsi/ilities
o ,#3 -eachin( Self-Assess$ent and Self-+esponsi/ility
o ,#4 -eachin( for -ransfer of Learnin(
o ,#, !ath )o(niti0e De0elop$ental Le0el and !aturity Le0el
,#,#1 )o(niti0e De0elop$ent
,#,#2 !ath )o(niti0e De0elop$ent
,#,#3 !ath !aturity
o ,#4 )o$$unication in !ath
,#4#1 )o$$unication and !ath )ontent
,#4#2 )o$$unication and !ath ord Pro/le$s
1
o ,#5 !ath !odelin(
o ,#6 )o$putational !ath
o ,#7 Lesson Plan as Self-Inser0ice *ducation
4 So$e +oles of I)-
o 4#1 )ontent
4#1#1 )alculators
4#1#2 )o$puters
4#1#3 Infor$ation retrie0al
o 4#2 -eachin( and Learnin(
5 A 81ull 9lo'n8 !ath Lesson Plan -e$plate
6 +eferences
7 Lin:s to %ther IA* +esources
o 7#1 IA* 9lo(
o 7#2 IA* ;e'sletter
o 7#3 IA*-pedia <IA*=s i:i>
o 7#4 I-A-* 9oo:s and !iscellaneous %ther
1? Authors
Education is a human right with immense power to transform. On its foundation rest the
cornerstones of freedom, democracy and sustainable human development. !"ofi #nnan$
Ghanaian diplomat, seventh secretary%general of the &nited 'ations, winner of ())* 'obel
Peace Pri+e$ *,-.%./
01n a completely rational society, the best of us would be teachers and the rest of us would have
to settle for something less, because passing civili+ation along from one generation to the
ne2t ought to be the highest honor and the highest responsibility anyone could have.0 !Lee
1acocca, #merican industrialist$ *,(3%./
1ntroduction
Lesson plans are a core topic in most preservice teacher education programs. Preservice
teachers learn how to create them, how to criti4ue lessons others create, how to teach
wor5ing from a plan, and how to 6udge the results. 7y definition, a lesson plan is good to
the degree it helps teachers teach well and students learn well.
Lesson plan usually refers to a single lesson, designed for one class period. 8owever, it can
also refer to a se4uence of such plans designed for a unit of study. !9uch a se4uence may
be called a unit plan./ 1n this document, lesson plan mean a plan to facilitate one more
2
times of organi+ed teaching and learning sessions. :e use the term to include one%period
and multi%period lessons.
;he figure below shows that the need for written detail depends on lesson plan<s audience.
*. # personal lesson plan is an aid to memory that ta5es into consideration one=s
e2pertise !teaching and sub6ect area 5nowledge, s5ills, and e2perience/. 1t<s often
4uite short>sometimes 6ust a brief list of topics to be covered or ideas to be
discussed. !?or e2ample@ 9how how to derive 4uadratic formula by completing the
s4uare$ then use spreadsheet to show how to do the calculations. &se ;a2man
software to introduce factoring./
(. # collegial lesson plan is designed for a limited, special audience such as your
colleagues, a substitute teacher,or a supervisor such as a department head or
principal. 1t contains more detail than the first category. 1t is designed to
communicate with people who are familiar with lessor plan writer=s school,
curriculum, and standards.
-. # !high 4uality/ publishable lesson plan is designed for publication and for use by a
wide, diverse audience. 1t contain still more detail than the second category. 1t is
designed to communicate with people who have no specific 5nowledge of the lesson
plan writer=s school, school district, and state. 1t is especially useful to preservice
teachers, to substitute teachers in unfamiliar situations, and to wor5shop presenters
see5ing to elicit in%depth discussion.
;his document is primarily intended for people who create andAor ma5e use of the third
category of lesson plans. 1t can aid development of a preservice or inservice
instructional unit or serve as a guide during a course or wor5shop concerned with
lesson plan creation. 1n addition, a preservice or inservice teacher can use it for self%
instruction.
# General%Purpose Lesson Plan
Early on in their teacher education program of study, preservice teachers are apt to
encounter a general%purpose template or outline for lesson planning. ;he template is
usually general enough so that it can be used over a wide range of grade levels and
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disciplines. Preservice teachers often do assignments in which they create specific
lesson plans that, in the main, follow the template pattern.
An example of a general-purpose lesson planning template: *. Title and short
summary. Bou may f 5ind it helpful to thin5 of a title of a *%period lesson plan as
being li5e a section title in a boo5 chapter, while the title of a multi%period plan is li5e a
chapter title. ;he short summary can include information about how students will
be empowered by learning the material in the lesson.
(. Intended audience and alignment with standards. Categori+ation by@ sub6ect or
course area$ grade level$ general topic!s/ within the discipline!s/ being taught$ length$
and so on. # listing of the standards !state, or national/ being addressed.
Categori+ation schemes are especially useful in a computer database of lessons, as
it allows users 4uic5ly to find lesson plans to fit their specific needs.
-. Prereuisites. 1t is difficult to state clearly the prere4uisites for a particular lesson, and
it is difficult to determine if students meet the prere4uisites. # common approach
consists of two parts@
9tate !or assume/ the general 5nowledge and s5ills of average students who will normally
encounter such a lesson>for e2ample,second graders near the end of the school
year or students entering an Algebra 1 course.
9tate any special prere4uisites>for e2ample, perhaps 5ey ideas that it is sort of assumed that
students should have covered, but that many will have not learned very well or will have
forgotten. ;his type of prere4uisite is often used in a focused review at the beginning of a
lesson. ;his often occurs at the start of a school year. #n often overloo5ed prere4uisite is
attitudinal. ?or e2ample, those who help people learn to use a spreadsheet or word
processing program often encounter hidden an2ieties about mathematical, reading, or writing
s5ills. &ntil these are remediated, the learner will have scant success with the computer
programs.
3. Accommodations. 9pecial provisions needed for students with
documented, relevant, significant differences from 0the average0 learners.
;he differences may be attitudinal, mental, or physical. ;he difference may
so great that the lesson is beyond the student<s capacity or merely time%
wasting busywor5. E2amples are a lesson in naming colors if the learner is
color%blind, or teaching the C ma6or scale when the learner has been
ta5ing music lessons for years.
D. !earning o"#ectives. ;eachers of teachers often stress the need for very
careful statement of the learning ob6ectives. ;hey may argue among
themselves whether it is all right to use the word understand, as in
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09tudents will understand how do multidigit subtractions with borrowing.0
;he argument is over what it means to understand, and whether more
precise, measurable ob6ectives need to be given. ;he
e2pression measurable behavioral ob6ectives is sometimes used. 1t can be
helpful to distinguish between lower%order goals and higher%order goals,
perhaps by using 7loom=s ta2onomy.
E. $aterials and resources. ;hese include written material for students to
read, assignment sheets, wor5sheets, tools, e4uipment, CFs, FGFs, video
tapes, physical environment, and so on. !1t may be necessary to begin the
ac4uisition process well in advance of teaching a lesson, and it may be
that some of the resources are available online.
H. Instructional plan. ;his is usually considered to be the heart of a lesson
plan. 1t tells how to conduct the lesson. 1t may include a schedule, details
on 4uestions to be as5ed during a presentation to learners and actions to
handle contingencies. !9uppose the topic is the &. 9. Constitution and a
student raises the 4uestion of whether private citi+ens should be able to
buy assault rifles./ 1f the lesson plan includes dividing students into
discussion groups or wor5 groups, the lesson plan may include details for
the grouping process and instructions to be given to the groups.
.. Assessment options. # teacher needs to deal with three general
categories of assessment@ formative, summative, and long term residual
impact. 1n order to become efficient self%directed learners, students need
to learn to do self assessment and to provide formative assessment and
perhaps summative assessment feedbac5 to each other. # rubric, perhaps
6ointly developed by the teacher and students, can help students ta5e an
increasing responsibility for their own learning.
,. %xtensions. ;hese may be designed to create a longer or more intense
lesson. ?or e2ample, if the class is able to cover the material in a lesson
much faster than e2pected, e2tensions may prove helpful. E2tensions may
also be useful in various parts of a lesson where the teacher !and class/
decide they should spend more time on a s5ill or topic.
*). Teacher reflection and lesson plan revision. ;his is to be done after
teaching the lesson. 1tems in this section related to content, pedagogy,
resources, and s5ills will ma5e for greater readiness ne2t time. #lso, such
notes shared with colleagues will improve the general level of teaching.
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**. &eferences. ;he reference list might include other materials of possible
interest to people reading the lesson plan or to students who are being
taught using the lesson plan.
Many variations on templates for a general%purpose lesson plan
e2ist. Madeline 8unter=s wor5 in this area is well 5nown and widely used.
Fiscipline 9pecificity
# generali+ed lesson plan template is 4uite useful. #mong other things, it helps
unify the overall processes and profession of teaching, giving all teachers
some common ground.
8owever, each discipline has its own content and its own pedagogical content
5nowledge !PC"/. # good discipline%specific lesson plan reflects the
uni4ueness of the content and teaching of the discipline. # good teacher in
a discipline draws heavily on that discipline<s proven PC" repertoire. #
good lesson plan may well include a discussion of PC" to employ when
conducting the lesson.
;he remainder of this document focuses on possible components of a math
lesson plan template. Of course, such a template will include the
components of the general%purpose lesson plan. 8owever, math has
differences from any other discipline. # good math lesson plan plan
reflects these differences.
Math was an informal area of study long before the development of reading
and writing. :ith the development of reading and writing somewhat over
D,))) years ago, math became part of the core curriculum in schools.
Many people feel math to be second only to language arts in importance in
the curriculum.
:hat distinguishes math from other disciplinesI Perhaps a good starting point
in answering this 4uestion is to delve into an e2ploration of what
constitutes a discipline.
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;he various academic disciplines in our formal educational system have
considerable differences. Each academic discipline or area of study is
delineated by such things as its@
;ypical problems, tas5s, and activities it addresses
#ccumulated accomplishments !results, achievements, products, performances, scope,
power, uses, impact on the societies of the world, and so on/
8istory, culture, and language, including notation and speciali+ed vocabulary
Methods of teaching, learning, and assessment$ its lower%order and higher%order
5nowledge and s5ills$ and its critical thin5ing and understand>what its practitioners do to
further their wor5 and pass on their ethics, 5nowledge, products, and s5ills
;ools, methodologies, and types of evidence and arguments used in solving problems,
accomplishing tas5s, and recording and sharing accumulated results
Criteria that separate and distinguish among a@
a/ novice,
b/ person who has a personally useful level of competence,
c/ reasonable competent person, employable in the discipline,
d/ local or regional e2pert,
e/ national or world%class e2pert.
:hen you teach within a discipline, you represent that discipline. Part of your teaching tas5 is
appropriate and ade4uate representation of the discipline. ;his means that you, as a math
teacher, need to identify and e2plain similarities and differences between math and the
other disciplines your students have studied or are studying. ;his is especially important for
the various other disciplines in which math is standard component. ?or e2ample, you 5now
that students use math in business and science. :hat distinguishes math from business or
scienceI
Practitioners, teachers, and students all face the challenge that a well established discipline has
substantial breadth and depth. # single discipline%specific lesson addresses a minute
fraction of the discipline. ;hus, considerable thought ought to be given as to what aspects
of the discipline should be stressed and how this material contributes to a student=s overall
progress toward gaining e2pertise within the discipline.
;ypical disciplines included in Pre"%*( education are so vast that even if the entire Pre"%*(
curriculum were devoted to the study of 6ust one such discipline, students would learn only
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a small fraction of that discipline. 1ndeed, students continuing their studies through a
bachelor=s, master=s, and doctorate degree in a discipline still master only a modest fraction
of that discipline.
;his observation helps us to understand the relative ease of creating a *%period lesson plan in a
discipline versus the challenge of creating a multi%lesson unit of study, a course, or an
e2tended curriculum leading to a relatively high level of e2pertise in a discipline. 1t is 4uite
difficult to develop an e2tensive curriculum that fits the needs of a broad range of students
who are wor5ing over a period of many years to gain a particular level of e2pertise in the
various disciplines. ;his is further complicated by synergies among disciplines.
Often, large teams of 0e2perts0 in a discipline address this challenge by wor5ing to develop
appropriate scope, se4uence, and benchmar5s. Most professional societies have such
ongoing efforts. ?or e2ample, the 'ational Council of ;eachers of Mathematics plays a
leadership role in developing math education standards in the &nited 9tates. ?rom time to
time populous state, such as California, will publish benchmar5s in a discipline such as
math, and these benchmar5s influence te2tboo5 companies and many other states
throughout the country. Currently, the Common Core 9tate 9tandards pro6ect is a dominant
force in the &nited 9tate. 9ee http@AAwww.corestandards.orgA.
:hat is MathI
Precollege math curricula in the &nited 9tates are sometimes described as !and critici+ed as/
being 0a mile wide and an inch deep.0 9o many different topics can be taught that it is hard
to decide which to emphasi+e. ;ime is limited$ curriculum developers continually face the
challenge of balancing depth and variety.
# possible lodestone is to attend to the essence of the discipline. ;hus, math educators thin5
carefully about the math%related aspects of attitude, content, and process. ;heir answers to
0:hat is mathI0
will then guide development of curriculum content, teacher attitudes, instructional processes,
and assessment in our math education system. ;hose who teach teachers are e2pected to
be mathematically competent and able to communicate a defensible answer to the 0:hat is
mathI0 4uestion.
'ome (ften-)uoted Answers
8ere are three 4uotations that are fun and interesting, but not particularly helpful in math
curriculum planning and development@
8
0Mathematics is a more powerful instrument of 5nowledge than any other that has been
be4ueathed to us by human agency.0 !JenK Fescartes, ?rench philosopher, mathematician,
scientist, and writer$ *D,EL*ED)./
Mathematics is the 4ueen of the sciences. !Carl ?riedrich Gauss, German mathematician,
physicist, and prodigy$ *HHHL*.DD./
God created the natural numbers. #ll the rest is the wor5 of man. !Leopold "ronec5er, German
mathematician and logician$ *.(-L*.,*./
More math education 4uotations are available at http@AAiae%
pedia.orgAMathMEducationMNuotations.
Patterns and !anguage of a *iscipline
Many people attempting to answer the 0:hat is mathI0 4uestion give answers that fit the
discipline they are tal5ing about, but that also apply to many other disciplines.
?or e2ample, is common to say that math is the study of patterns and then go on to give
e2amples of the types of patterns mathematicians study. # ma6or shortcoming of this
answer is that 0the study of patterns0 description fits every discipline. # human brain wor5s
by processing patterns. 1t is only the differing e2amples of discipline%specific patterns being
studied and methodologies of studying the patterns that distinguish one discipline from
another.
1ndeed, information is stored in a human brain as a pattern of stronger or weaker neural
connections. 9cience fiction stories have included machines that could 4uic5ly impose
such patterns in nervous systems$ researchers are ma5ing progress understanding what is
actually happening in a brain as it learns and as it uses its learning to solve problems and
accomplish tas5s.
#nother widely use answer to the 0:hat is mathI0 4uestion is that math is a language. 1ndeed,
it is sometimes said that algebra is the language of mathematics. Nuoting Lynn #rthur
9teen, a leading math educator@
O algebra is the language of mathematics, which itself is the language of the information age.
;he language of algebra is the Josetta 9tone of nature and the passport to advanced
mathematics !&sis5in, *,,D/. 1t is the logical structure of algebra, not the solutions of its
e4uations, that made algebra a central component of classical education. !9teen, *,,,/
;he combined assertion that math is a language and algebra is the language of mathematics is
useful. 8owever, each discipline can be considered from the point of view of
communication within the discipline. Each discipline has its own special vocabulary,
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notation, gesturing and movement, and other ways to represent and communicate with
others who 5now the discipline. Math is 5nown as being a language that facilitates very
precise communication>perhaps more so than any other widely used discipline%specific
language.
'ome Important $ath Concepts
#nother approach to answering the 0what is math0 4uestion is to name some of the really important ideas
or concepts in math that help to distinguish it from other disciplines. 8ere are four e2amples@
0One of the most important concepts in all of mathematics is that of function.0 !;.P. Fic5 and
C.M. Patton./
0;he most powerful single idea in mathematics is the notion of a varia"le.0 !#le2ander "eewatin
Fewdney, *,3*L, Canadian,computer scientist, mathematician, and philosopher./
0'o human investigation can claim to be scientific if it doesn=t pass the test of
mathematical proof.0 !Leonardo da Ginci, 4uoted in Concepts of Mathematical Modeling by
:alter P. Meyer./ 0;he usual approach of science of constructing a mathematical
model cannot answer the 4uestions of why there should be a universe for the model to
describe. :hy does the universe go to all the bother of e2istingI0 !9teven 8aw5ing/
1n mathematics, the words function+ varia"le+ proof, and modeling have special definitions
that are different from the 0natural language0 definitions that people commonly use. ;hus,
to appreciate the four 4uotes, one has to 5now some mathematics. 1ndeed, one possible
measure of a good mathematics curriculum is in terms of student growth in understanding
these four important ideas.
!ong-%nduring &esults
Many other people have written answers to the 0:hat is mathI0 4uestion. Math education e2perts tend to
agree on the need for a good answer to include a discussion of math patterns, problem posing and
problem solving, communication in the language and notation of mathematics, and the types of
careful, rigorous arguments used in developing and presenting mathematical proofs. 1t ta5es a
reasonably good understanding of math in order to understand possible meanings to the 0:hat is
mathI0 4uestion.
9till another way to loo5 at math is the longevity of some of its results. ;heorems and other
mathematical results developed several thousand years ago are still true today. ;hey are
true throughout the world, and they will continue to be true in the future. ;his aspect of
math means that one can build upon and have confidence in the accumulated
mathematical 5nowledge.Perhaps more so than for any otherdiscipline, math is a discipline
of broad and long%lasting results.
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Of course, many other disciplines have some long%lasting results or accomplishments. ?or e2ample,
great music and art can endure over the ages. ;he design of a tool such as a for5 or a paper clip
might be so good that it becomes a standard against which possible new versions are measured. #n
invention and many of the results in science can have very long lives.
1n any case, math results have a permanency that facilitate the accumulation of results over millennia,
with the results being such that new researchers and users of math can safely build upon these
accumulated results. ;he following two 4uotations help capture the essence of the permanency of
accumulated math content 5nowledge.0# mathematician, li5e a painter or poet, is a ma5er of patterns.
1f his patterns are more permanent than theirs, it is because they are made with ideas.0 !G. 8. 8ardy,
English mathematician$ *.HHL*,3H./
01n most sciences one generation tears down what another has built and what one has
established another undoes. 1n mathematics alone each generation adds a new story to the
old structure.0 !8ermann 8an5el, German mathematician$ *.-,L*.H-./
#s curriculum developers and teachers help students learn math, it is important to help students
understand and be able to ma5e use of the steadily increasing accumulated 5nowledge in this
discipline. ;his does not mean pac5ing more and more math results into the students< brains.
1t does mean enabling students, within their capacities, to have confidence in their
mathematics and to be able to learn more as their needs and interests dictate.;his
accumulation of math results is very important in facilitating one of the most important ideas in
problem solving. ;hat idea is the building on the previous results of oneself and others. 1t is
sometimes simplified to the statement, 0Fon=t reinvent the wheel.0;his 4uotation should be
used with some care. 1n educational settings, a problem is studied and solved for the purpose
of increasing one<s e2pertise as a problem solver. Loo5ing up an answer in a library will
produce an answer, but it will not contribute much to gaining an increasing level of e2pertise
in solving novel problems. Many math teachers often stress that 0the goal is to get the
answer.0 ;hat is a poor approach to math education. ?irst of all, a math problem may have no
answer, one answer, or many answers. 9econd, the goal is to learn math to fit one=s current
and possible future needs.:e now have computers and 1nformation and Communication
;echnology !1C;/ to facilitate the storage, retrieval, use, and communication of humanity<s
accumulated math 5nowledge. Computer technology has made it possible to@
9tore ever%more accumulated math 5nowledge in a form accessible by a steadily increasing
percentage of the world=s population.9tore parts of this accumulated math 5nowledge in a
form so that the computer system can actually carry out the procedures to solve or help solve
a wide range of problems. Even a 0lowly0 handheld scientific, graphing, e4uation%solving
calculator stores much math 5nowledge in a form that automates the solving of a wide range
of problems.Bou can thin5 about computeri+ed storage and automation as an au2iliary brain,
a brain augmentation. Progress in computer technology is aiding in the development of such
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brain augmentation in each academic discipline. ;he potential may be greater in math than in
any other discipline because of the fact that a proven math theorem remains proven over time
and throughout the universe.
1n summary, it is not easy to provide short answers to the 0:hat is mathI0 4uestion that can serve
to provide a unifying foundation for math curriculum developers, te2tboo5 writers, and
teachers. 1t is not surprising that considerable areas of disagreement e2ist. 9ometimes such
disagreements are classified as being part of the Math Education :ars.
9ome Math%9pecific Lesson Plan ;opics
;his section e2plores some possible topics that need special attention in a math lesson plan. 1t
also e2plores some themes that are especially important for math success and that math
lesson plans should specifically emphasi+e.
Increasing $ath %xpertise
9tudents should increase their levels of math e2pertise during every math unit of study. ;hus, in
preparing to teach a math lesson or unit of study, begin by thin5ing how a student=s level of
math e2pertise will be maintained and improved by the time and effort the student spends on
the lesson or unit of study. "eep in mind that math is a broad and deep discipline. ;he various
components of math are thoroughly intertwined.
Pro"lem 'olving
;he absolute heart>the unifying mission>of math education is students getting better at math
problem solving. 8ere is a brief summary of what problem solving includes@
Nuestion situations@ Jecogni+ing, posing, clarifying, and answering 4uestions.Problem situations@
Jecogni+ing, posing, clarifying, and solving problems.;as5 situations@ Jecogni+ing, posing,
clarifying, and accomplishing tas5s.Fecision situation@ Jecogni+ing, posing, clarifying, and
ma5ing decisions.'ote that solving problems usually re4uires higher%order, critical, creative,
and wise thin5ing. ?urther, to successfully share or demonstrate the resulting result>
product, performance, or presentation>usually re4uires communication and social s5ills.
?inally, problem solving re4uires sense ma5ing. ;he successful problem solver ma5es sense
of the problem and the results of solving or attempting to solve the problem. ;his sense
ma5ing provides feedbac5 to the problem solver and helps to ensure correctness of the
solution!s/ produced by the problem%solving processes.
#n analogy with thin5ing about learning to write may be helpful. Bou can thin5 of learning to write
as mastering spelling, punctuation, grammar, penmanship, etc. Or you can thin5 of learning to
write as learning to e2press oneself clearly in written language. ;he goal is to produce written
documents that are understandable to yourself and others.
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9imilarly, one can thin5 of lower%order math 5nowledge and s5ills such as multidigit paper and
pencil algorithms for addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. #lternatively, one can
thin5 of representing real%world !or interesting, theoretical/ problems using the language of
math, and then solving them using one=s level of e2pertise in problem solving in math. 1n both
writing and in math problem solving, some basic s5ills are important. 1n teaching writing,
however, there is significant emphasis on the higher%order goals even as students practice
some of the basics. Often, this emphasis on higher%order s5ills and sense ma5ing is missing
in the way teachers teach math. !1t helps to remember that what you have learned to do so
well that the doing seems a lower%level s5ill is not so for students./
The Concept of Proof
;he concept of proof lies at the very heart of mathematics. ;hus, every math lesson or unit of
study can be analy+ed in terms of its contribution to students gaining increased understanding
of proof and how to ma5e mathematical arguments that are proofs or are proof%li5e.
;he 0proof%li5e0 idea is a 5ey part of problem solving. ;he e2planation and arguments supporting
the steps used in solving a problem are proof-like. Problem solvers can do a mental chec5 of
the steps, testing to see if they ma5e sense and if they could readily convince other people
that they ma5e sense.
# math proof can be thought of as a se4uence of arguments so carefully done that they can
convince well%4ualified mathematicians. 9tudents get better at constructing proofs or proof%
li5e arguments through being instructed in these endeavors, by practicing and receiving high%
4uality feedbac5, and by studying proofs and proof%li5e arguments done by others. ;he
concepts of proof and proof%li5e are closely tied in with giving partial credit when grading math
tests or math homewor5. Consider a teacher grading a problem that a student has solved or
attempted to solve. 1t is possible to attempt to solve a problem, use methods or steps that are
incorrect and ma5e little or no sense, and still get a correct answer. ;hus, the grader loo5s
both at the answer!s/ produced and the steps used to obtain the answer!s/. 1f the steps and
their underlying logic are correct, but one or more are implemented incorrectly, a student may
well be deserving of considerable partial credit.
;he idea of partial credit certainly carries over to other disciplines. ?or e2ample, consider a group
of teachers, each grading a student=s written essay. 1t ta5es a substantial amount of
instruction and practice to teach the group of teachers to have a high level of consistency and
agreement in essay grading. :hile reaching agreement on how to deal with errors in spelling
and grammar is relevant and fairly easy to achieve, this is a far cry from dealing with the
higher%order thin5ing involved in written communication.
8owever, there may be a lodestone for the individual teacher@ 8ow does this grade, comment,
this correction contribute toward increasing the student<s e2pertiseI
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Include a ,ocus on Important Pro"lems
:e want students to learn math for a variety of reasons. ?or e2ample, math is a human endeavor
and an important part of our history and of many different cultures.;here are certain problems
we humans face that cut across many disciplines, that are too big for any one person or small
team of people to solve, and that are important to all of us. 9ustainability provides a good
e2ample.;hus, in creating and delivering a math lesson, the teacher might hold in mind that
the math students are being taught might be useful in helping to address various aspects of
the overall problem of sustainability.;hus, as a math topic is being taught, and transfer of
learning of that topic is being taught, students might well be led to considering uses of the
math topic in e2ploring various issues of sustainability in the other courses they are studying.
Prereuisite+ &eview+ and &emediation
# typical lesson builds upon and e2pands the current 5nowledge and s5ills of students. 9tudents
construct new 5nowledge and s5ills by building on their current 5nowledge and s5ills. ;his
theory is called constructivism and it is a very important educational theory.0?orgetting0 has
attracted much educational research, and the results are in@ 1n every course area, students
forget a significant amount of course content relatively soon after completing the course. ;he
amount forgotten varies with the student. 8owever, in many courses the amount forgotten in a
year or so is in the range of HDQ to ,)Q.:hat students usually remember is a combination of
some big ideas and material that the students use rather fre4uently in courses and in other
parts of their lives. ;eachers do well to assume that many students in a class which has
covered the same course or courses will have forgotten much of the material covered from
those courses. ;hat retention varies tremendously among students ma5es the teacher<s tas5
harder$ that previously e2posed students relearn easier ma5es it easier>provided the
students< attitudes are good.General and 4uite variable long%term residual 5nowledge, s5ills,
and understandings usually serve as an ade4uate foundation for future learning in some
areas, but often it is not ade4uate in math !e2cept for problem%solving s5ills and attitudes/.
;hus, in preparing to teach a math lesson, the teacher needs to thin5 carefully about, or have
ascertained, what aspects of the math prere4uisite 5nowledge and s5ills the students actually
have.#s students progress through math instruction, year after year, this math prere4uisite
situation gets to be a bigger and bigger challenge both to students and to teachers. ?or a
number of the students, the entire instructional time in a math lesson or unit could be used up
in math review, and still the students would not have the proficiency that the teacher would
li5e in order to deal with the mew material. ?or other, the review time is a waste of time.'o
simple, sure fire solutions to this problem situation e2ist. :hat typically happens is that some
class time is spent in review, which bores students who have the necessary prere4uisite
proficiency. ?or some of the students, the review process is ade4uate, but for many others it
is inade4uate. ;hus, many of the students face the challenge of trying to learn new material
14
!construct new 5nowledge/ by building upon an inade4uate foundation. ;he result does not
provide them with the prere4uisite 5nowledge and s5ills for the subse4uent lessons, units of
study, and courses. 9uch students continue in a downward spiral where they fall further and
further behind.:hen the 0falling behind0 situation gets bad enough, our educational system
tends to try to do something about it. :e 5now, for e2ample, that students learn faster with
one%on%one tutoring or in very small%group instruction. :e 5now that such intense instruction,
with a longer period of time being devoted to a sub6ect area, will help students catch up. 1n
some cases, 4uality computer%assisted learning materials have some of the needed
characteristics of an individual tutor@ #ccuracy, cost%effectiveness, diagnosis, feedbac5,
interesting presentation, patience, and relevance.8aving a student devote e2tra time to
learning math entails the 4uestion@ :hat part of the other curriculum should receive less
timeI0 1s this math s5ill or topic so important to these slower%learning math students that they
should learn less art, history, music, physical education, or other standard components of the
curriculumI
'lower and ,aster !earners
;he issue of prere4uisite 5nowledge and s5ills is a ma6or challenge to any math education
system. 8umans vary considerably in the nature and nurture aspects of math. # typical first
grade teacher will have some students at a 5indergarten or lower level in a math area, and
some students who are at second grade or higher level. Gery roughly spea5ing, some
students in the class will learn math at *A( !or less/ to -A3 the rate of average students in the
class, while others will learn math at the rate of *.D to ( times !or more/ of the class average.
;hat the same student may find some areas of math easy and others difficult complicates the
problem.;he students will vary widely in their depth of understanding of previous and new
materials, and how well they retain !how rapidly they forget/ the math they have studied or are
currently learning.;eachers< usual heuristic is to conduct reviews so the 0average0 students
meet the prere4uisites, more or less.9ince whole%class review will bore the students who
have mastered the material and often will continue to bewilder or dishearten students who
didn<t get it the first !or secondR/ time around, teachers may try to cope by dividing the class
into groups that progress at different rates. Elementary schools often divide a class into two or
three groups for math instruction>based on current math preparation and rate of learning.
One way to do this is to have two or three teachers< classes wor5 together, one teacher ta5ing
all of the slower group, one ta5ing all of a second group, and so on. Educational institutions
beyond the elementary grades normally offer a menu of courses.#s with the reading
curriculum, it is possible to increase the amount of math learning in the lower group by
teaching them in smaller classes and e2tending the amount of math instructional time per
day. 1t is possible to meet some of the needs of the faster group by giving them instruction on
15
how to learn math by reading math boo5s and by interacting with each other, and how to do
self%assessment and peer assessment.
'tudent and Teacher &esponsi"ilities
;he problem of math prere4uisites increases as students move to high level grades. 7oth
teachers and students have ownership of the problem. ;hus, one way for a teacher to
approach this to educate students about the problem and get students actively engaged in
addressing the problem.
;his raises the issue of the e2tent to which a students can learn to ta5e habitual responsibility for
their own learning, lac5 of learning, need for review, and need for remediation. ?or educators
and parents, two possible aspects of this are@
*. 8elp students learn to understand the level of 5nowledge, s5ills, understanding, and
performance e2pected of them. ;ypically, e2pectations may well vary from student to
student in a class. #ll e2pectations will include level of performance upon completion
and amount of progress in a given period of time. &sing these e2pectations
effectively re4uires that students have a firm grasp of what they mean. 1t re4uires
that they get good assessment and feedbac5 from themselves and others !such as
the teacher/ so they 5now they<re on trac5 and on schedule.
(. Provide a variety of aids to students to help them meet the e2pectations. ;his
includes helping students learn to help themselves.
nts learning to ta5e responsibility for their own learning is one of the most important tas5s of
educators. 1t is an issue in all components of the curriculum !and in many other areas such
as managing or parenting/. One way to see we are doing a very poor 6ob in this is to loo5 at
students entering post%secondary education. Colleges and universities routinely give
students a math placement test. 1n many institutions, fully half of the students 0discover0
that they are not prepared to ta5e any math course that carries credit toward graduation>
sometimes because they<ve regarded there math courses as things to get through and be
done with. ;heir test scores indicate which of a variety of 0pre%college, remedial0 courses
they need to begin in as they wor5 their way through material that they have already
studied in middle school and high school.:e now have the technology, via online tests
that one can ta5e over and over, because these tests can be designed to give different
4uestions each time. ;here is no reason why such tests are not readily available to all
students starting at the middle school level or above. !Probably it is appropriate to ma5e
such feedbac5 available at still younger ages. ;he general idea is to help students learn to
depend on themselves and on readily available feedbac5 systems such as computers when
16
they want an answer to 8ow am 1 doingI/ ;he report given to a student can be completely
confidential, if that is what is needed or wanted. 1t can contain an analysis of areas needing
remediation and ways to get needed help.
Teaching 'elf-Assessment and 'elf-&esponsi"ility
8ere is a penetrating 4uotation@
01n the boo5 of life, the answers aren=t in the bac5.0 !Charlie 7rown, as written by Charles 9chul+/
Learning re4uires feedbac5. ;he feedbac5 may come from a teacher, from one=s peers, from
parents , from the learner, and so on. One of the ma6or wea5nesses in our math education
system is that many students do not develop effective s5ills in providing feedbac5 to
themselves>that is, often what they are doing ma5es no sense to themselves, and they
seldom reflect. ;hus, when they ma5e errors, they have few internal resources to detect and
then correct the errors, perhaps in part because they have little or no ownership in the tas5.
One reason that this situation persists is that a lot of math education learning effort goes on in a
conte2t where it is difficult for a student to provide self%feedbac5. ;he instruction is presented
in the form of computations to be carried out using algorithms to be memori+ed. # student
does not learn to attach meaning to the numbers being manipulated on the answers being
produced. ;he student does not gain the 5nowledge and s5ills to chec5 if a result 0ma5es
sense.0
9ome math boo5s and s teachers suggest that students do paper and pencil calculations and
then use a calculator to chec5 their results. 8owever, it is very easy to ma5e a mista5e when
using a calculator. 1ndeed, an important aspect of learning to use a calculator is learning to
detect one=s errors. One way to do this is to chec5 if an answer ma5es sense.;hus, sense
ma5ing is a fundamental idea in calculation, whether it is done mentally, using paper and
pencil, or using a calculator or computer. Modern math education programs of study include a
strong emphasis on students learning to chec5 whether an answer ma5es sense. # student<s
s5ill in sense ma5ing should be increasing year after year. #s students begin to encounter
word !story/ problems, we can readily see those who are reasonably good at chec5ing to see
if an answer ma5es sense. Many students will solve such problems and produce answers that
ma5e no sense whatsoever>and be 4uite unable to detect that their answers ma5e no
sense. :ord problems generally admit sense%chec5ing. ;hus, one important reason for
including word problems in the math curriculum is that they are a good vehicle to help
students increase their sense%chec5ing s5ills. Other important reasons are that they entail
higher%order s5ills and that students< reactions to them tells much about their attitudes toward
math.
Teaching for Transfer of !earning
Math is very useful in many different academic disciplines. Math is a general%purpose aid to
problem solving>indispensable if the problem situation involves 4uantities. ;hus, it is highly
17
desirable to teach math in a manner that facilitates transfer of learning to other disciplines and
to actual and probable problem%solving situations students will encounter.;he *,,( article
by Per5ins and 9alomon provides an e2cellent summary of this field. Over the past two
decades, educational researchers have learned a great deal about the theories of low%road
and high%road transfer of learning, and how to teach for transfer. Low%road transfer of learning
is based on automaticity. ?or e2ample, various number facts can be learned to such a high
level of automaticity that they seem as if they are instinctive when one needs them in
addressing problems both in and outside of school. 8igh%road transfer is based on learning
general%purpose strategies and learning how to apply these strategies over a wide range of
problem situations. ?or e2ample, many hard problems can be bro5en into sets of less difficult
problems. 9olve the less difficult problems, put all the results together in an appropriate
manner, and the harder problem is solved. ;he teaching approach is to recogni+e when it is
appropriate to generali+e a strategy being taught in a specific discipline !such as math/, give
the strategy a name, and e2plicitly help students to learn to apply the strategy in a variety of
disciplines. *ivide and conuer !brea5 a big problem into a coherent set of smaller
problems/ is commonly taught in math, and it is 4uite useful in problem solving in other
disciplines. ;wo e2amples@ Learning to drive a car, and comparingAcontrasting the foreign
policyA military policy of Germany and Papan from *,-(%*,3D. 1n summary, every math lesson
plan should include a statement of how the new material is transferable to problem solving in
other settings, including in non%math disciplines. ;his transfer of learning should occur from
math learning to other disciplines, and from learning other disciplines to math. 9uppose that
you teach both math and other disciplines !;his especially applies to elementary school
teachers./ :hen developing a math lesson plan in which transfer from math to other
disciplines is important, at the same time thin5 about revising your lesson plans in the other
disciplines you teach. :hen appropriate, integrate some math into these disciplines and
stress ideas that transfer from math. ?or e2ample, stating a story problem intelligibly and
e2plaining the solution process re4uire language arts s5ills. #nother e2ample@ Compare
popularity ratings of &. 9. Presidents when they left office with their relative ran5ings by
historians now, and discuss the relationship between popularity and enduring worth.
$ath Cognitive *evelopmental !evel and $aturity !evel
#s a student=s brain matures and as a student studies math over a period of years, two important
results are@
*. ;he student moves up the Piagetian !math/ cognitive developmental scale, moving
toward !math/ formal operations.
18
(. ;he student grows in math maturity>getting better at thin5ing mathematically,
learning to learn math, and creatively use math to solve comple2 and challenging
problems.
introductions to math cognitive development and math maturity. ?or a deeper discussion, see Chapter H
of@
Moursund, F.G. !())E/. Computational ;hin5ing and Math Maturity@ 1mproving Math Education in
"%. 9chools. Eugene, OJ@ 1nformation #ge Education. Jetrieved *(AHA)H@ http@AAi%a%
e.orgAe7oo5sAcatMviewA-H%free%eboo5s%by%dave%moursund.html.ca.
S'ote to readers@ 1t is not clear what would constitute being 0middle class0 in such a tribe. ;he
tribe might have a chief and a 9haman or priest, and that they would be above middle class.
Perhaps those who ta5e good care of their children are able to ta5e a nap in the heat of the
day, and have a regular turn spea5ing around the campfire. 1n any event, there are no formal
schools and no written language.T 7y the time he or she finishes high school, the first child
has a good chance of being well along toward achieving general Piagetian formal operations
and math formal operations. ;he second child may well never achieve general Piagetian rmal
Moving bac5 to the math education curriculum in our school system, the households and
e2tended families that children grow up in vary considerably in how much they help children in
their general cognitive development and in their discipline%specific cognitive development.
;his poses two 4uestions for math curriculum developers@
*. 8ow to provide appropriate math curriculum for students of considerable different
levels of math cognitive development levelsI
(. 8ow to help all students to move upward in their math cognitive developmental
levelsI
Level Name Description
? @isualiAation
Students reco(niAe fi(ures as total entities
<trian(les3 s2uares>3 /ut do not
reco(niAe properties of these fi(ures
<ri(ht an(les in a s2uare>#
1 Analysis
Students analyAe co$ponent parts of the
fi(ures <opposite an(les of
parallelo(ra$s are con(ruent>3 /ut
interrelationships /et'een fi(ures
and properties cannot /e e.plained#
2 Infor$al
Deduction
Students can esta/lish interrelationships
of properties 'ithin fi(ures <in a
2uadrilateral3 opposite sides /ein(
parallel necessitates opposite an(les
19
/ein( con(ruent> and a$on( fi(ures
<a s2uare is a rectan(le /ecause it has
all the properties of a rectan(le>#
Infor$al proofs can /e follo'ed /ut
students do not see ho' the lo(ical
order could /e altered nor do they see
ho' to construct a proof startin(
fro$ different or unfa$iliar
pre$ises#
3 Deduction
At this le0el the si(nificance of deduction
as a 'ay of esta/lishin( (eo$etric
theory 'ithin an a.io$ syste$ is
understood# -he interrelationship and
role of undefined ter$s3 a.io$s3
definitions3 theore$s3 and for$al
proof is seen# -he possi/ility of
de0elopin( a proof in $ore than one
'ay is seen# <+ou(hly corresponds to
1or$al %perations on the Pia(etian
Scale#>
4 +i(or
Students at this le0el can co$pare
different a.io$ syste$s <non-
*uclidean (eo$etry can /e studied>#
Geo$etry is seen in the a/stract 'ith
a hi(h de(ree of ri(or3 e0en 'ithout
concrete e.a$ples#
'otice that the van 8ieles, being mathematicians, labeled their first stage Level ). ;his is a
common practice that mathematicians use when labeling the terms of a se4uence. Piaget=s
cognitive development scale has four levels, numbers * to 3. ;he highest level in the van 8iele
geometry cognitive development scale is one level above the highest level of the Piaget
cognitive development scale.
cognitive development and learning probability. ?or e2ample@
Garfield, P. and #hlgren, #. !*,../. Fifficulties in Learning 7asic Concepts in Probability and
9tatistics@ 1mplications for Jesearch. Pournal for Jesearch in Mathematics Education. *,, *,
33%%E-.
Nuoting the abstract of this article@
;here is a growing movement to introduce elements of statistics and probability into the
secondary and even the elementary school curriculum, as part of basic literacy in
mathematics. #lthough many articles in the education literature recommend how to teach
statistics better, there is little published research on how students actually learn statistics
concepts. ;he e2perience of psychologists, educators, and statisticians ali5e is that a large
proportion of students, even in college, do not understand many of the basic statistical
concepts they have studied. 1nade4uacies in prere4uisite mathematics s5ills and abstract
reasoning are part of the problem. 1n addition, research in cognitive science demonstrates the
prevalence of some 0intuitive0 ways of thin5ing that interfere with the learning of correct
20
statistical reasoning. ;he literature reviewed in this paper indicates a need for collaborative,
cross%disciplinary research on how students come to thin5 correctly about probability and
statistics.
e.
Stage & Name Math Cognitive Developments
Le0el 1#
Pia(etian
and !ath
sensori$ot
or#
Infants use sensory and $otor capa/ilities to e.plore and (ain
increasin( understandin( of their en0iron$ents# +esearch on 0ery
youn( infants su((ests so$e innate a/ility to deal 'ith s$all
2uantities such as 13 23 and 3# As infants (ain cra'lin( or
'al:in( $o/ility3 they can display innate spatial sense# 1or
e.a$ple3 they can $o0e to a tar(et alon( a path re2uirin( $o0in(
around o/stacles3 and can find their 'ay /ac: to a parent after
ha0in( ta:en a turn into a roo$ 'here they can no lon(er see the
parent#
Le0el 2#
Pia(etian
and !ath
preoperatio
nal#
Durin( the preoperational sta(e3 children /e(in to use sy$/ols3 such
as speech# -hey respond to o/Bects and e0ents accordin( to ho'
they appear to /e# -he children are $a:in( rapid pro(ress in
recepti0e and (enerati0e oral lan(ua(e# -hey acco$$odate to the
lan(ua(e en0iron$ents <includin( $ath as a lan(ua(e> they
spend a lot of ti$e in3 so can easily /eco$e /ilin(ual or trilin(ual
in such en0iron$ents#
Durin( the preoperational sta(e3 children learn so$e fol: $ath and
/e(in to de0elop an understandin( of nu$/er line# -hey learn
nu$/er 'ords and to na$e the nu$/er of o/Bects in a collection
and ho' to count the$3 'ith the ans'er /ein( the last nu$/er
used in this countin( process#
A $aBority of children disco0er or learn Ccountin( onD and countin(
on fro$ the lar(er 2uantity as a 'ay to speed up countin( of t'o
or $ore sets of o/Bects# )hildren (ain increasin( proficiency
<speed3 correctness3 and understandin(> in such countin(
acti0ities#
In ter$s of nature and nurture in $athe$atical de0elop$ent3 /oth are
of considera/le i$portance durin( the preoperational sta(e#
Le0el 3#
Pia(etian
and !ath
concrete
operations#
Durin( the concrete operations sta(e3 children /e(in to thin:
lo(ically# In this sta(e3 'hich is characteriAed /y 5 types of
conser0ationE nu$/er3 len(th3 li2uid3 $ass3 'ei(ht3 area3 0olu$e3
intelli(ence is de$onstrated throu(h lo(ical and syste$atic
$anipulation of sy$/ols related to concrete o/Bects# %perational
thin:in( de0elops <$ental actions that are re0ersi/le>#
hile concrete o/Bects are an i$portant aspect of learnin( durin( this
sta(e3 children also /e(in to learn fro$ 'ords3 lan(ua(e3 and
picturesF0ideo3 learnin( a/out o/Bects that are not concretely
a0aila/le to the$#
21
1or the a0era(e child3 the ti$e span of concrete operations is
appro.i$ately the ti$e span of ele$entary school <(rades 1-, or
1-4># Durin( this ti$e3 learnin( $ath is so$e'hat lin:ed to
ha0in( pre0iously de0eloped so$e :no'led(e of $ath 'ords
<such as countin( nu$/ers> and concepts#
Go'e0er3 the le0el of a/straction in the 'ritten and oral $ath
lan(ua(e 2uic:ly surpasses a studentHs pre0ious $ath e.perience#
-hat is3 $ath learnin( tends to proceed in an en0iron$ent in
'hich the ne' content $aterials and ideas are not stron(ly rooted
in 0er/al3 concrete3 $ental i$a(es and understandin( of
so$e'hat si$ilar ideas that ha0e already /een ac2uired#
-here is a su/stantial difference /et'een de0elopin( (eneral ideas
and understandin( of conser0ation of nu$/er3 len(th3 li2uid3
$ass3 'ei(ht3 area3 and 0olu$e3 and learnin( the $athe$atics
that corresponds to this# -hese tend to /e relati0ely deep and
a/stract topics3 althou(h they can /e tau(ht in 0ery concrete
$anners#
Le0el 4#
Pia(etian
and !ath
for$al
operations#
-hou(ht /e(ins to /e syste$atic and a/stract# In this sta(e3
intelli(ence is de$onstrated throu(h the lo(ical use of sy$/ols
related to a/stract concepts3 pro/le$ sol0in(3 and (ainin( and
usin( hi(her-order :no'led(e and s:ills#
!ath $aturity supports the understandin( of and proficiency in $ath
at the le0el of a hi(h school $ath curriculu$# 9e(innin(s of
understandin( of $ath-type ar(u$ents and proof#
Pia(etian and !ath for$al operations includes /ein( a/le to
reco(niAe $ath aspects of pro/le$ situations in /oth $ath and
non-$ath disciplines3 con0ert these aspects into $ath pro/le$s
<$ath $odelin(>3 and sol0e the resultin( $ath pro/le$s if they
are 'ithin the ran(e of the $ath that one has studied# Such
transfer of learnin( is a core aspect of Le0el 4#
Le0el ,#
A/stract
$athe$atic
al
operations#
!athe$atical content proficiency and $aturity at the le0el of
conte$porary $ath te.ts used at the senior under(raduate le0el
in stron( pro(ra$s3 or first year (raduate le0el in less stron(
pro(ra$s# Good a/ility to learn $ath throu(h so$e co$/ination
of readin( re2uired te.ts and other $ath literature3 listenin( to
lectures3 participatin( in class discussions3 studyin( on your o'n3
studyin( in (roups3 and so on# Sol0e relati0ely hi(h le0el $ath
pro/le$s posed /y others <such as in the te.t /oo:s and course
assi(n$ents># Pose and sol0e pro/le$s at the le0el of oneHs $ath
readin( s:ills and :no'led(e# 1ollo' the lo(ic and ar(u$ents in
22
$athe$atical proofs# 1ill in details of proofs 'hen steps are left
out in te.t/oo:s and other representations of such proofs#
Le0el 4#
!athe$atic
ian#
A 0ery hi(h le0el of $athe$atical proficiency and $aturity# -his
includes speed3 accuracy3 and understandin( in readin( the
research literature3 'ritin( research literature3 and in oral
co$$unication <spea:3 listen> of research-le0el $athe$atics#
Pose and sol0e ori(inal $ath pro/le$s at the le0el of
conte$porary research frontiers#
$ath $aturity
urity over the idea of math cognitive development. # Google search !*)AEA)./ of the e2pression@
0math maturity0 OJ 0mathematical maturity0 OJ 0mathematics maturity0 produced over (3,)))
hits. :i5ipedia states@
Mathematical maturity is a loose term used by mathematicians that refers to a mi2ture of
mathematical e2perience and insight that cannot be directly taught, but instead comes from
repeated e2posure to comple2 mathematical concepts.
iaatical maturity include@
the capacity to generali+e from a specific e2ample to broad concept
the capacity to handle increasingly abstract ideas
the ability to communicate mathematically by learning standard notation and acceptable
style
a significant shift from learning by memori+ation to learning through understanding
the capacity to separate the 5ey ideas from the less significant
the ability to lin5 a geometrical representation with an analytic representation
the ability to translate verbal problems into mathematical problems
the ability to recogni+e a valid proof and detect =sloppy= thin5ing
the ability to recogni+e mathematical patterns
the ability to move bac5 and forth between the geometrical !graph/ and the analytical
!e4uation/
improving mathematical intuition by abandoning naive assumptions and developing a
more critical attitude
cal maturity is fearlessness in the face of symbols@ the ability to read and understand notation, to
introduce clear and useful notation when appropriate !and not otherwiseR/, and a general facility
of e2pression in the terse>but crisp and e2act>language that mathematicians use to
communicate ideas. Mathematics, li5e English, relies on a common understanding of definitions
and meanings. 7ut in mathematics definitions and meanings are much more often attached to
23
symbols, not to words, although words are used as well. ?urthermore, the definitions are much
more precise and unambiguous, and are not nearly as susceptible to modification through
usage. Bou will never see a mathematical discussion without the use of notationRBou can
evaluate a math lesson plan or unit of study in terms of how it contributes to students gaining in
math maturity.;he general notion of 0maturity0 in a discipline applies to every discipline>indeed
to every 6ob, vocation, or pastime. 8owever, mathematics teachers have been engaged with
the notion more often than teachers of other academic disciplines.
Communication in $ath
Our overall educational system clearly ac5nowledges the need for students to improve their oral
and written communication. # foundational concept in learning any discipline is to learn to
communicate with understanding, whether with others, with oneself, with boo5s, with
computers, etc. One way of thin5ing is holding a conversation with oneself. 9uch thin5ing in
math ma5es use of the vocabulary, notation, and graphical representations of math. ?luency in
a language of math greatly increases efficiency and chances for success when addressing a
problem in that area of math. Communication !read, write, spea5, present and visuali+e, and
listen/ with understanding is absolutely fundamental to learning, using, and doing math. Many
people confuse the idea of reading math with the idea of reading math word problems !math
story problems/. #lthough these activities are somewhat related, it is important to distinguish
between the two.
Communication and $ath Content
;raditionally, by the time a student finishes the third grade, teachers e2pect that the student can
read well enough to begin to use reading as a significant aid to learning. Our traditional
curriculum increases the emphasis on learning by reading as a student progresses through the
higher grades and on into college.
;raditionally, in middle school reading is the dominant aid to learning content. Moreover, our
educational system includes an emphasis on 0reading and writing across the curriculum.0
8owever, we do a very poor 6ob of implementing this idea in math education. 7y the time most
students finish high school, they have not yet learned to learn math content by reading, and
their s5ills in communicating math content by writing are correspondingly poor.
Of course, there are alternatives to communicating through reading and writing. 1ndeed, oral
communication e2isted long before reading and writing were invented. Our current methods for
teaching math depend heavily on oral communication bac5ed up with written communication. #
teacher tal5s !0stand and deliver0/, ma5es mar5s on a whole%class%viewable medium, and then
has students ma5e use of wor5sheets or some other form of written assignment. ?ew humans
will learn to read a math boo5 through this approach.
24
Math does not really lend itself to oral communication. Even two math professors will 4uic5ly move
into a combination of oral and written !using a chal5board, if one is available/ communication
when discussing a math problem. Moreover, as one might e2pect, math professors have
developed considerable s5ill in reading math boo5s and 6ournals.Jecall that one of the most
important ideas in problem solving is building on the previous wor5 of oneself and others. 1n
math, one builds on the previous wor5 of others by learning what they have done !and how/,
and by learning to learn what they have done. ;he collected human accumulation of math
5nowledge is so large that learning to learn what has been done, and then using this 5nowledge
and s5ill 06ust in time0 !that is, when one needs the specific 5nowledge/ is essential ;he 06ust in
time0 idea is also important to relearning when needed, including learning how to access 5ey
information or procedures.Jemember@ Over time, almost all students will forget much of the
math they<ve learned unless they use it regularly. ;herefore, they should do their initial learning
in a manner that ma5es relearning faster and easier>even if this initial learning ta5e somewhat
longer than more efficient methods. !1f its unli5ely that the student will ever have occasion to
use a certain aspect of math, you might consider whether it should be taught at all./ One place
to practice math relearning is in dealing with prere4uisites. Each math prere4uisite situation in a
math lesson plan can be viewed as an opportunity to help students hone relearning s5ills.
Communication and $ath -ord Pro"lems
;he diagram below captures the essence of many different math problem%solving situations. ;he
si2 steps shown are@
*. Problem posing and problem recognition to produce a clearly defined problem$
(. Mathematical modeling$
-. &sing a computational or algorithmic procedure to solve a computational or
algorithmic math problem$
3. Mathematical 0unmodeling0$
D. ;hin5ing about the results to see if the Clearly%defined Problem has been solved$ and
The great ma#ority of .-/ math education is focused on students learning to do step 0
using paper and pencil algorithms. 'tep 0 is what calculators and computers are "est at.
Thus+ the great ma#ority of math education at the .-/ levels is spent helping students
learn to compete with calculators and computers in areas that are not well suited to the
capa"ilities of a human mind "ut that are well suited to computers.
E. ;hin5ing the original Problem 9ituation has been resolved. 9teps D and E also involve
thin5ing about related problems and problem situations that one might want to address or that
are created by the process or attempting to solve the original Clearly%Fefined Problem or
resolve the original Problem 9it
25
1n steps * and ( a person wor5s to understand a problem situation and ma5es a decision as to
whether it might be useful to attempt to solve the problem using math. # person deciding to
ta5e a math%oriented approach to resolving the problem situation attempts to represent or
model the problem situation using the language of mathematics. ;his math modeling leads to
having a math problem that may of may not be solvable, and that may or may not be solvable
by the person attempting to solve the problem.
1n step E, the person who has a solution to the math problem e2tracted when dealing with 9tep *
chec5s the degree to which the results achieved are relevant to the original problem situation
and decides whether the overall process has been useful in trying to resolve the original
problem situation.Problem posing, along with steps *, (, 3, D, and E are all areas in which
humans are better than computers. 9ince ine2pensive calculators have become widely
available and relatively reliable !beginning in about *,.)/, there has been a modest !often,
heavily fought against/ trend toward reduced instructional time being spent in teaching paper
and pencil approaches to step -. ;he time saved is being spent on problem posing, sense
ma5ing, and the steps *, (, 3, D, and E.Many thousands of articles, boo5s, and :ebsites
address ways students can learn to solve word problems. Often, such material treats the tas5
as one of mechanically, a non%thin5ing process of translating the words into math language. ?or
e2ample, in a word problem and often means U. 1f students are doing word problems involving
percentages, they are taught that in this situation, 0the word of often means Vtimes<.0 ;hat is,
students are taught a number of tric5s or rules of thumb that may help translate a word problem
into a pure math problem. ;hey memori+e and use these tric5s with some success in getting
correct answers, but with little understanding.;his approach to word problems misses the whole
point or students learning to deal with challenging 0real world0 problems situations in which
math might be a useful aid to resolving the situations. 1t misses the whole point of translating
!representing, modeling/ such read world problems situations into math problems.#nother
difficulty e2ists. 1n the typical schoolboo5 word problem, students 5now that there is a solution.
;herefore, there must be a way to get the solution, the correct result. ;herefore, there ought
to be a mechanical way to get that result. 'ow, when a student faces a problem situation or a
story problem that may not have a solution, the student is apt to go to be totally frustrated.
$ath $odeling
;he si2%step diagram given in the previous section emphasi+es math modeling. Math modeling is
one of the most important aspects of math. ;his section provides a little more information about
math modeling.
9ome answers to the 0:hat is mathematicsI0 4uestion focus on math being a language that can be
used to develop models !called math models/ of certain aspects of ob6ects that people want to
26
study. ;hus, for e2ample, suppose 1 observe - children playing with marbles. One child has *)
marbles, one has . marbles, and one has *3 marbles.
e number - can be thought of as being a mathematical model of the children at play. 1t says
nothing about their age, their si+e, their se2, or their s5in color. 9imilarly, the numbers *), .,
and *3 are mathematical models of the marbles that the various children are playing with.
;hese numbers tell us nothing about the color, si+e, or 4uality of the marbles.
Perhaps someone raises the 4uestion, what is the average number of marbles per childI ;his
4uestion is not a clear, well defined 4uestion. ;he word 0average0 has a variety of
meanings. 1n math, three of the definitions are */ mean$ (/ medium$ and -/ mode. 9uppose
that we decide that the 4uestion is, :hat is the mean number of marbles per child in this
groupI 9ince we 5now what mean signifies, we 4uic5ly come to setting up the calculation
!*) U . U *3/A-. #t this stage of the problem%solving process, we have a pure math
calculation problem. ;he calculation !*) U . U *3/A- is completely divorced from children
and marbles. Possible results include *) (A- or *) J( or *).EEEO.:e then attempt to
ma5e meaning from the results of the calculation. :e might, for e2ample, conclude that
there are *) marbles per child, with ( left over. :e might say that there are *) (A- marbles
per child. ;hat might be a little troublesome>
1 don=t recall ever seeing (A- of a marble. :e might give the answer as the repeating decimal
*).EEEO 'ow we have a mathematical e2pression that involves an infinite number of
digitsR 7ut infinity is a very comple2 idea. 1n this children and marbles situation, we created
a mathematical model and we solve the pure math problem represented by the math
model. :e never got the chance to find out why one might want to have an answer to the
4uestion. ?or e2ample, it might have been that the children were s4uabbling with each
other because some had more marbles than others. 1t might have been that some had
prettier marbles or larger marbles. Maybe the purpose of the 4uestion was to use as a
starting point in stopping the s4uabbling, perhaps by dividing the marbles more e4ually
among the children.;he lac5 of meaning or purpose in the 4uestion is fairly typical in the
types of problems given in math boo5s. ;he lac5 of non%mathematical conte2t, meaning, or
purpose ma5es in much more difficult for problem solvers to detect possible errors in the
modeling and problem%solving processes.
Computational $ath
Math and some of the sciences have traditionally been divided 0pure0 and 0applied0 components>
pure and applied math, theoretical and e2perimental physics, theoretical and observational
astronomy, etc. Computers have changed this situation. Math and the various sciences have
added a 0computational0 category to their main subdivision>see computational MMMMM in
27
:i5ipedia. 0Computational0 refers to developing and ma5ing use of computer models and
simulations in the discipline or intersection of disciplines. :ithin math and the various sciences
there are now many computational%oriented 6ournals. ?or e2ample@
Journal of Computational Mathematics
Journal of Computational and Applied Mathematics
Journal of Computational Mathematics and Mathematical Physics
Journal of Computation and Mathematics
Journal of Computational Mathematics and Optimization
Communications in Applied Mathematics and Computational Science
Computational Mathematics and Mathematical Physics
International Journal of Computational Science and Mathematics1n ())E, Peannette
:ing summari+ed the 0computational0 idea in her seminal article on computational
thin5ing. #lso, note the title of Favid Moursund=s free ())E boo5, Computational hin!ing
and Math Maturity" Impro#ing Math $ducation in %&' Schools.
use of computers to actuali+e mathematics in models and simulations is now very important in
math, all of the sciences, and in many other disciplines. Computational thin5ing and
computational math are now very important aspects of doing math. ;he overall math
education curriculum needs to pay far more attention to these topics than it currently does.
!esson Plan as 'elf-Inservice %ducation
Many teachers feel that they learn more about teaching during their first few year on the 6ob
than they did during their teacher education program. Moreover, recent research suggests
that years of e2perience is a good predictor of teacher success in helping to learn. 8ere is
summary of an important ())E study by #ndrew Leigh@
&sing a data set covering over *),))) #ustralian primary school teachers and over ,),))) pupils,
1 estimate how effective teachers are in raising students< test scores from one e2am to the
ne2t. 9ince the e2ams are conducted only every two years, it is necessary to ta5e account of
the wor5 of the teacher in the intervening year. Even after ad6usting for measurement error,
the resulting teacher fi2ed effects are widely dispersed across teachers, and there is a strong
positive correlation between a teacher<s gains in literacy and numeracy. ;eacher fi2ed effects
show a significant association with some, though not all, observable teacher characteristics.
E2perience has the strongest effect, with a large effect in the early years of a teacher<s
career. ?emale teachers do better at teaching literacy. ;eachers with a masters degree or
28
some other form of further 4ualification do not appear to achieve significantly larger test score
gains.
Each teaching unit is an opportunity to learn. Galue this opportunity to learn. ;hin5 in terms of
maintaining and increasing your 5nowledge and s5ills in three areas !as well as in the art of
interacting with other staff, parents, and students/@
*. General pedagogy. ;his is professional 5nowledge that cuts across sub6ect areas
and, to a considerable e2tent, across grade levels. ?or e2ample, consider how much
instructional use you ma5e of interactive multimedia and :eb%based video materials.
1f you use little or none, a good place to begin is with interactive math
manipulatives. 9elect a single e2ample that meshes with a lesson you are teaching
and use the demonstration to increase student interest in and insight into the topic.
9ub6ect matter content. #ny topic you<re teaching has far more content than you<re
teaching. Bou and your students will benefit as you gradually e2pand the depth and
breadth of your 5nowledge of any specific topic you<re teaching.
(. Pedagogical content 5nowledge !PC"/. #ny topic can be presented many different ways.
;he larger your presentation repertoire on a topic, the more apt you are to meet the diverse
needs of your udents.n math education, every unit should include a significant and well%
integrated focus on problem solving. 1n a problem%solving environment, students will
develop or adapt a variety of methods that solve a particular problem, and a variety of
methods that fail to solve the problem. ;his environment is one in which you need to be
actively engaged, and it provides an opportunity to maintain and improve your own
problem%solving 5nowledge and s5ills.
estion. 7uild a personal library of math pu++les and math problem challenges appropriate to the
levels of students and for the courses you teach. # 4uic5 :eb search will yield a plethora. #s
your collection grows, you can move from providing students with a 0Challenge Math Problem
of the Month0 to wee5ly, and then perhaps daily challenge problems. ;hese should be optional
assignments>challenges that some students will en6oy e2ploring. Bou<ll learn by see5ing out
such problems, trying to solve them on your own, reading student solutions, and perhaps
sharing your problems with other math teachers.
f 1C;
1nformation and Communication ;echnology plays two roles in a good math lesson plan. 1C; is
part of math content, and it provides aids to teaching and learning math.
Content
29
separate section of this document discussed Computational ;hin5ing and Computational
Math. ;hese topics include math modeling and simulation, and are a 5ey component of the
content of a modern math curriculum.;here are a variety of other 1C;%related math content
areas. # few are briefly discussed below.
Calculators
;he 'ational Council of ;eachers of Mathematics supports and encourages students to learn to
use calculators in the early grades. Bou might as5, 0:hat=s to learnI0 :ith a very minimum
of instruction !often provided by students showing each other/ students can learn to use
add, subtract, multiply, and divide on the standard E%function calculator. 8owever, even this
very beginning level has significant teaching and learning challenges. 8ere are a few
issues to consider@
* 9tudents can do the four basic operations before they understand the possible meanings of
these operations. ;he calculator readily creates a mismatch between a student=s
understanding of what the calculator is doing and a student=s understanding of the number
line, integers, fraction, and decimals. 9ay a young student uses a calculator to divide E by (,
and sees - followed by a decimal point. 8ow li5ely is it that child notices the decimal pointI.
9o far, the child e2periences no great surprises or problems. ;he child then divides E by 3
and sees *.D. 8mm. :hat does that meanI Perhaps the child continues, dividing E by D and
getting *.(. 8mm, what does that meanI Continuing, E divided by E does not produce any
surprise, but what about E divided by H to produce a result )..DH*3(.I # subtraction may
produce a negative number for an answer. Multiplication of large numbers may produce an
0overflow,0 perhaps indicated by an E.
( :hy is the calculator called a E%function calculatorI Foes the child 5now what a mathematical
function isI !8ow much will the student be helped by your saying, # mathematical function is
an abstract entity that associates an input drawn from a fi2ed set to a corresponding output
according to some ruleI/
- :hat is the meaning and use of the 5ey that we, as adults, 5now is the s4uare root 5eyI #
similar 4uestion applies to the 5ey labeled Q.
3 1f the calculator has mc, mr, m%, and mU, etc. 5eys, what do they mean and what are they used
forI
entific notation provide still more teaching and learning challenges. ;he challenge is further
increased by graphing and e4uation%solving calculators.;he point is, 6ust giving students
calculators unaccompanied by encouraging instruction is poor planning and poor teaching.
Computers
30
;eachers often assume that those students who play games on computers or do email, or use
a 9ocial 'etwor5ing :ebsite, orO 0understand0 computers. #nd so they do>in some
ways. ;hose ways are unli5ely to include much in the way of math. Bou, as a good teacher,
will thin5 about what you want students in your math class to 5now about roles of
computers in representing and solving math problems, and the applicability of these
processes and results to real%world activities. ?or e2ample, what do you want your
students to 5now about use of a spreadsheetI ;his is a huge topic. Pust ta5e the small
subtopic of using a spreadsheet to graph data. # young student can use such software to
crate a colorful pie chart well before the student learns to create one by hand. 8mm.
Communicators can represent a set of data in many different ways. 8ow does a student
learn which are apt to be most effective in a particular situationI Modern spreadsheet
software contains a huge number of built%in functions or routines, or access a multitude of
templates. Our math education system has not yet committed itself to being the curriculum
area primarily responsible for teaching students about spreadsheets and their roles in
representing !modeling/ and solving computationally%oriented problems.
Information retrieval
One of the most important ideas in problem solving is building on the wor5 that others have
done. ;his is particularly important in math since results developed over thousands of years
by math researchers are available when you attempt to understand and solve a current
math problem. #s5 yourself@ 0:here in the math curriculum do students learn to retrieve
and ma5e use of past mathematical accomplishmentsI ;he standard math curriculum
strives to store some of this accumulated 5nowledge in students= heads. 8owever, it does
little to teach students how to read math well enough so that they can retrieve and use
math results that are available in the literature. 7y and large, precollege students are not
even given good access to the math boo5s they have used in their previous years of
schooling. ;hey are not taught how to do :eb searches as an aid to retrieving math
information. ;hey are not taught to read math well enough to benefit from the resources
available on the :eb, in math libraries, or even in math te2tboo5s.
Teaching and !earning
;o a surprising e2tent, math is still taught using 0oral tradition.0 # teacher does a 0stand and
deliver0 presentation. #ll students receive the same presentation. # few students may get a
chance to as5 4uestions, but this opportunity is often severely limited. 9imilarly, the teacher
may as5 the class a few 4uestions in an attempt to ascertain if students understand the
new material. ;ime is too short for an individual response from each student. 9tudents then
do seatwor5 and perhaps homewor5. ;he seatwor5 and homewor5 tend to entail repetitions
of the process the teacher demonstrated.
31
rcises may be on a wor5sheet or come from a te2tboo5. ;he wor5sheet approach tends to
separate students from any chance to loo5 at a boo5 that covers the material, and perhaps
learn to read the boo5 and learn by reading. 7oo5%based seatwor5 and homewor5 provide
students an opportunity to loo5 bac5 at a previous section in the boo5 and perhaps review
the ideas presented by the teacher. 9ome e2ercises may draw upon material from earlier
chapters and sections of the boo5. ;he student rarely has access to the previous years=
boo5s or to alternate presentations of the topic.
1C; has brought us powerful alternatives to this approach. Computer%assisted learning !C#L/
and Fistance Learning are two ma6or, proven aids to teaching and learning. Most schools
need more computer facilities if 1C; is to play a ma6or instructional role. Going to a
computer lab or bringing in a classroom set of laptops once a wee5 clearly is of limited
value. 1f you face that situation, then thin5 carefully about the most effective use for this
scarce resource. ;hin5 carefully about what you want students to be learning about roles of
computers in math content, in math teaching, and in math learning. 8ow can the limited
computer time ma5e a significant contribution to your overall math curriculum in attitude,
5nowledge, and s5illsI
# 0?ull 7lown0 Math Lesson Plan ;emplate
8ere is a Level - !see the diagram at the beginning of this :eb page/ general%purpose
template for math lesson plans. 1t is a template for lesson plans to be used in teaching
preservice and inservice teachers. 1t includes all components of an interdisciplinary
general%purpose lesson plan template, and it contains a number of components specific to
teaching math and learning to be a better teacher of math. #s you develop a lesson plan or
prepare to teach from a lesson plan, thin5 about the teacher prere4uisite 5nowledge and
s5ills needed to do a good 6ob of teaching the lesson. 7efore you teach a lesson, do a self%
assessment to determine if you have the needed math content 5nowledge, the general
pedagogical 5nowledge, and the math pedagogical 5nowledge. 1f you detect possible
wea5nesses, spend time better preparing yourself to teach the lesson, and spend time
thin5ing about what you will learn as you teach the lesson. !9ee item *) in the list given
below./
*. Title and short summary>li5e a section title in a boo5 chapter !lesson plan/ or a chapter
title !unit plan/. ;he title of a math lesson plan or unit should communicate purpose to the
teacher and to students. 1t serves in part as an advance organi+er. ;he short summary is
part of the advance organi+er and should include a statement of how the lesson or unit
serves to empower students.
32
(. Intended audience and alignment with 'tandards>categori+ation by@ sub6ect or course
area$ grade level$ general math topic being taught$ length$ and so on. # listing of the math
standards !state, province, national, etc./ being addressed. Categori+ation schemes are
especially useful in a computer database of lessons, allowing users 4uic5ly to find lesson
plans to fit their specific needs.
-. Prereuisites>a critical component in math lesson planning and teaching. 9ee
the Prere4uisite, Jeview, and Jemediation section of this document. Math teachers and
their students face the difficulty that a significant proportion of the class may not meet the
prere4uisites. 9uch students are not apt to learn the new material very well, and the lac5 of
success will li5ely add to 01 can=t do math0 and 01 hate math0 attitudes.
3. Accommodations>special provisions needed for students with documented
e2ceptionalities and other students with math learning and math understanding differences
from 0average0 students. ;his ties in closely with how to deal with students who clearly lac5
needed prere4uisite math 5nowledge and s5ills, and how to deal with students who<ll be
bored by the normal planned lesson.
D. !earning o"#ectives>the there in getting from here to there. ;eachers of teachers often
stress the need for stating learning ob6ectives precisely. ;hey often use the
e2pression measurable beha#ioral ob(ecti#es. 9ome additional important aspects of the
earning ob6ectives section of a math lesson or unit of study are@
a. Each lesson and unit of study needs to maintain and improve each student=s overall level of
math e2pertise. 1t is important that students understand the idea of math e2pertise, how it
grows through study, practice, and use, and how it decreases through lac5 of use !forgetting/.
9tudents need to learn to ta5e personal responsibility for their levels of e2pertise. Every
lesson should include an emphasis on self assessment, self responsibility, sense%ma5ing, and
problem solving. Problem solving and proof are closely related topics$ problem solving should
be in ways that lay the foundations learning about proofs in math. 1nformal !and, eventually,
more formal/ proof%li5e arguments should be part of every unit of study.
b. "eep in mind that math notation, vocabulary, and ideas have a significant level of abstraction.
Math modeling is a process of e2tracting a 0pure0 math problem from a problem situation.
;his e2traction or modeling process is a very important aspect of learning and understanding
math. 1t is a challenge to teachers and to students. Carefully e2amine the learning ob6ectives
in a lesson to see how they fit in with the Piagetian math cognitive developmental level of your
students and how they help your students to move upward in their math cognitive
development.
c. Ma5e a clear distinction between lower%order and higher%order 5nowledge and s5ills. 7oth are
essential to problem solving, and it is important for students to be learning and ma5ing use of
both lower%order and higher%order aspects of problem solving in an integrated, everyday
fashion. 'ote, of course, lower%order and higher%order are dependent on the math cognitive
33
developmental level and math maturity of your students. 8igher%order pushes the envelope>
it helps students to increase their level of math development and math maturity. ;his ties in
closely with !a/ given above.
d. Each unit of study should include specific instruction on transfer of learning. # unit of study is
long enough so that students can learn a strategy, or significantly increase their 5nowledge
and understanding of a strategy, and gain increased s5ill in high%road transfer of this learning
to problem solving across the curriculum.
e. Communication in Math. Part of this is students gaining s5ill in communicating with themselves
>mental sense%ma5ing. Pay special attention to students learning how to read math well
enough so that they can learn math by reading math. ;hin5 about every math lesson as
including both some math content for students to read and some math word problems in
which students can practice using their math 5nowledge and improve their general math
problem%solving s5ills.
f. "eep in mind the steadily growing importance of Computational ;hin5ing in math and in other
disciplines. 9tress roles of 1C; and a student=s brainAmind in computational thin5ing. 8elp
students learn the capabilities and limitations of brainAmind versus calculators and computers
in representing and wor5ing to solve math problems. 9tress how math is used to develop
math models of problem situations to be e2plored and possibly solved in each discipline. Math
is of growing importance in many disciplines because of its role in computational thin5ing and
in using math models to represent and help solve the problems in these disciplines.
E. $aterials and resources>;hese include reading material, assignment sheets, wor5sheets,
tools, e4uipment, CFs, FGFs, videotapes, etc. Bou may need to begin the ac4uisition
process well in advance of teaching a lesson, and it may be that some of the resources are
available online. "eep in mind Marshall McLuhan=s statement, 0;he medium is the message.0
1f you want students to learn to be mathematically proficient in an adult world where
calculators, computers, and other 1C; are ubi4uitous, strive to create such a teaching,
learning, and assessment environment in your classroom.
H. Instructional plan>;his is usually considered to be the heart of a lesson plan. 1t provides
instructions to the teacher to follow during the lesson. 1t may include details on 4uestions to
be as5ed during the presentation to students. 1f the lesson plan includes dividing students into
discussion groups or wor5 groups, the lesson plan may include details for the grouping
process and instructions to be given to the groups.
a. # carefully done math lesson plan includes a discussion of math content pedagogical
5nowledge that has been found useful in helping students learn the topic.
b. 1f students are going to be ma5ing use of math manipulative, calculators, computers, and
other 1C; learning aids, pay special attention to the general pedagogy re4uirements and the
PC" re4uirements of dealing with a large number of students. ;he cognitive and
34
organi+ational load on a teacher dealing the first few times with a one%on%one computer
situation is rather overwhelming.
.. Assessment options># teacher needs to deal with three general categories of assessment@
?ormative, summative, and long%term residual impact. 9tudents need to learn to do self
assessment and to provide formative assessment !evaluation during the process to aid
progress/ and perhaps summative assessment feedbac5 !passing 6udgment on the final
result/ to each other. # rubric, perhaps 6ointly developed by the teacher and students, can be
a useful aid to helping students ta5e increased responsibility for their own learning.
,. %xtensions>;hese may be designed to create a longer or more intense lesson. ?or e2ample,
if the class is able to cover the material in a lesson much faster than e2pected, e2tensions
may prove helpful. E2tensions may also be useful in various parts of a lesson where the
teacher !and class/ decide as the lesson is being taught that more time is needed on a
particular topic.
*). Teacher learning on the #o">Giew each math lesson and unit of instruction as an
opportunity to increase your 5nowledge and s5ills in math content, math pedagogy, and
general pedagogy. 9et specific learning goals and ob6ectives for yourself. #fter teaching a
lesson or a unit of study, reflect on what you have learned. #dd some notes to your lesson
plan that reflect your increased 5nowledge and s5ills, and that provide a sense of direction for
focusing your learning the ne2t time you teach the lesson or unit.
**. &eferences>;he reference list might include other materials of possible interest to people
reading the lesson plan or to students who are being taught using the lesson plan.
Jeferences
Garfield, Poan !*,,D/. 8ow 9tudents Learn 9tatistics. 1nternational 9tatistics Jeview. Jetrieved
*A(DA).@http@AAwww.stat.auc5land.ac.n+AWiaseApublicationsAisrA,D.Garfield.pdf.
8andly 8igh 9chool !n.d./. http@AAwww.pen.5*(.va.usAFivA:inchesterA6hhsAmathAmathhome.html.
Nuotations about Mathematics and Education. Jetrieved
**A(DA)H@ http@AAwww.pen.5*(.va.usAFivA:inchesterA6hhsAmathA4uotes.html.
Leigh, #. !())H/ Estimating ;eacher Effectiveness from ;wo%Bear Changes in 9tudent<s ;est
9cores. Jetrieved *(ADA)H@http@AArsss.anu.edu.auAdocumentsA;NPanel.pdf
Math ?orum !n.d./. ;he Math ?orum at Fre2el &niversity. Jetrieved
*(A*(A)H@ http@AAwww.mathforum.orgA. ;he Math ?orum 1nternet Mathematics Library is a
treasure trove of lin5s categori+ed by topic or educational level. ;he :ebsite also offers
5indergarten to graduate%level lesson plans, software, student pro6ect ideas and homewor5
help.
Math Jesources from the southern Oregon Education 9ervice Fistrict. Jetrieved
(ADA).@ http@AAwww.soesd.5*(.or.usAPage.aspI'av1FXH3*. # nice collection of computer%
based resources of use to teachers and to teachers of teachers
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tions !n.d./. :elcome to the Garden Nuotes@ Nuotes about mathematics. Jetrieved
*A(3A).@ http@AAwww.4uotegarden.comAmath.html.
9teen, Lynn #rthur !*,,,/. #lgebra for all in eighth grade@ :hat=s the rushI #ppeared in Middle
Matters, the newsletter of the 'ational #ssociation of Elementary 9chool Principals, Gol .,
'o. *, ?all *,,,, pp. *, E%H. Jetrieved
**A(-A)H@http@AAwww.stolaf.eduApeopleAsteenAPapersAalgebra.html.
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