INTRODUCTION :

It is the branch of engineering which deals with the measurement, monitoring, display
etc. of the various of energy exchanges which take place during process operations. "In
short Instrumentation is the study of Instrument."
INSTRUMENT :
Instrument is a devices which is used to measure, monitor, display etc. of a process
variable.

Que. : What are the process Variabe !
Ans. : The process ariable are :
!. "low
#. $ressure
%. Temperature
&. 'evel
(. )uality i. e. * +#, ,-#, p. etc.
Que. : De"ine a the process Variabe an# state their unit o" measurement. !
Ans. : "'-/ : 0g 1 hr, 'itter 1 min, 2allon 1 min. 3% 1 43% 1 .5. 6 2A787 9
$5877:58 : "orce acting per unit Area. $ ; "1A
:nits : <ar 1 $ascal 1 0g 1 ,3 1, $ounds
'88' : +ifference between two heights.
:nits : 3eters, mm, cm, *.
T83$85AT:58 : It is the degree of hotness or coldness of a body.
:nits : +egree ,entigrade, +egree "ahrenheit, +egree 0elvin, +egree
5ankine.
):A'IT= : It deals with analysis
p., * ,-#, * >#, ,onductivity, iscosity.
Que. : What are the primar$ eements use# "or "o% measurement. !
Ans. : The primary elements used for flow measurement are :
!. -rifice $late.
#. enturi tube.
%. $itot tube.
&. Annubars.
(. "low 4o??le.
@. /eir A "lumes.
Que. : What are the #i""erent t$pes o" ori"ice pates an# state their uses !
Ans. : The different types of orifice plates are :
!. ,oncentric.
#. 7egmental.
%. 8ccentric.
&. )uardent.
CONCENTRIC :
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The concentric orifice plate is used for ideal liDuid as well as gases and steam service. This
orifice as a hole in concentric and hence known as concentric orifice.
Eccentric & Se'menta :
The eccentric orifice plate has a hole eccentric. The use this is made in viscous and sherry
flow measurement.
The segmental orifice place has the hole in the form segment of a circle. This is used for
colloidal and sherry flow measurement.
Que. : (o% #o $ou i#enti"$ an ori"ice in the pipe ine. !
Ans. : An orifice tab is welded on the orifice plate which extends our of the line giving an
indication of the orifice plate.
Que. : Wh$ is the ori"ice tab pro)i#e#. !
Ans. : The orifice tab is provided due to the following reasons.
!. Indication of an orifice plate in a line.
#. The orifice diameter is marked on it.
%. The material of the orifice plate.
&. The tag no. of the orifice plate.
(. The mark the inlet of an orifice.
Que. : What is *ernoui+s theorem an# %here it is appicabe. !
Ans. : <ernoulliEs theorem states the "total energy of a liDuid flowing from one point to
another remains constant." It is applicable for non compressible liDuids.
Que. : (o% #o $ou i#enti"$ the (. ,. si#e or inet o" an ori"ice pate in ine. !
Ans. : The marking is always done .. $. side of the orifice tab which gives an indication
of the .. $. side.
Que. : (o% #o $ou caibrate a D. ,. transmitter. !
Ans. : The following steps are to be taken which calibrating :
!. AdFust ?ero of the Gmtrs.
#. 7tatic pressure test : 2ive eDual pressure on both sides of the transmitter. Hero should
not shift. If it is shifting carry out static alignment.
%. acuum test : Apply eDual vacuum to both the sides. The ?ero should
not shift.
&. ,alibration $rocedure :
!. 2ive #> psi air supply to the transmitter.
#. ent the '.$. side to atmosphere.
%. ,onnect output of the Instrument to a standard test gauge. AdFust ?ero.
&. Apply reDuired pressure to high pressure side of the transmitter and adFust the span.
(. AdFust ?ero again if necessary.
Que. : What is the sea i-ui# use# "or "iin' impuse ines on cru#e an# )iscous
i-ui# !
Ans. : 2lycol.
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Que. : (o% #o $ou carr$ out pipin' "or a Di""erent pressure "o% transmitter on
i-ui#s. /as an# steam ser)ices ! Wh$ !
Ans. : 'iDuid lines :

-n liDuid lines the transmitter is mounted below the orifice plate. 7ince liDuids have a
property of self draining.
2as 7ervice :
-n gas service the transmitter is mounted above the orifice plate because 2ases have a
property of self venting and secondly condensate formation.
7team 7ervice :
-n steam service the transmitter is mounted below the orifice plate with condensate pots.
The pots should be at the same level.
Que. : Dra% an# e0pain an$ "o% contro oop !
1ns. :
Que. : 1n operator tes $ou that "o% in#ication is more ! (o% %ou# $ou start
chec2in' !
Ans. : !. "irst flushing the transmitter. "lush both the impulse lines. AdFust the ?ero
by eDuali?ing if necessary. If still the indication is more then.
#. ,heck '.$. side for choke. If that is clean then.
%. ,heck the leaks on '.$. side. If not.
&. ,alibrate the transmitter.
Que. : (o% #o $ou #o a 3ero chec2 on a D.,. transmitter !
Ans. : ,lose one of the valve either ..$. or '.$. open the eDuali?ing valve. The -1$
should read ?ero.
Que. : (o% %ou# $ou #o /$co "iin' or "i sea i-ui#s in sea pots 4 Dra% an#
e0pain.
Ans. : The procedure for glycol filling is :
>!. ,lose the primary isolation valves.
>#. -pen the vent on the seal pots.
>%. +rain the use glycol if present.
>&. ,onnect a hand pump on '.$. side while filling the ..$. side with glycol.
>(. 0eep the eDuali?er valve open.
>@. 0eep the '.$. side valve closed.
>I. 7tart pumping and fill glycol.
>C. 7ame repeat for '.$. side by connecting pump to ..$. side, keeping eDuali?er open
and ..$. side isolation valve closed.
>B. ,lose the seal pot vent valves.
!>. ,lose eDuali?er valve.
!!. -pen both the primary isolation valves.
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Que. : (o% #o $ou cacuate ne% "actor "rom ne% ran'e usin' o# "actor an# o#
ran'e. !
Ans. : 4ew "actor ; J14ew 5ange
-ld "actor ; J1-ld 5ange
"low ; 0J15ange
) ; "actor G :nit "low
4ew "actor ; -ld "actor 1 J1-ld 5ange G J14ew 5ange.
Que. : (o% %i $ou )ent air in the D.,. ce ! What i" sea pots are use# !
Ans. :
!. Air is vented by opening the vent plugs on a liDuid service transmitter.
#. -n services where seal pots are used isolate the primary isolation valves and open
the vent valves. "ill the line from the transmitter drain plug with a pump.
Que. : Wh$ is "o% measure# in s-uare root !
Ans. : "low varies directly as the sDuare root of different pressure " ; 0 sDuare root of
A$. 7ince this flow varies as the sDuare root of differential pressure the pen does not
directly indicate flow. The flow can be determined by taking the sDuare root of the pen.
7ay the pen reads (>* of chart.
D E 5 I N 1 T I O N.
1CCUR1C6 :
A number or Duantity which defines the limit of error under reference conditions.
1TTENU1TION :
A decrease in signal magnitude between two points, or between two freDuencies.
DE1D TIME :
The inter)a o" time bet%een initiation o" an impact chan'e or stimuus an# the start
o" the resutin' response.
DRI5T :
As undesired change in output over a period of time, which change is unrelated to input,
operating conditions, or load.
ERROR :
The difference between the indication and the true value of the measured signal.
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S,1N ERROR :
It is the difference between the actual span and the specified span and is expressed as the
percent of specified span.
7ERO ERROR :
It is the error of device operating under the specified conditions of use when the input is at
the lower range value.
ST1TIC /1IN :
It is the ratio of the output change to an input been change after the steady state has been
reached.
(6STERESIS :
The maximum difference between the upscale and downscale indications of the measured
signal during a full range traverse for the same input.
INTER5ERENCE :
Interference is any spurious voltage or current arising from external sources and appearing
in the circuits of a device.
COMMON MODE INTER5ERENCE :
It is the form of interference which appears between the measuring circuit terminals and
ground.
NORM18 MODE INTER5ERENCE :
It is the form of interference which appears between measuring circuit terminals.
8INE1RIT6 :
The closeness to which a curve approximate a straight line.
R1N/E :
The region between the limits within which a Duantity is measured received or transmitted,
expressed by stating the lower and upper range values.
RE,E1T1*I8IT6 :
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The closeness of agreement among a number of consecutive measurements of the output
for the same value of the measured signal under the same operating conditions.
RE,RODUCI*I8IT6 :
The closeness of agreement among repeated measurements of the output for the same
value of the input made under the same operating conditions.
RES,ONSE :
It is the general behavior of the output of a device as a function of input both with respect
to time.
SI/N18 TO NOISE R1TIO :
5atio of signal amplitude to noise.
TIME CONST1NT :
The time reDuired for the output to complete @%.# * of the total rise or decay.
S,1N :
The algebraic difference between upper and lower range values.
7ERO S(I5T :
Any parallel shift of the input output curve.
, R E S S U R E.
,RESSURE CONVERSIONS :
9psi : ;4.4< = (;O
9
>'?cm;
:
9<.;;@ psi
9 *ar : 9<.AB< psi
9 >pa : B.9<A psi
9
>'?cm;
:
9B.BBBmm o"
(;B
9 *ar : 9.B9C4
>'?cm;
9
>'?cm;
:
B.CD *ar
9 Torr : 9 mm o" ('.
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Que. : What is absoute pressure !
Ans. : Absolute pressure is the total pressure present in the system
Abs. pressure ; 2auge pressure K Atm. pressure.
Que. : What is absoute 3ero pressure !
Ans. : Absolute ?ero ; I@> mm .g acuum.
Que. : What is the ma0imum Vacuum !
Ans. : The maximum acuum ; I@> mm .g.
Que. : What is Vacuum !
Ans. : Any pressure below atmospheric pressure is vacuum.
Atm ; I@> mm > acuum Hero 2auge
JJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJ
E
E
E JJJJJJJ 3ax. acuum I@> mm .2
Hero Absolute.
Que. : What are the primar$ eements "or measurin' pressure !
Ans. : The primary elements used for measuring pressure are :
!. <ourdon tube.
#. +iaphragm.
%. ,apsule.
&. <ellows.
(. $ressure 7prings.
The above are known as elastic deformation pressure elements.
Type of <ourdon tubes.
!. E , E type.
#. 7piral.
%. .elix.
Diaphra'm : The diaphragm is best suited for low pressure measurement.
Capsues : Two circular diaphragms are welded together to form a pressure capsule.
3aterial :sed : phosphor bron?e, 4iLspanc stainless steel.
*eo%s : <ellows is a one L piece, collapsible, seamless metallic unit with deep folds
formed from very tin walled tubing.
3aterial used : <rass, phosphor bron?e, stainless steel. :sed for high pressure.
,RESSURE S,RIN/S : $ressure springs of helical or spiral shape used for measuring
high pressures.
Que. : What is the principe o" a pressure 'au'e !
Ans. : $ressure works on .ooks law.
$rinciple : "3easuring the stores in an elastic medium"
Que. : Dra% an# e0pain a pressure 'au'e ! What is the use# o" a (air sprin' !
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Ans. : The parts of a pressure gauge are :
!. E,E type <ourdon tube.
#. ,onnecting link.
%. 7ector gear.
&. $inion gear.
(. .air 7pring.
@. $ointer.
I. +ial.
:ses of .air 7pring : .air spring serves two purposes name
!. To eliminate any play into linkages.
#. It serves as a controlling torDue.
Que. : (o% %i $ou caibrate an absoute pressure transmitter )acuum manometer
Ran'e BE<BBmm abs. !
Ans. : The procedure for calibration is as follows :
!. ,onnect air supply to the transmitter.
#. ,onnect a test gauge of >L!.& 0g1cm# to the output.
%. ,onnect acuum pump with tee off to the manometer.
&. Apply I@> mm acuum 6 or nearest 9 and adFust ?ero.
(. Apply %@> mm acuum adFust span. 6 I@> L %@> ; &>> mm abs. 9
Que. : 6ou are 'i)en a mercur$ manometer ran'e B E4FB mm ! 1 )acuum 'au'e
rea#s FB mm )acuum. The test manometer rea#s AB )acuum ! Which o" the t%o in
correct.
Ans. : The transmitter is correct because I@> L (> ; I!> mm abs.
8 E V E 8
Que. : E0pain the #i""erent metho#s o" e)e measurement in brie" !
Ans. : There are two ways of measuring level :
6 ! 9 +irect A 6 # 9 Indirect.
G 9 H DIRECT 8EVE8 ME1SUREMENT :
9. *O* 1ND TO, :
;. SI/(T /81SS : This consists of a graduated glass tube mounted on the side of the
vessel. As the level of the liDuid in the vessel change, so does the level of the liDuid in the
glass tube.
G ; H INDIRECT 8IQUID 8EVE8ME1SUREMENT :
9. ,RESSURE /1U/E : This is the simplest method, for pressure gauge is located at
the ?ero level of the liDuid in the vessel. Any rise in level causes an increase of pressure
which can be measured by a gauge.
;. ,UR/E S6STEM : In this method a pipe is installed vertically with the open and at
?ero level. The other end of the pipe is connected to a regulated air r supply and to a
pressure gauge. To make a level measurement the air supply is adFusted so that pressure is
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slightly higher than the pressure due to height of the liDuid. This is accomplished by
regulating the air pressure until bubbles cab be seen slowly leaving the open end of the
pipe.
The method above are suitable for open tank applications. when a liDuid is in a pressure
vessel, the liDuid column pressure canEt be used unless the vessel pressure is balanced out.
This is done through the use of different pressure meters.
DI55.,RESSURE MET(OD : ,onnection are made at the vessel top and bottom, and
to the two columns of the +.$. meter. The top connection is made to the '.$. column of
the transmitter and the bottom to ..$. column of the transmitter. The difference in
pressure in the vessel is balanced out, since it is fed to both the column of the meter. The
difference in pressure deducted by the meter will be due only to the changing, level of the
liDuid.
DIS,81CER T6,E 8EVE8 ME1SUREMENT :
The leveltrol is one of the most common instruments used measuring level in closed tanks.
This instrument works of Archimedes principle. The displacer in immersed in the liDuid
due to which there is loss of weight depending on the specified gravity of the liDuid. This
displacer hangs freely on a knife transmitted to the pneumatic or electronic counterpart at
the other end.
Que. : E0pain ho% $ou %i measure e)e %ith a #i""erent pressure transmitter.
Ans. : The bottom connection of the vessel is connected to high pressure side of the
transmitter.
+ifferent $ressure ; . G +
This difference pressure is applied to ..$. side of the transmitted and calibrated.
Que. : (o% is D.,. transmitter appie# to a cose tan2 !
Ans. : In close tank the bottom of the tank is connected to the high pressure side of the
transmitter and top of the tank in connected to '.$. side of the transmitter. In this way the
vessel pressure is balanced.
Que. : (o% is D.,. transmitter appie# to an open tan2 !
Ans. : -n an open tank level measurement the '.$. side is vented to atmosphere.
/hatever pressure acts is on the ..$. side which is a measure of level.
Que. : What is pur'e e)e s$stem !
Ans. : This method is also known as bubbler method of level measurement. A pipe is
installed vertically with its open end at the ?ero level. The other end of the pipe is
connected to a regulated air supply and to a pressure gauge or to M$ transmitter. To make
a level measurement the air supply is adFusted so that pressure is slightly higher than the
pressure due to the height of the liDuid. This is accomplished by regulating the air pressure
until bubbles can be seen slowly leaving the open end of the pipe. The gage then measures
the air pressure needed to over come the pressure of the liDuid.
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1N $ ; . G +
:78 : -n for corrosive liDuids where the transmitter cannot be directly connected to
process eg... Acids, 7ome organic liDuids.
Que. : E0pain the %or2in' o" a e)etro.
Ans. : The leveltrol is used for measuring level > liDuids in a closed vessel.
$5I4,I$'8. : It works on Archimedes principle "The loss in weight of a body immersed
in a liDuid is eDual to amount of liDuid displaced by the body". The leveltrol basically
consists of the following :
DIS,81CER : It is consists of a cylindrical shape pipe sealed and filled inside with sand
or some weight. The purpose of this is to convert change in level to primary motion. The
variation in buoyancy resulting from a change in liDuid level varies the net weight of the
displacer increasing or decreasing the load on the torDue arm. This change is directly
proportional to change in level and specific gravity of the liDuid.
RE816 : Amplifies pressure variations at the no??les.
REVERSIN/ 1RC : It is used for the following purposes.
!. 3otion take of from TorDue tube.
#. 3eans of reverse control action.
@. 1#Iustment "or speci"ic 'ra)it$.
,RO,ERTION18 UNIT. : ,onverts primary motion to a proportional output air
pressure.
CONTRO8 SETTIN/ UNIT : $rovides a motions of varying the set point.
Que. : E0pain the %or2in' an eectronic e)etro.
Ans. : The variation in buoyancy resulting from a change in liDuid level, varies the net
weight of the displacer increasing or decreasing the load on the torDue arm. This change is
directly proportional to the change in level and specific gravity of the liDuid. The resulting
torDue tube movement varies the angular motion of the rotor in the 5+T 65otary
ariable +ifferential. Transformer9 providing a voltage change proportional to the rotor
displacement, which is converted and amplified to a +.,. current.
Que. : (o% %i $ou re)erse an action o" the e)etro.!
Ans. : The reversing are serves as motion take off arm from the torDue tube. It is
provided with a slot on each side of the center so that link can be connected either for
reverse or direct action.
Que. : What is inter"ace e)e ! (o% #o $ou cacuate it !
Ans. : /hen a vessel is filled with two liDuids of two different specific gravities the level
measurement refers to as interface level.
+$ ; . 6 + L d 9
-n a level set the difference of two specific gravities.
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Que. : (o% %i $ou caibrate a e)etro in the "ie# !
Ans. : !. "irst close both the primary isolation valves and drain the liDuid inside the
chamber.
#. AdFust the ?ero to get >* output.
%. ,onnect a transparent $, tube to the drain point as shown in hook up.
&. "ill it to the center of the top flange.
(. AdFust the specific gravity or span adFustment 6 8lectronic 'evel 9.
@. "ill it up to (> *, check linearity.
Que. : (o% %i $ou caibrate on inter"ace e)e contro. !
Ans. : -nOPQQR
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STIOdx<!<0 E9 liDuids of two different specific gravities.
!. The level will be ?ero when it is full of lighter liDuid.
Hero * level ; . G d.
. ; +isplacer length
d ; 7pecific gravity of lighter liDuid.
#. The level will be !>> * when it is full of heavier liDuid.
!>> * level ; . G +.
+ ; 7pecific gravity of heavier liDuid.
,alibration : 6 with water 9
!. "ill . G d level with water adFust ?ero.
#. "ill . G + level with water adFust 7p. gravity or span.
%. ,heck linearity.
Que. : (o% %i $ou app$ %t. est caibration to a e)etro.
Ans. : /t. test calibration method :
!. 5emove the displacer from the torDue arm.
#. Apply eDuivalent weight on the torDue arm that is eDual to the wt. of the displacer.
AdFust ?ero * output.
%. "or 7pan : ; TTr#h
'oss in weight ; /t. of float L wt. of the float immersed in liDuid
'oss in weight ; U wt. of float L ol. x d V
7pan wt. ; 6wt. of float L 'oss in wt.9
r ; radius of the displacer.
h ; ht. of displacer.
&. Apply eDuivalent wt. eDual to the 6/t. of float L 'oss in weight9. AdFust 7pan to get
!>> * out put.
(. To check linearity apply average of the two weights.
Que. : What %i happen i" the #ispacer has "aen #o%n %hie in ine !
Ans. : The output will be minimum. 6 wrong 9
The output will be maximum 6!>> *9 true.
Que. : What %i happen i" the #ispacer has a hoe in it %hie in ine !
Ans. : The output will be maximum.
Que. : What is the use# o" Suppression an# ee)ation !
Ans. : 7uppression and elevation are used on 'evel applications where 6!9 transmitters
are not mounted on some level 6#9 /et leg. i.e. condensable vapors are present.
Que. : What are the imitations o" e)etro !
Ans. : The limitations of a level control that it cannot be used for lengths more than I#".
Que. : (o% %i $ou commission D.,. transmitter in "ie# in pressuri3e# )esse.
Ans. : !. ,lose both the isolation valves, ent the ..$. side.
#. "ill it with the sealing liDuid.
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%. -pen the '.$. side vent valve.
&. AdFust ?ero with suppression spring.
(. ,lose the '.$. side vent valve.
@. -pen both the isolation valves.
Que. : (o% %i $ou chec2 3ero o" a e)e D.,. transmitter %hie is ine !
Ans. : !. ,lose both the isolation valves.
#. -pen the vent valve on '.$. leg and ..$. leg drain.
%. ,heck and adFust ?ero if necessary.
Que. : E0pain the %or2in' o" an Enra" e)e 'au'e !
Ans. : The 8nraf level precise level gauges are based on servo powered null balance
techniDue. A displacer serves as continuos level sensing element.
,rincipe :
A displacer A with a relative density higher than that of a product to be measured, is
suspended from a stainless steal wire < tat is attached to a measuring drum. A two phase
servo motor controlled by a capacitive balance system winds unwinds the measuring wire
until the tension on the weight springs is in balance with the wt. of the displace part
immersed in the liDuid. The sensing system in principle measures the two capacitance
formed by the moving central sensing rod 8 provided with two capacitor plates and the si
plates. In balance position the capacitance are of eDuip value. A level variation will cause a
difference in buoyancy of the displacer. The center sensing rod will move in to direction of
one of the side capacitor plates. This causes difference in value of this capacitance. <y an
electrolyte rotation of the servo motors the can driven transmitter continuously change the
voltage pattern to remote indicate of which the receiver motor drives a counter indicating
low variation.
T E M , R E T U R E
Que. : What are the #i""erent metho#s o" temperature measurement ! E0pain.
Ans. : The different methods of temperature measurement are :
9. MEC(1NIC18 ;. E8ECTRIC18.
MEC(1NIC18 MET(OD :
!. 3ercury in glass thermometers : This consists of a glass tube of very fine bore Foined to
a reservoir at the bottom and sealed at the top. A measured Duantity of mercury is the
enclosed. /hen the thermometer is heated the mercury expands much more than the glass
and is therefore forced to rise up in the tubing A scale is fixed at the side.
;. *imetaic Thermometer : Two metals whose coefficient of linear expansion is
different are welded and rolled together to the desire thickness. The actual movement of a
bimetal is its flexivity with one end fixed, a straight bimetal strip deflects in proportion to
its temperature, to the sDuare of its length and inversely with its thickens.
,ressure Sprin' Thermometers :
There are four classes of pressure spring thermometers.
!. 'iDuid filled.
#. apor pressure.
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%. 2as filled.
&. mercury filled.
8i-ui# "ie# & Mercur$ "ie# :
<oth type, operate on the principle of thermal expansion. /here the bulb is immersed in a
heated substance. The liDuid expands causing the pressure spring to unwind. The
indicating, recording or controlling mechanisms are attached to pressure spring.
Compensate# Thermometer S$stem :
,ompensations are provided in order to nullify the effect of changes in ambient
temperature. The compensation in liDuid filled expansions thermal system consists of the
second tubing and helical element, both liDuid filled. The two elements are so constructed
that the measuring helical floats on a movable base the position of which is governed by
the compensating helical. The two tubing and helicals are matched in volume so that
variation in temperature at the instrument case and along the capillary tubing produce
eDual motion from both helicals. 7uch motion nullity each other so that only motion
produced by varying the bulb temperature actuates the recorder pen.
/as "ie# Thermometers :
This type depends upon the increase in pressure of a confirm gas 6constant volume9 due to
temp. increase. The relate between temp. and pressure in this kind of system follow
,harles law and may be expressed.
$!
$#
The system is filled under high pressure. The increase pressure for each degree of
temperature rise is therefore greater than if the filling pressure were low. 4itrogen the gas
most after used for such systems, because it chemically insert and possesses a favorable
coefficient thermal expansion.
Vapor E ,ressure Thermometers :
apor pressure thermometers depend upon vapor pressure of liDuid which only partially
fills the system. At low temperatures the vapor pressure increase for each unit temperature
charge is small, at higher temperature the vapor pressure change is much greater.
E8ECTRIC18 MET(OD O5 TEM,ER1TURE ME1SUREMENT :
9. T(ERMOCOU,8ES : It is a simple device consisting of a dissimilar metal wires
Foined at their ends. when an of each wire is connected to a measuring instrument
thermocouples becomes an accurate and sensitive temperature measuring device.
T$pe o" Thermocoupes :
!. Iron L ,onstantan 6T9 LLLL > L C>>E,.
#. ,hromel Alumel 6 0 9 LLLL > L !>>>E,.
%. $latinum L $latinum *
5hodium LLLL > L !(>>E,.
&. $latinum L 5hodium !%* 679 LLLL > L !I>>E,.
(. ,hromel L ,onstantan 689 LLLL > LI>>E,.
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@. ,opper L ,onstantan 6T9 LLLL > L &>>E,.
RESIST1NCE E TEM,ER1TURE DETECTERS GRTDH :
5T+Es are generally used for precise temperature measurement. It consists of a five wire
wrapped around an insulator and enclosed in a metal. The most sheath of a resistance
thermometer resembles that of bimetallic thermometer bulb.
$5I4,I$'8 : "5esistance increases as temperature increase"
5t. ; 5o 6! K xt9
5t. ; 5esistance of Temperature to measured.
5o. ; 5esistance of ?ero temperature.
x ; ,o. off of thermal 6expansion9.
t ; Temperature to be measured.
These metals have a positive temperature coLefficient of expansion. Therefore resistance
increases as the temperature increases.
C18CU81TION O5 RESIST1NCE 5OR ,t9BB.
5o. ; !>>
x for platinum ; >.>>%C( 1c.
To calculate 5esistance at !>>Ec.
5!>> ; !>> U !K 6 %C.( x !> & x !>> 9 V
; !>> K 6!>> x >.%C(9
5!>> ; !%C.(
5esistance at !>>Ec ; !%C.(
)ue. : /hat is $t !>> mean. W
Ans. : $t!>> means !>> -.37 at >E, for a platinum resistance bulb.
)ue. : /hat is two wire and three wire 5.T.+. system W
Ans. : Two wire 5 .T .+. system :
Two wire 5T+ system use for short distance like a compressor field local panel.
Three wire 7ystem :
Three wire system use for long distance coke a field to control 5un.
The third wire is used for compensation of lead wire resistance.
Que. :Dra% a potentiometric temp. measurin' circuits an# e0pain its . !
1ns. :
O,ER1TION :
The input to the instrument is a measurement of some in the processes using a sensing
element 6 such as thermocol 9 or a device to produce direct voltage, which is the voltage
6signal9. This voltage is subtracted from a voltage developed by a known constant voltage
in a potentiometric measuring circuit. The subtraction occurs by connecting two voltages
in series with the opposing polarity, difference between these two voltages produces
signal, the voltage going to the amplifier. The error will positive or negative depending on
which of the two voltages greater. /hen amplified, the error signal will drive servo
balancing motor in appropriate direction to adFust circuit 6 actually drive the slide wire 9
until the difference between the feedback voltage and the input voltage is balance out. An
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error signal eDual to ?ero results 6 null point 9 the balancing 6 servo motor is be longer
driven 9
Que. : What is the constant )ota'e unit !
Ans. : The constant voltage circuit consists of a rectifier, ,5, a filter capacitor ,!,
followed by two stages of ?ener regulation. Abridge configuration is provided to !amp
line voltage regulation ?ener ,5%, 5! and 5# combine provide relatively constant current
to ?ener ,5&, Thus variations. 5esisters 5# and 5% form a bridge that any remoment line
voltage effects.
Que. : E0pain the %or2in' o" a baancin' motor.
Ans. : 7ignal in control win appears as due tank circuit formed by win and capacitor of
amp. board.
Kve signal : It lags B>E from due to line phase capacitor amp. board.
Lve signal : 'eads B>E from line due to line phase capacitor of amp. board.
The servo 6 balancing 9 motor is an induction motor that functions by creating a rotating
magnetic field in the stator.
The rotor 6 armature 9 turns by following this field. The field is developed by the use of
two windings in the stator.
It has got two windings, one of which is continuously energi?ed by the line voltage. The
other winding is energi?ed by the power amplifier, with a current whose phase with
respect to line current determines the direction of rotation of motor.
Que. : What is burnout "eature ! E0pain.
Ans. : <urnout provides the warning feature of driving indicator the end of scale if the
input circuit should open.
A burnout resistor is provided which develops a voltage drop between the measuring
circuit and the amplifier. The polarity of the signal determines the direction of the servo
drive upon an open circuit in the input.
:pscale burnout : 5 value !> 3
+ownscale burnout : 5 value #.# 3
Que. : E0pain the boc2 #ia'ram o" an ampi"ier in a temp. recor#er.
1ns. :
Que. : Wh$ is a con)erter use# in a temp. recor#er !
1ns. : The con)erter is #esi'ne# to con)ert D. C. input )ota'e into an 1. C. input
)ota'e proportiona in ampitu#e to the input.
Que. : Wh$ are thermo%es use# !
Ans. : In numerous application it is neither desirable nor practical to expose a
temperature sensor directly to a process material. /ells are therefore used to protect
against damage corrosion, errosion, abrasion and high pressure processes. A thermowell is
also useful in protecting a sensor from physical damage during handling and normal
operation.
Seectin' a thermo%e :
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The significant properties considered in selecting a material for the well are as follows :
!. 5esistance to corrosion and oxidation.
#. 5esistance to mechanical and thermal shock.
%. 'ow permeability 6 5esistance to gas leakage 9.
&. 3echanical strength.
(. Thermal conductivity.
Materia "or Wes :
!. 7tainless steal.
#. Inconel.
%. 3onel.
&. Alloy steal.
(. .astelloy E,E.
Que. : (o% %i $ou caibrate a temp. recor#er usin' a potentiometer !
Ans. : ,onnect the potentiometer output the input of temp. recorder.
!. ,onnect the 6 Kve 9 to the 6 Kve 9 and 6 Lve 9 to the 6 Lve 9.
#. If ambient compensation is provided in potentiometer set it to the correct ambient temp.
%. If no ambient compensation is provided take a thermometer and measure the correct
ambient temp.. "ind out the corresponding m s for that temp. for the given input type of
thermocouple.
&. /hile feeding subtract the ambient temp. m v s from the corresponding temp. every
time.
(. AdFust the necessary adFustments.
ME1SURIN/ TEM,ER1TURE WIT( 1 ,OTENTIOMETER :
!. ,onnect the input of the potentiometer to the thermocouple.
#. If no ambient compensation is provided find out the corresponding millivolts for that
ambient temp. for the type of thermocouple used.
%. Add the ambient temp. millivolts to the corr. input millivolts measured. "ind out from
the chart the corresponding temperature.
Que. : What t$pe o" sensin' eement %ou# $ou use to measure )er$ o%
temperature !
Ans. : The sensing element used for measuring very low temperature is 5. T. +.
Que. : What are s2in temperature thermocoupes !
Ans. : 7kin thermocouples are those which are directly connected to the process without
any thermowell.
:sed for measuring the skin temperature of heaters furnaces, flue gas etc.
Que. : What is the speciat$ o" thermocoupes ea# %ires !
Ans. : They should be of the same material as the thermocouple.
Que. : What is the #i""erence the a %heatstone bri#'e an# a potentiometer !
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Ans. : The difference between a potentiometer and a wheatstone bridge measuring
instrument is that potentiometer is a voltage measuring instrument and wheatstone bridge
is a current measuring instrument.
Que. : E0pain the continuos baance potentiometer s$stem usin' R. T. D.+s.
Ans. : In a balance wheatstone bridge resistance thermometer a resistance bulb is
connected into one branch of a d.c. bridge circuitX in another branch is a variable resistance
in the form of a calibrated slidewire. ariations in temp. of the measured medium cause a
change in resistance of the bulb and a conseDuent unbalance of the bridge circuit. A self
balancing wheatstone bridge recogni?es the condition of unbalance, determines its
direction and magnitude and position the slidewire contractor to rebalance the bridge and
indicate the temp. on the scale.
The +. ,. potential appearing at AA is converted by the converting stage to an A. ,.
voltage appearing at << and is multiplied by the voltage amplifier to a large value at cc. It
is then used to control the power amplifier output ++ which drives the balancing motor in
the proper direction to balance the bridge.
The polarity of the signal at AA determines the phase of the alternating voltage at <<
which in turn determines the direction of rotation of the balancing motor.
Que. : (o% is automatic Re"erence Iunction compensation carrie# out in temp. !
Recor#ers etc..
Ans. : "or automatic reference Function compensation a variable nickel resister is used.
As the temperature changes, so does its resistance. This reference Function compensatory
is located, so that it will be at the temperature of the reference Function. The reference
Function is at the position where the dissimilar wire of the thermocouple is reFoined, which
invariably is at the terminal strip of the instrument.
CONTRO8 S6STEMS
1UTOM1TIC CONTRO88ER :
It is a device which measured the value of variable Duantity or condition and operates to
correct or lie it deviation of this measured value from a selected reference.
1UTOM1TIC CONTRO8 S6STEM :
It is any operable arrangement of one or more automatic controllers in closed loops with
one or more processes.
SE85 O,ER1TED CONTRO88ER :
It is one in which all the energy needed to operate the final control element is derived from
the controlled medium through the primary element.
RE816 O,ER1TED CONTRO88ER :
It is one in which the energy transmitted through the primary element is either
supplemented or amplified for operating the final control element by employing energy
from another sources.
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,ROCESS :
A process comprises the collective function performed in and by the eDuipment in which a
variable is to be controlled.
SE85 RE/U81TION :
It is an inherent characteristic of the process which aids in limiting the deviation of the
controlled variable.
CONTRO88ED V1RI1*8E :
The controlled variable is that Duantity and condition which is measured and controlled.
CONTRO88ED MIDIUM :
It is that process energy or material in which a variable is controlled. The controlled
variable is a condition or characteristic of the controlled medium. "or e.g. where
temperature of water in a tank is automatically controlled, the controlled variable is
temperature and controlled medium is water.
M1NI,U81TED V1RI1*8E :
It is that Duantity or condition which is varied by the automatic controller so as to affect
the value of the controlled variable.
CONTRO8 1/ENT :
It is that process energy or material of which the manipulated variation is a condition or
characteristic. The manipulated variable is a condition or characteristic of the control
agent. "or e.g. when a final control element changes the fuel gas flow to burner the
manipulated variable is flow the control agent is fuel gas.
1CTU1TIN/ SI/N18 :
The actuating signal is the difference at anytime between the reference input and a signal
related to the controlled variable. This basically known as error signal.
DEVI1TION :It is the difference between the actual value of the controlled variable and
the value of the controlled variable corresponding with set point.
O55SET :
It is the steady state difference between the control point and the value of the controlled
variable corresponding with setpoint
CORRECTIVE 1CTION :
It is the variation of the manipulated variable produced by the controlling means. The
controlling means operates the final control element 6 control value 9 which in turn varies
the manipulated variable.
RE5ERENCE IN,UT :
It is the reference signal in an automatic controller.
SET ,OINT :
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It is the position to which the control point setting mechanism is set.
CONTRO8 ,OINT :
It is the value of the controlled variable which under any fixed set of conditions the
automatic controller operates to maintain.
,RIM1R6 5EED*1C> :
It is the signal which is related to the bT4trT.YZ%[\]dS]^_`aYbc#>dec.cJKL
MNOf3ith the reference input to obtain the actuating signal. 7imply stated primary
feedback is the actual measurement of the controlled variable which when compared with
the desired measurement of the controlled variable produces the actuating signal.
,OSITIONIN/ 1CTION :
It is that in which there is a predetermined relation between the value of the controlled
variable and the position of the final control element.
,RO,ORTION18 1CTION :
It is that in which there is a continuous linear relationship between the value of the actual
measurement of the controlled variable and the value position.
58O1TIN/ 1CTION :
It is that in which there is a predetermined relation between the deviation and speed of
final control element.
DERIV1TIVE 1CTION :
It is that in which there is a predetermined relation between a time derivative of the
controlled variable and position of final control element.
REST 1CTION :
It is the value movement at a speed proportional to the magnitude of deviation.
R1TE 1CTION :
It is that in which there is a continuos linear relation between the rate of change of
controlled variable and position of final control element. 5ate action produces value
motion proportional to the rate of change of actual measurement.
,RO,ORTION18 *1ND :
It is the range of values of the controlled variable which correspond to the full operating
range of the final control element.
RESET R1TE :
It is the number of times1minute that the effect of proportional position action upon the
final control element is repeated by proportional speed floating action.
There are t%o %a$s o" e0pressin' reset action :
!. 5eset time and #. 5eset 5ate
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9. Reset Rate : It is commonly expressed as a number of "repeats" per minute. It is
determined by dividing.
a9 Travel of final control element 6 alue stroke 9 in one minute as a result of the effect of
proportional speed floating action.
b9 The travel as a result of the effect of proportional position action with the same
deviation in both cases.
;. Reset Time : It is the time interval by which the rate is commonly expressed in
minutes. It is determined by subtracting.
a9 The time reDuired for a selected motion of the final control element resulting from
combined effect of the proportional position plus rate action.
b9 The time reDuired for the same motion as a result of the effect of proportional position
action alone with the same rate of change of controlled variable in both cases or expressed
in another way. It is the time lead in terms of air pressure on the control value produced
by rate action compared with proportional position action for the same rate of change of
actual measurement in both cases.
Que. : E0pain the appication o" proportiona inte'ra an# #eri)ati)e.
1ns. :
,RO,ORTION18 CONTRO8 ON86 :
$roportional control only attempts to return a measurement to the set point after a load
upset has occurred. .ow ever it is impossible for a proportional controller to return the
measurement exactly to the set point.
:78 : It is normally used for level controls. It reduces the effect of a load change but it
can not eliminate it.
,RO,NT RESET CONTRO8 :
5eset action is introduced to eliminate offset. It will integrate any difference between
measurement and setpoint and cause the controllerEs output to change until the difference
between the measurement and set point is ?ero. 5eset will act as long as the error exists.
USE: $roportional K 5eset controllers are by far the common types used in industrial
process control and where predominate dead times occur.
,RO,NT RESET P DERIV1TIVE :
+erivative or rate action helps the controller overcome system inertia and result in faster,
more precise control. +erivative action occurs whenever the measurement signal changes.
:nder study conditions the rate action does not act. +erivative allows the controller to
inFect more corrective action.
USED : -n temperature controls.
Que. : What is #i""erence 'ap contro !
Ans. : +ifferential gap control is similar to on off control except that a band or gap exists
around the control point.
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:78 : In industry differential gap control is often found in non critical level control
applications where it is desirable only to prevent a tank from flooding or drying. /hen a
measured variable exceeds the upper gap the control valve will open fully or be closed
fully. 7imilarly when it exceeds the lower gap it will open or close fully.
Que. : Where is on o"" contro use# !
Ans. : -n off control is used when
!. $recise control is not needed.
#. $rocesses that have sufficient capacity to allow the final operator to keep up with the
measurement cycle.
%. It is mainly used in refrigeration and are conditioning systems.
Que. :
Ans. : /hen reset action is applied in controllers /here the measurement is away from
the set point for long periods the rest may drive the output to its maximum resulting in
rest wind up. /hen the process starts again the output will no come off its maximum until
the measurement crosses the so point causing large overshoots. This problem can be avoid
by including antireset wind up circuit which eliminates the problem of output saturation.
Que. : Wh$ is reset cae# inte'ra an# Rate #eri)ati)e !
Ans. : 5878T is called integral because of the mathematical relationship to the output.
5AT8 is called derivative because
-i ; rd 6e9 1 dt K->
-i ; -utput at any instant
e ; error signal
-> ; -utput at ?ero error.
t ; time.
$5-$-5TI-4A' A,TI-4 :
-i ; !>> 1 $< x e K ->
Que. : E0pain tunin' o" controers.
Ans. : Tuning basically involves adFustment of proportional. Integral and derivative
parameters to achieve good control. The gain, time constants, and dead times around the
loop will dictate the settings of various parameters of the controller.
Tunin' metho#s are broa#$ cassi"ie# into t%o :
!. ,losed 'oop 3ethod : e.g. :ltimate 2ain 3ethod.
#. -pen 'oop 3ethod : e.g. process 5eaction curve.
U8TIM1TE /1IN MET(OD :
The term ultimate gain was attached to this method because its use reDuire the
determination of the ultimate gain 6sensitivity9 and ultimate period. The ultimate sensitivity
0u is the maximum allowable value of gain 6for a controller with only $roportional mode9
for which the system is stable. The ultimate period is the period of the response with the
gain set at its ultimate value.
,ROCERS RE1CTION CURVE :
To #eter mine the process reaction cur)e. the "oo%in' steps are recommen#e#. :
!. 'et the system come to steady state at the normal load level.
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#. $lace the controller on manual.
%. 3anually set the output of the controller at the value at which it was operating in the
automatic mode.
&. Allow the system to reach the steady state.
(. /ith controller on manual, impose a step changes in the output of controller, which is
an signal to value.
@. 5ecord the response of controlled variable.
I. 5eturn the controller output to its previous value and return the controller to auto
operation.
Que. : E0pain the %or2in' o" an eectronic ,.I.D. controer.
Ans. :
Input from the measurement transmitter is compared with the set point voltage to produce
a deviation signal. The deviation signal is combined with a characteri?ed feed back signal
to provide the input for the function generator amplifier. This amplifiers output is
delivered to the feed back network, and to the final output which is a !>L(>m.a. do signal
for actuation of final operators.
,RO,N 1CTION : It is a obtained by adFusting the magnitude of feed back signal. An
increase in negative feed back means less effective gain and thus a broader proportional
band.
REST 1CTION : It is obtained by charging the reset capacitor at a rate determined by
the value of reset resister. The reset resister is variable, and constitutes reset adFustment.
DERIV1TIVE 1CTION : The connection of a derivative capacitor across the feedback
circuit delays feedback until the capacitor is charged to a value approaching amplifier
output. This delay is controlled by value of derivative resister. This resister is variable and
constitutes derivative adFustment.
Que. : What is an anao'ue inte'rator an# an anao'ue #i""erentiator !
1ns. :
1N18O/UE INTE/R1TOR :
1N18O/UE DI55ERENTI1TER :
Que. : What is anti reset %in# up !
Ans. : If the limit acts in the feed back section of the control amplifiers integral circuit,
the controller output will immediately begin to drive in the opposite direction as soon as
the process signal crosses the set point. This approach is referred to as antireset wind up.
Que. : What are De saturators !
Ans. : /hen, in some processes, e.g. batch process, long transient responses are expected
during which a sustained deviation is present the controller integral action continuously
drives the output to a minimum or maximum value. This phenomenon is called "integral
saturation of the control unit". /hen this condition.
Que. : E0pain the %or2in' o" Rotameter.
baances Ans. : ariable area meters are special form of head meters. /here in the
area of flow restrictor is varied. 7o as to hold the differential pressure constant. The
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rotameters consists of a vertical tapered tube through which the metered fluid flows in
upward direction. A "float" either spherical or cone shaped, actually more dense than the
fluid being measured, creates an annular passage between its maximum circumference and
the weight of the tapered tube. As the flow varies the "float" rises or falls to vary the area
of the passage so that the differential across it Fust the gravitational force on the "float" i.e.
the differential pressure is maintained constant. The position of the "float" is the measured
of the rate of flow.
Que. : E0pain the %or2in' o" a ma'netic meter.
Ans. : An electric potential is developed when a conductor is moved across the magnetic
field. In most electrical machinery the conductor is a "wire"X the principle is eDually
applicable to a moving, electrically conductive liDuid. The primary device of commercial
magnetic meters consists of a straight cylindrical electrically insulated tube with a pair of
electrodes nearly flush with the tube wall and located at opposite ends of a tube diameter.
A uniform a.c. magnetic field is provided at right angles to electrode diameter and to the
axis of the tube. The a.c. voltage developed at the electrodes is proportional to the volume
flow rate of fluid, and to a magnetic field strength. This device is limited to electrically
conducting liDuids. The magnetic meter is particularly suited to measurement of slurries
and dirty fluids, since there are no location for solids to collect except the walls of the tube
itself.
Que. : E0pain the %or2in' o" a turbine meter.
Ans. : Turbine meters consist of a straight flow tube within which a turbine or fan is free
to rotate, about its axis which is fixed along the center line of the tube. 7traightening
rances upstream of the turbine minimi?es possible rotational components of fluid flow. In
most units a magnetic pickLup system senses the rotation of the rotor through the tube
wall. The turbine meter is a flow rate device, since the rotor speed is directly proportional
to flow rate. The output is usually in the form of electrical pulses from the magnetic pickL
up with a freDuency proportional to flow rate. Turbine meter are primarily applied to
measurement of clean and noncorossive hydrocarbons.

Que. : E0pain the %or2in' o" a ,itot tube.
Ans. : The pitot tube measures the velocity at point in the conduct. If Duantity rate
measurement is desired, it must be calculated from the ratio of average velocity to the
velocity at the point of measurement.
,RINCI,8E : If a tube is placed with its open and facing into a stream of fluid, then the
fluid impinging on the open end will be brought to rest, and the kinetic energy converted
to pressure energy. This the pressure built up in the tube will be greater than that in the
free stream by the impact pressure or pressure produced by loss of kinetic energy. The
increase in pressure will depend upon the sDuare of the velocity of the stream. The
difference is measured between the pressure in the tube and static pressure of the stream.
The static pressure is measured by a tapping in the wall of the main or by a tapping
incorporated in the pitot static tube itself. The difference between the pressure in the tube
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and static pressure will be a measure of the impact pressure and therefore of the velocity
of the stream oil.
Que. : Where is the inte'ra ori"ice use# !
Ans. : Integral orifice is used to measure small flow rates. It is mounted directly on the
secondary device. The integral orifice diameter varies between >.>#> inch and >.#(> inch
diameter. The integral orifice finds considerable use in laboratory and pitot plants.
,alculation of flow rate :
)n 1 "c ; 0s x ,wi x "a x "m x 6 2p 1 2e 9 hw
Que. : E0pain the %or2in' o" a tar'et meter.
1ns. :
The target meter combines in a single unit both a primary element and a force balance flow
rate transmitter. A circular disc 6or target9 supported concentrically in the pipe carrying
the flowing fluid results in an annular orifice configuration. $ressure difference developed
by the fluid flow through this annular orifice produces a force on target proportional to the
sDuare of the flow rate. This force is carried out of the pipe through a rod passing through
a diaphragm seal, and is measured by a pneumatic or electronic force balance system
identical with the mechanism of the force balance +.$. cell. The advantages of the target
meter lies primarily in its single unit construction the primary device and responsive
mechanism in a single structure. This eliminates the diff. pressure fluid connections in most
heads meters. This is particularly used for sticky and dirty material which may plug up
differential connections and for liDuids which reDuire elevated temperatures to avoid
solidification, this elimination of liDuid connection is useful.
g /m h #
" ; gLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLL h
g ,st "a "m "c cf h
Que. : Where is a -ua#rant ori"ice use# !
Ans. : If the fluid is viscous and the operating 5eynolds number is low Duadrant orifice is
preferred
Que. : What are t$pes o" taps use# "or ori"ices !
1ns. :
9. 581N/E T1,S :
This are most commonly used on pipe si?es of # inches or larger. They are located in the
orifice flange # inch from upstream and ! inch downstream from the faces > orifice plate.
;. CORNER T1,S :
-n pipe si?es less than # inches corner taps located directly at the face of the orifice plate.
@. VEN1 CONTR1CT1 1ND REDIUS T1E :
ena contracta taps located at ! pipe diameter upstream and at point of minimum pressure
downstream. There are mostly widely used for measurement of steam.
5adius taps are located ! pipe diameter upstream and !1# pipe diameter downstream for
the inlet face of the orifice are a close approximation to vena contracta taps upto >.I# d 1
+.
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<. 51CE 58OW T1,S :
"ace flow taps are located at # !1# pipe diameter upstream and < pipe diameter
downstream. "ull flow taps at # !1# and < pipe diameter have the same advantage as vena
contracta or radius taps.
QUE. : What is Re$no#s number !
Ans. : +ynamic similarity implies a correspondence of fluid forces in two systems. In
general situation there are many classes of forces that influence the behavior of fluids.
7ome of these are inertial viscous, gravitational, compressibility, pressure and elastic
forces. ,ertain dimensionless ratio are developed based on fluid properties. elocities and
dimension, which are essentially force ratio.
The more important of these are 5eynolds number
7+
u
"or most applications in practical flow measurement the 5eynolds number is taken to be
sufficient criterion of dynamic similarly. The magnitude of 5eynolds number not only
indicates whether the flow is laminar or turbulent but also furnishes the probable shape of
velocity profile. +ue to the strong role it plays as an indicator of varying flow
characteristics, many of the deviation from the theoretical eDuations are called 5eynaldo
number effects.
Que. : (o% %ou# $ou choose #i""erentia ran'e !
Ans. : The most common diff. range for liDuid measurement is >L!>>" .#>. This range is
high enough to minimi?e the errors caused by uneDual heads in the seal chambers,
differences in temps. of load lines etc. The !>>" range permits an increase in capacity upto
&>>" and a decrease down upto #>" by merely changing range tubes or range adFustment.
Que. : What are positi)e Dispacement meters !
1ns. :
,RINCI,8E :
The principle of measurement is that as the liDuid flows through the meter it moves a
measuring element which seals off the measuring chamber into a series of measuring
compartments each holding a definite volume. As the measuring element moves, these
compartments are successively filled and emptied. Thus for each complete of the
measuring element a fixed Duantity of liDuid is permitted to pass from the inlet to the
outlet of the meter. The seal between measuring element and the measuring chamber is
provided by a film of measured liDuid. The number of cycle of the measuring element is
indicated by means of a pointer moving over the dial, a digital totali?er or some other form
of register, driven from the measuring element through an adFustable gearing.
The most common "orms o" positi)e #ispacement meters are :
!. 5eciprocating $iston type.
#. 5otating or -scillating $iston type.
%. 4utating +isc type.
&. "luted 7piral 5otor type.
(. 7liding vane type.
@. 5otating vane type.
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I. -val 2ear type.
QQ CONTRO8 V18VES QQ
Que. : What is a contro )a)es !
1ns. : 1 contro )a)e is the "ina contro eement. %hich #irect$ chan'es the )a)e
o" the manipuate# )ariabe b$ chan'in' the rate o" "o% o" contro a'ent.
1 contro )a)e consists o" an operator an# )a)e bo#$. The operator pro)i#es the
po%er to )ar$ the position o" the )a)e pu' insi#e the bo#$. The pu' is connecte#
to the operator b$ a stem. %hich si#es throu'h a stu""in' bo0. The air si'na "rom
the controer is appie# abo)e the #iaphra'm. The increasin' air si'na "rom the
controer is appie# abo)e the #iaphra'm. 1n increasin' air si'na %i push the
operator stem #o%n%ar#s a'ainst the "orce e0erte# b$ the sprin' on the #iaphra'm
pate. The )a)e is a#Iuste# in such a %a$ that the pu' starts mo)in' %hen @ psi is
applied to the diaphragm and touches the seat when !( psi is applied
gm. Thus an increase in air pressure will close the valve. .ence the home "Air to ,lose".
Another type is "Air to open", such that % psi on the diaphragm the value is closed and !(
psi air signal it in fully open.
Que. : What are the #i""erent t$pes o" contro )a)es !
Ans. : The commonly used control valves can be divided as follows.
!. +epending on Action.
#. +epending on the <ody.
9. DE,ENDIN/ ON 1CTION :
+epending on action there are two types of control valves, 6!9 Air to close, 6#9 Air to
open.
;. DE,ENDIN/ ON *OD6 :
!. 2lobe valves single or double seated.
#. Angle valves.
%. <utterfly valves.
&. Three way valves.
Que. : What is the use o" sin'e seate# )a)e !
Ans. : The single seated valve is used on smaller si?es, and in valve of larger si?es, where
an absolute shut off is reDuired. The use of single seated valve is limited by pressure drop
across the valve in the closed or almost closed position.
Que. : What is the use o" #oube seate# )a)e !
Ans. : In double seated valves the upward and downward forces on the plug due to
reduction of fluid pressure are nearly eDuali?ed. It is generally used on bigger si?e valves
and high pressure systems. Actuator forces reDuired are less i.e. A small si?e actuator.
Que. : What is C) o" a )a)e !
Ans. : ,v is the capacity of a valve and is defined as :
"4o of gallons per minute of water which passes through a fully open valve at a pressure
drop of ! psi.
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The valve coefficient ,v is proportional to the area EAE between the plug and valve seat
measured perpendicularly to the direction of flow.
Que. : What are the #i""erent t$pes o" actuators !
Ans. : The different types of actuators are :
!. +iaphragm -perated.
#. $iston -perated.
Que. : What t$pes o" bonnets %ou# $ou use o" hi'h temp. an# o% temp. !
1ns. :
(I/( TEM,. : <onnets are provided with radiation fins to prevent glad packing from
getting damaged.
ON VC5 8OW TEM,. : 8xtended bonnets are used to prevent gland packing from
getting frcored.
Que. : (o% %i $ou %or2 on a contro )a)e %hie it is ine !
Ans. : /hile the control valve is in line the control valve has to be got by passed and
secondly the line has to be drained and depressuri?ed.
Que. : What is the use o" a )a)e positioner !
Ans. : The valve positioner is used for following reasons :
!. )uick Action control valve.
#. alve hysteresis.
%. alves used on viscous liDuids.
&. 7plit 5ange.
(. 'ine pressure changes on valve.
@. alve <ench set not standard.
I. 5eversing valve operation.
Que. : When can a b$ pass be not use# on a positioner !
Ans. : A by pass on a positioner cannot be used when :
!. 7plit 5ange operation.
#. 5everse Acting $ositioner.
%. alve bench set not standard.
Que. : What is the use o" in2 connecte# to the )a)e positioner !
Ans. : The link serves as the feed back to the value. Ant valve movement is sensed by this
link. 7ometimes due to line pressure changes on ..$. service the valve position may be
changed, the link in turn senses this change and the positioner will produce an output
which will operate the valve to the original position.
Que. : What is the use o" booster rea$s !
Ans. : <ooster relays are essentially air load, self contained pressure regulators. They are
classified into three broad groups :
!. olume <oosters : These are used to multiply the available volume of air signal.
#. 5atio 5elays : :se to multiply or divide the pressure of an input signal.
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%. 5eversing 5elays : This produces a decreasing output signal for an increasing input
signal.
Que. : What is the use o" 1n'e )a)es !
Ans. : Angle valves are used where very high pressure drops are reDuired and under very
severe conditions. /here the conventional type of valve would be damaged by erosion.
Que. : What is the use o" butter"$ )a)es !
Ans. : <utterfly valves are used only in systems where a small pressure drop across the
valve is allowed. The butterfly is fully open when the disc rotates by B>. A drawback of
this valve is that even a very small angular displacement produces a big change in flow.
Que. : What is the use o" three %a$ )a)es !
1ns. : Three %a$ contro )a)es are on$ use# on specia s$stems. %here a #i)i#in'
or mi0ture o" "o%s accor#in' to a controe# ratio is re-uire#.
Que. : What is a ca'e )a)e !
Ans. : A cage valve uses a piston with piston ring seal attached to the single seated valve
"plug". .ere the hydrostatic forces acting on the top or the piston or below the valve plug
tend to cancel out. The seat ring is clamped in by a cage. ,age valves are generally used
for noise reduction.
Que. : What are the a#)anta'es o" Cam"e0 )a)es !
Ans. : ,amflex valves are intermediates between globe valve and butterfly valve. The
plug rotates @>E for full opening.
1DV1NT1/E :
!. Actuator forces reDuired are very less.
#. 8xtended bonnet and hence can be used on any service i.e. on high temp. and very low
temp.
%. ariations in flow.
&. 'ight weight.
Que. : What are the #i""erent t$pes o" pu's !
Ans. : The different types of plugs are generally used are :
6 ! 9 . port plug 6 # 9 ,ontoured plug
V. ,ORT ,8U/ :
$orted plug are generally used on double seated valves. This is because ported plugs, have
a more constant off balance area.
CONTOURED ,8U/E :
Contoure# pu's are 'enera$ use# on sin'e seate# )a)e %ith sma trim si3es.
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Que. : What are the #i""erent )a)e characteristic !
Ans. : The different types of valve characteristic are :
!. 'inear #. 8Dual $ercentage %. )uick -pening.
8INE1R : The valve opening to flow rate is a linear curve
EQU18 ,ERCENT1/E :
"or eDual increments of valve opening it will give eDual increment in flow rate range. At
small opening the flow will also be small.
QUIC> O,ENIN/ :
At small opening the increments in flow rate is more. At higher opening the flow rate
becomes steady.
QUE. : What is a soenoi# )a)e ! Where it is use# !
Ans. : A solenoid is electrically operated valve. It consist of a solenoid 6 coil 9 in which a
magnetic plunger moves which is connected to the plug and tends to open or close the
value. There are two types of solenoid valves :
!. 4ormally open #. 4ormally closed
:78 : It is used for safety purpose.
Que. : (o% %i $ou chan'e the )a)e characteristics %ith positioner !
1ns. : The positioner contains different types of came in it. selection of the proper can the
valve opening characteristics can be changed.
Que. : (o% %i $ou chan'e the action o" a contro )a)e !
Ans. :
!. If the control valve is without bottom cap. The actual needs to be changed.
#. If bottom cap is provided.
a9 +isconnect the stem from the actuator stem.
b9 7eparate the body from the bonnet.
c9 5emove the bottom cap and the plug from body.
d9 +etach the plug from the stem by removing the pin.
e9 "ix the stem at the other end of the plug and fix the pin back.
f9 Turn the body upside down. ,onnect it to the bonnet after inserting the plug and stem.
g9 ,onnect back the stem to the actuator stem.
h9 "ix back the bottom cap.
i9 ,alibrate the valve.
Que. : (o% %i $ou seect the contro )a)e characteristics !
Ans. : The graphic display of flow various lift shows then the +esired or inherent
characteristic is changed by variations pressure drop. This occurs as the process changes
from condition where most of pressure drop takes place at the control valve is a condition
where most of the pressure drop is generally distributed through rest of the system.
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* "low : This variation in where most of the total drop take place is one of the most
important aspects is choosin' the proper )a)e characteristics "or 'i)e process.
5o% contro : 4ormally 8Dual percentage valve is used.
,ressure Contro : 4ormally linear valve is used to maintain a constant pressure drop.
Temp. Contro : 4ormally eDual percentage valve is used.
8i-ui# 8e)e Contro : 4ormally linear valve is used.
<asically in selecting a valve characteristic two important point have to be taken into
account.
a9 There should be a linear relationship between the position of the plug and the flow
through the valve in a wide range of change in the pressure drop across the valve.
b9 The pressure drop across a valve should be as low as possible.
Que. : 1n operator tes $ou that a contro )a)e in a stuc2 ! (o% %i $ou start
chec2in' !
Ans. :
!. "irst of all get the control valve is passed from operation.
#. ,heck the lingual to the diaphragm of the control valve.
%. +isconnect it possible the actuator stem from the control valve stem.
&. 7troke the actuator and see whether the actuator operates or not. It not then the
diaphragm may be punctured.
(. If the actuator operates connect it back to the plug stem stroke the control valve. If it
does not operate loosen the gland nuts a bit and see if it operates. If it does not then the
control valve has to be removed from the line to w1shop.
Que. : Where is an 1ir to cose an# 1ir to open contro )a)es use# !
1ns. :
1IR TO C8OSE :
!. 5eflux lines.
#. ,ooling water lines.
%. 7afety 5elief services.
1IR TO O,EN :
!. "eed lines.
#. 7team 7ervice.
Que. : Wh$ #oes contro )a)e operate at IS psi !
Ans. : -n higher pressure the actuator si?es becomes bigger in area. The actual force
produced by the actuator.
"orce ; $ressure x Area.
; !( psi x Area If Area ; !("
5orce pro#uce# : 9A psi 0 ;A= pounes.
QQ /ENER18 QUESTIONS. QQ
Que. : E0pain Casca#e Contro s$stem %ith a #ia'ram. What %ou# happier i" a
sin'e controer %ere use# !
Ans. : ,ascade means two controllers is series. -ne of them is the 3aster or $rimary and
the second is the secondary of slave controller. The output of the secondary controller
operates the final control element, that is the valve.
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8OO, ER,81N1TION :
The output of the temp. transmitter goes as measurement signal to the TI, which is the
master controller. 7imilarly the output of pressure transmitter goes as measurement signal
to the $I, which is the secondary controller.
The output of TI, comes at set point to $I, which is turn operates the valve. The reDd.
temp. is set on the TI,.
USE O5 C1SC1DE S6STEM :
,ascade loops are invariably installed to prevent outside disturbances from entering the
process. The conventional single controller as shown in the diagram cannot responds to a
change in the fuel gas pressure until its effect is felt by the process temp. sensor. In other
words an error in the detected temperature has to develop before corrective action can be
taken. The cascade loop in contrast responds immediately correcting for the effect of
pressure change, before it could influence the process temperature. The improvement in
control Duality due to cascading is a function of relative speeds and time lags. A slow
primary 63aster9 variable and a secondary 67lave9 variable which responds Duickly to
disturbances represent a desirable combination for this type of control. If the slave can
respond Duickly to fast disturbances then these will not be allowed to enter the process
and thereby will not upset the control of primary 6master9 variable. It can be said that use
of cascade control on heat transfer eDuipment contributes to fast recovery from load
changes or other disturbances.
Que. : E0pain ratio contro s$stem.
Ans. : A ratio control system is characteri?ed by the fact that variations in the secondary
variable do not reflect back on the primary variable. In the above diagram > a ratio control
system the secondary flow is hold in some proportion to a primary uncontrollable flow.
If we assume that the output of primary transmitter is A, and the output of the secondary
transmitter is <, And that multiplication factor of the ratio relay is 0, then for eDuilibrium
conditions which means set valve is eDual to measured valve, we find the following
relation :
0A L < ; >
or <1A ; 0, where E0E is the ratio setting of the relay.
Que. : E0pain "ue to air ratio contro o" "urnaces.
1ns. :
Que. : What is 5urnace Dra"t contro !
Ans. : <alanced draft boilers are generally used negative furnace pressure. /hen both
forced draft and induced draft are used together, at some point in the system the pressure
will be the same as that of atmosphere. Therefore the furnace pressure must be negative to
prevent hot gas leakage. 8xcessive vacuum in the furnace however produces heat losses
through air infiltration. The most desirable condition is that the one have is a very slight
6 about >.!" .#> 9 negative pressure of the top of furnace.
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Que. : What is "ee# bac2 contro ! What is "ee# "or%ar# contro ! Discuss its
appication !
1ns. :
5EED*1C> CONTRO8 :
"eed back control involves the detection of the controlled variable and counteracting of
charges its itis value relative to set point, by adFustment of a manipulated variable. This
mode of control necessities that the disturbance variable must affect the controlled
variable itself before correction can take place. .ence the term EfeedbackE can imply a
correction EbackE in terms of time, a correction that should have taken place earlier when
the disturbance occurred.
5EED 5ORW1RD CONTRO8 :
"eed forward control system is a system in which corrective action is based on
measurement of disturbances inputs into the process. This mode of control responds to a
disturbance such that is instantly compensates for that error which the disturbance would
have otherwise caused in the controlled variable letter in time.
"eed forward control relies on a prediction. As can be seen from the figure of feed
forward control a necessary amount of input goes to the process. This measurement goes
to the controller which gives output to the control valve. The control valve regulates the
flow.
5EED *1C> CONTRO8 :
In feed forward control no difference between the desired result and actual result need
exist before corrective action is taken in feed back control a difference must exist. .ence,
open loop or feed forward control is capable of perfect control, but feed back is not. +ue
to economic impractality of precision , predicting the amount of correction necessary to
achieve satisfactory results with feed forward control, feed back control is most often
used. In order to properly choose the type of feed back controller for a particular process
application, two factors time and gain must be considered.
QQ /ENER18 QUESTION E II QQ
Que. : Dra% an eectronic t%o %ire s$stem contro oop.
1ns. :
Que. : What are Intrinsica$ sa"e s$stem !
Ans. : Intrinsic safety is a techniDue for designing electrical eDuipment for safe use in
locations made ha?ardous by the presence of flammable gas or vapors in air.
=De"n. := Intrinsically safe circuit is one in which any spark or thermal effect produce
either normally or under specified fault conditions is incapable of causing ignition of a
specified gas or vapor in air mixture at the most easily ignited concentration.
(171RDOUS 1RE1S :
The specification of products or systems sold as intrinsically safe must state in what
ha?ardous areas they are infect intrinsically safe. :niversal cooling of ha?ardous areas has
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not, unfortunately, been adopted in all countries. .owever two sets of codes in common
use are.
Que. : What #oes a transmitter output start "rom @E9A psi or GB.; E 9 >'?Cm;H or < E
;B ma. etc. !
Ans. : The transmitter output stance from what is known as "live ?ero". This system has
specific advantages :
!. The systems automatically alarms when the signal system becomes inoperative.
#. The output areas is linear 6 5atio of ! : ( 9.
DE1D 7ERO SI/N18 :
The advantage is that it does not have to be biased to true ?ero. A "'ive ?ero" gives the
computer additional information, so that it can takes appropriate alarm action in case of a
measurement failure, because it can discriminate between a transmitter operating, but
transmitting a ?ero measurement and a failure, in the signal system.
Que. : What is "orce baance an# motions baance principe !
1ns. :
5ORCE *181NCE ,RINCI,8E :
=A controller which generates and output signal by opposing torDueis=.
The input force is applied on the input bellows which novas the beam. This crackles no??le
back pressure. The no??le back pressure is sensed by the balancing bellows which brings
the beam to balance. The baffle movement is very less about >.>>#" for full scale output.
MOTION *181NCE ,RINCI,8E :
=A controller which generates an output signal by motion of its parts".
The increase in input signal will cause the baffle to move towards the no??le. The no??le
back pressure will increase. This increase in back pressure acting on the balancing bellows,
will expands the bellows, there by moving the no??le upward. The no??le will move untill
motion 6almost9 eDuals the input 6baffle9 motion.
Advantages of force <alance :
!. 3oving parts are fever.
#. <affle movement is negligible.
%. "rictional losses are less.
E 8 E C T R O N I C S
Que. : What is a #io#e!
Ans. : A diode consists of two electrodes 6!9 Anode 6#9 ,athode. The current flow is
only in one direction.
A diode is the most basic solid state 6semi conductor9 device. The above figure shows a
$.4. Function. The $. material has holes and the 4. material has electrons.
5ORW1RD *I1S :
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REVERSE *I1S :
6 ! 9 /here the applied voltage overcomes the barrier potential 6the p side is more positive
than the n side9 the current produce is large because maFority carriers cross the Function in
large numbers. This condition is called forward bias.
6 # 9 /hen the applied voltage aids the barrier potential 6n side K ve than p side9 the
current in small. This state is known as 5everse <ias.
Que. : What is a ha" %a)e. "u %a)e an# bri#'e recti"ier !
1ns. :
.A'" /A8 58,TI"I85 :
":'' /A8 58,TI"I85 :
<5I+28 58,TI"I85 :
,E1> INVERSE VO8T1/E : 3aximum 5everse voltage across the diode during the
cycle.
Que. : What is a "iter use# "or !
Ans. : The half wave and full wave signals are pulsating + . , . voltages. The use of such
voltages is limited to charging batteries, running +. ,. motors, and a few other
applications. /hat we really have is a +.,. voltage that is constant in valve, similar to the
voltage from a battery. To get a constant voltage from this, we can use a capacitor input
filter.
Que. : What is 7ener Dio#e ! What is a )ota'e Re'uator !
Ans. : The breakdown region of a p n diode can be made very sharp and almost vertical
+iodes with almost vertical breakdown region are known as Hever +iodes.
A Hener diodes operating in the breakdown region is eDuivalent to a battery. <ecause of
this current through Hener diode can change but the voltage remains constant. It is this
constant voltage that has made the ?ever diode an important device in voltage regulation.
VO8T1/E RE/U81TOR :
The output remains constant despite changes in input voltage due to Hever effect.
Que. : What is transistor ! What are the #i""erent t$pes !
Ans. : A transistor is a three lagged semi conductor device. <asically a transistor means
6transfer L resister9.
/hether the transistor is pnp or npn it resembles two diodes 6back to back9. The one of
the left is called emitter diodes, and the one on the right is the collector diode. 7ince two
types of charges are involved transistor : are classified as bipolar devices.
*iasin' the transistor :
8mitterL <ase L "orward <ias.
,ollector L <ase L 5everse <ias.
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Que. : What is C*. CE an# CC con"i'uration !
Ans. :
<uffer : A device or a circuit used to isolate two ptEne circuits or stages. The emitter
follows is a example of buffer.
Alpha ; I, 1 I8
<eta ; I, 1 I<
Que. : (o% %i $ou test a transistor %ith a mutimeter. !
Ans. :
!. 8mitter Kve of meter and <ase Lve output ; 'ow resistance
#. 8mitter Lve of meter and base Kve output ; .igh resistance.
%. ,ollector Kve and <ase Lve output ; 'ow.
&. ,ollector Lve and base Kve output ; .igh.
8mitter : ,ollector ; .igh 5esistance.
,N, : -pposite 5esults.
Que. : What is a th$ristor ! What are its uses !
Ans. : A thyristor is a special kind of semi conductor device that uses internal feedback to
produce latching action.
Use : :sed for controlling large amounts of load power in motors, heaters, lighting
systems etc.
E0panation : <ecause of the unusual connection we have a Kve feedback also called
regeneration. A change in current at any point in the loop is amplified and returned to the
starting point with the same phase. "or instance if the ># base current increases, the >#
collector current increases. This force base current through >!. In turn this produces a
large >! collector current which drives the ># base harder. This build up in currents will
continue until both transistors are driven in saturation. In this case the latch acts like a
closed switch.
-n the other hand , if something causes the ># base current to decrease, the ># collector
current will decrease. This reduces the >! base current. In turn, there is less >! collector
current, which reduces the >! base current even more. This regeneration continues until
both transistors are driven into cut off. At this time the latches like a open switch. This
latch will always stay in open or close position.
Que. : What are o'ic 'ates ! E0pain %ith truth tabe.
Ans. :
2AT8 : A gate is a logic circuit with one output and one or more inputs . An output
signal occurs only for control combination of input signals.
9. OR E /1TE :
S6M*O8 :
TRUT(
T1*8E :
A < =
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> > >
> ! >
! > >
! ! !
De"ine : An -5 2ate has one output if any or all of its input are !Es.
;. 1ND /1TE :
De"ine : An A4+ 2ate has output when all inputs are present.
S6M*O8 :
TRUT(
T1*8E :
A < =
> > >
> ! >
! > >
! ! !
@. NOT /1TE :
A not gate is also known as an inverter. This circuit has one input and one out put . All it
does is invert the input signalX if the input is high, the output is low and vice versa.
TRUT(
T1*8E :
Inpu
t
-utpu
t
> !
! >
*u""er : This is a non inverting gate, used to drive low impedance loads.
NOR /1TE : This is an -5 2AT8 followed by an inverter.
S6M*O8 :
TRUT(
T1*8E :
A < =
> > !
> ! >
! > >
! ! >
E0cusi)e
OR
/1TE
A < =
> > >
> ! !
! > !
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! ! >
N1ND /1TE : This is an A4+ 2AT8 followed by an inverter.
TRUT(
T1*8E :
A < =
> > !
> ! !
! > !
! ! >
.
Que. : E0pain the %or2in' o" TI8 E N1ND /1TE.
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