BIOLOGY II

SBU 3023

HOW CELLS REPRODUCE


Overview of cell division mechanism, introducing cell
cycle, a closer look at mitosis, division of the cytoplasm
CONTENT
Overview of cell division mechanism
Introducing cell cycle
A closer look at mitosis, division of the cytoplasm.

Somatic cells have 2 sets of chromosomes: contains a
diploid number of chromosomes (2n).1 set inherited from
each parent.
Human: have 23 pairs of chromosome, 2n = 46
22 pairs are autosomes & 1 pair sex-chromosome
1400 nm
700 nm
300 nm
Condensed
chromosome
Condensed chromatin
Extended chromatin
Nucleosomes
DNA double helix
Packed nucleosomes
2 nm
Histone
11 nm
DNA wound around
a cluster of histone
molecules
30 nm
Scaffolding
protein
30 nm
fiber
CELL CYCLE
Cell cycle - The period that extends from the time
a new cell is produced until the time the cell
completes a cell division.
Two major phases in cell cycle are:
Interphase (Cells undergo rapid growth and
preparing for cell division).
M phase
Upon the completion of interphase, cells will enter
mitosis phase. In mitosis, cell division is further
divided into two steps:
Step 1: Mitosis (nuclear division-synthesized
chromosomes are equally divided into two daughter
chromosomes)
Step 2: Cytokinesis (cytoplasmic division-this step
take place right after the nuclear division to form 2
daughter cells.)

Cell grows
Cell prepares to divide
CELL CYCLE
INTERPHASE
A cell spends approximately 90 percent of its cycle in
interphase.
Cells carry out their normal functions and preparing
for cell division. S
The period between division, divided into 3 sub
phases (G1, S and G2):
G1- cells grow rapidly and new organelle are synthesis
S - synthesis of DNA and chromosomes are replicated
G2 - cells prepare for mitosis, synthesis protein and
mitotic spindle begin to form


MITOSIS
Mitosis is a division of the nucleus to produce two new
daughter cells containing chromosomes identical to
the parent cell.
MITOSIS
Mitosis is a
continuous process
and divided into 4
main phases based
on the appearance
and behavior of the
chromosomes.

1.Prophase, P
2.Metaphase, M
3.Anaphase, A
4.Telophase, T
Centromere
Centrioles
MITOSIS-PROPHASE
Early prophase
Chromosome condense and appear shorter and thicker
and become visible in a light microscope
Each chromosome now consists of a pair of sister
chromatids joined together at centromere.
Nucleolus disappears & nuclear membrane
disintegrates.
Paired centrioles move to opposite ends of the cell

Late prophase
Nuclear membrane disappears
Spindle form


MITOSIS-METAPHASE
Spindle fibres are fully form
Sister cromatids line up at the
spindle equator/ metaphase
plate.
Two sister chromatids are still
attached to one another at the
centromere.
At the end of metaphase, the
centromers divide.

MITOSIS-ANAPHASE
Anaphase begin with the
separation of the centromers
The sister cromatids are
drawn to opposite poles of the
cell by shortening of spindle
fibres.
Once separated, chromatids
are referred to as daughter
chromosome.
End anaphase: the poles of
the cell have complete and
equivalent sets of
chromosome.
MITOSIS-TELOPHASE
Telophase begin when the
two sets of daughter
chromosomes have reached
the two poles of the cell.
The spindle fibres
disintegrate, the nuclear
membrane forms around
each set of daughter
chromosomes and the
nucleoli reappear.
The nucleolus also re-forms
in each nucleus.
The chromosomes uncoil and
become less visible under the
light microscope.
Mitosis process is now
completed.


This process take place immediately when nucleolus
formed.
Different in animals and plants.
Animal cells:
the cytoplasm contracts to pull the plasma membrane inwards,
forming groove called a cleavage furrow

In plant cells, cytokinesis in cells is markedly different.
A cleavage furrow does not form. Instead, membrane-enclosed
vesicle gather at a plant cells equator between the two nuclei.
Vesicle fuse to form a cell plate

CYTOKINESIS

Growth- allows a zygote to produce more cell in order
to grow
Repair and replacement- allow the multicellular
organism maintain its tissues, example skin cells and
blood
Asexual reproduction- clone
THE IMPORTANCE OF MITOSIS
Controlled mitosis: the ability of the cell to divide at
its own rate and time.
Crucial to normal growth, development and
maintenance for the perpetuity of living things.
Examples:
in plants controlled mitosis occurs at shoots results in
growth of plants.
in human Malphigian layer of skin divides actively to
replace dead and damaged cells.

THE IMPORTANCE OF CONTROLLED MITOSIS
Mutation is the change in the DNA structure of the
cell.
This change in the DNA corrupts the coded genetic
instructions for mitosis control.
This leads to uncontrolled mitosis, which is the non-
stop division of cells, producing a mass of new
daughter cells, called tumor.

THE EFFECTS OF UNCONTROLLED MITOSIS
IN LIVING THINGS
Genetic- some forms of cancer like prostate, colon,
breast, skin, ovary are suspected to be inherited
from the parents

Carcinogens- these are chemicals which affect
genetic activity and cause cancer, e.g. of carcinogen
a diesel exhaust, cigarette smoke, hair dyes, soot,
arsenic, benzene and formaldehyde.

Radiation- excess exposure to x-ray, gamma-rays
and ultra violet rays lead to increase cancer risk.

Viruses- some viruses (such as the HPV and HIV-
1) cause cancer.


OTHER CAUSES OF TUMOR/CANCER
Mitosis is used to:
improve the quality
produce new species (speciation)
ensure uniformity in the traits.

Cloning: process of artificially creating a new
individual that is genetically identical to an existing
individual.

Technique in application of mitosis in cloning
tissue culture.


APPLICATION OF MITOSIS IN CLONING
APPLICATION OF MITOSIS IN CLONING