D.J .

Dunn 1
MECHANICS OF SOLIDS

TORSION TUTORIAL 1


This tutorial covers elements of the following syllabi.

Parts of the ENGINEERING COUNCIL Certificate exam subject C105 Mechanical
and Structural Engineering.

Parts of the ENGINEERING COUNCIL Certificate exam subject C103 Engineering
Science.

Parts of the ENGINEERING COUNCIL exam subject D209 Mechanics of Solids.

Part of the Edexcel Higher National Certificate/Diploma UNIT 21718P
Engineering Science Outcome 1

You should judge your progress by completing the self assessment exercises.

These may be sent for marking or you may request copies of the solutions at a cost (see home
page).

On completion of this tutorial you should be able to do the following.

Derive the torsion equation
Derive polar second moment of area.
Solve problems involving torque, shear stress and angle of twist.
Derive the formula for the power transmitted by a shaft
Relate power transmission to torsion.
Outline the method of solution for rectangular cross sections.
Solve problems with shafts of rectangular cross section.

Part 2 should only be studies for the subject D209

It is assumed that students doing this tutorial are already familiar with the concepts of
second moments of area and shear stress.
1. TORSION OF SHAFTS

Torsion occurs when any shaft is subjected to a torque. This is true whether the shaft is rotating (such as
drive shafts on engines, motors and turbines) or stationary (such as with a bolt or screw). The torque makes
the shaft twist and one end rotates relative to the other inducing shear stress on any cross section. Failure
might occur due to shear alone or because the shear is accompanied by stretching or bending.

1.1. TORSION EQUATION

The diagram shows a shaft fixed at one end and twisted at the other end due to the action of a torque T.

Figure 1

The radius of the shaft is R and the length is L.

Imagine a horizontal radial line drawn on the end face. When the end is twisted, the line rotates through an
angle . The length of the arc produced is R.

Now consider a line drawn along the length of the shaft. When twisted, the line moves through an angle .
The length of the arc produced is L.

If we assume that the two arcs are the same it follows that R =L
Hence by equating L =R we get
L
R
= .........................(1A)

If you refer to basic stress and strain theory, you will appreciate that is the shear strain on the outer surface
of the shaft. The relationship between shear strain and shear stress is

G= .....................(1B)
is the shear stress and G the modulus of rigidity.

G is one of the elastic constants of a material. The equation is only true so long as the material remains
elastic.
Substituting (1A) into (1B) we get
R

L
G
= .....................(1C)
Since the derivation could be applied to any radius, it follows that shear stress is directly proportional to
radius 'r' and is a maximum on the surface. Equation (1C) could be written as

r

L
G
= .....................(1D)
Now let's consider how the applied torque 'T' is balanced by the internal stresses of the material.
D.J .Dunn 2

Consider an elementary ring of material with a shear stress acting on it at
radius r.
D.J .Dunn 3

The area of the ring is dA =2 r dr
The shear force acting on it tangential is dF = dA = 2r dr
This force acts at radius r so the torque produced is dT = 2r
2
dr
Since
L
r G
= from equation (1D) then dr r 2
L
G
dT
3
=
Figure 2
The torque on the whole cross section resulting from the shear stress is

=
R
0
3
dr r 2
L
G
T
The expression is called the polar second moment of area and denoted as 'J '. The Torque equation
reduces to

R
0
3
dr r 2
J
L
G
T = and this is usually written as
L
G
J
T
= ...........................(1E)
Combining (1D) and (1E) we get the torsion equation
r

L
G
J
T
= = ................(1F)
1.2 POLAR SECOND MOMENTS OF AREA

This tutorial only covers circular sections. The formula for J is found by carrying out the integration or may
be found in standard tables.
For a shaft of diameter D the formula is
32
D
J
4
=
This is not to be confused with the second moment of area about a diameter, used in bending of beams (I)
but it should be noted that J =2 I.


WORKED EXAMPLE No.1

A shaft 50 mm diameter and 0.7 m long is subjected to a torque of 1200 Nm. Calculate the shear stress
and the angle of twist. Take G =90 GPa.
SOLUTION

Important values to use are D =0.05 m, L =0.7 m, T =1200 Nm, G =90 x10
9
Pa

o
871 . 0
180
x 0.0152 degrees to Converting
radian 0.0152
0.025 x 10 x 90
0.7 x 10 x 48.89
GR
L
y Alternatel
radian 0.0152
10 x 613.59 x 10 x 90
0.7 x 1200
J
TL

MPa 48.89 or Pa 10 x 48.89

10 x 613.59
0.025 x 1200
J
TR

m 10 x 613.59
32
0.05 x
32
D
J
9
6
9 - 9
6
9 -
max
4 9 -
4 4
= =
= = =
= = =
= = =
= = =

1.3 HOLLOW SHAFTS

Since the shear stress is small near the middle, then if there are no other stress considerations other than
torsion, a hollow shaft may be used to reduce the weight.

The formula for the polar second moment of area is
( )
32
d D
J
4 4

= .
D is the outside diameter and d the inside diameter.


WORKED EXAMPLE No.2

Repeat the previous problem but this time the shaft is hollow with an internal diameter of 30 mm.

( ) ( )
o
d
1
180
x 0.0152 degrees to Converting
radian 0.0175
0.025 x 10 x 90
0.7 x 10 x 56.17
GR
L
y Alternatel
radian 0.0175
10 x 534.07 x 10 x 90
0.7 x 1200
J
TL

MPa 56.17 or Pa 10 x 56.17

10 x 534.07
0.025 x 1200
J
TR

m 10 x 534.07
32
03 . 0 0.05 x
32
D
J
9
6
9 - 9
6
9 -
max
4 9 -
4 4 4 4
= =
= = =
= = =
= = =
=

Note that the answers are nearly the same even though there is much less material in the shaft.

WORKED EXAMPLE No.3

A shaft 40 mm diameter is made from steel and the maximum allowable shear stress for the material is
50 MPa. Calculate the maximum torque that can be safely transmitted. Take G =90 GPa.

SOLUTION

Important values to use are:
D =0.04 m, R =0.02 m, =50 x10
6
Pa and G =90 x10
9
Pa

r

L
G
J
T
= =

Nm 628.3
0.02
10 x 251.32 x 10 x 50
R
J
T
term. middle the ignore and Rearrange
R

L
G
J
T
is equation torsion complete The
m 10 x 251.32
32
0.04 x
32
D
J
9 - 6
max
4 9 -
4 4
= = =
= =
= = =



D.J .Dunn 4

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SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No.1

1. A shaft is made from tube 25 mm outer diameter and 20 mm inner diameter. The shear stress must not
exceed 150 MPa. Calculate the maximum torque that should be placed on it.
(Ans. 271.69 Nm).

2. A shaft is made of solid round bar 30 mm diameter and 0.5 m long. The shear stress must not exceed 200
MPa. Calculate the following.

i. The maximum torque that should be transmitted.
ii. The angle of twist which will occur.

Take G =90 GPa.
(Ans. 1060 Nm and 4.2
o
)


1.4 MECHANICAL POWER TRANSMISSION BY A SHAFT

In this section you will derive the formula for the power transmitted by a shaft and combine it with torsion
theory.

Mechanical power is defined as work done per second. Work done is defined as force times distance moved.
Hence
P =Fx/t where P is the Power
F is the force
x is distance moved.
t is the time taken.

Since distance moved/time taken is the velocity of the force we may write

P = F v ........(2A) where v is the velocity.

When a force rotates at radius R it travels one circumference in the time of one revolution. Hence the
distance moved in one revolution is x =2R

If the speed is N rev/second then the time of one revolution is 1/N seconds. The mechanical power is hence
P =F 2R/(1/N) =2NFR

Since FR is the torque produced by the force this reduces to
P = 2NT ....................(2B)

Since 2N is the angular velocity radians/s it further reduces to
P = T.................(2C)

Note that equations (2C) is the angular equivalent of equation (2A) and all three equations should be
remembered.


WORKED EXAMPLE No.4

A shaft is made from tube. The ratio of the inside diameter to the outside diameter is 0.6. The material
must not experience a shear stress greater than 500 kPa. The shaft must transmit 1.5 MW of mechanical
power at 1500 rev/min. Calculate the shaft diameters.

SOLUTION

The important quantities are P =1.5 x 10
6
Watts, =500 x 10
3
Pa, N =1500 rev/min and d =0.6D.

( ) ( ) { } { }
mm 289 0.6D d mm 481.6 m 0.4816 0.11175 D 0.11175 D
D
D
D
10 x 500 x 2 x 0.08545
9549.3
D
10 x 500 x 2
0.08545D
9549.3
hence
D
2
R

J
T
0.08545D
32
0.36D D
32
0.6D D
32
d D
J
Nm 9549.3
25 x 2
10 x 1.5

N 2
P
T hence
T N 2 P rev/s 25 1500/60 rev/min 1500 N
3 3
3
4
3
3
4
4
4 4 4 4 4 4
6
= = = = = =
= = = = = =
=

=
= = =
= = = =




SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No.2

1. A shaft is made from tube 25 mm outer diameter and 20 mm inner diameter. The shear stress must not
exceed 150 MPa. Calculate the maximum power that should be transmitted at 500 rev/min.
(Ans. 14.226 kW)
2. A shaft must transmit 20 kW of power at 300 rev/min. The shear stress must not exceed 150 MPa.
Calculate a suitable diameter.
(Ans.27.8 mm)
3 A steel shaft 5 m long, having a diameter of 50 mm, is to transmit power at a rotational speed of 600
rev/min. If the maximum shear stress is limited to 60MN/m
2
. Determine the following.
(i) The maximum power that can be transmitted. (92.5 kW)
(ii) The corresponding angle of twist. (8.59
o
)
Assume the modulus of rigidity for steel is 80 GN/m
2
.

4. A hollow steel shaft with a diameter ratio of 0.75 and a length of 4 m is required to transmit 1 MW at
120 rev/min. The maximum shear stress is not to exceed 70 MN/m
2
nor is the overall angle of twist to
exceed 1.75
o
. Determine the following.

(i) The necessary outside diameter of the shaft so that both of the above limitations are satisfied. (222 mm)

(ii) The actual maximum shear stress and the actual angle of twist. (1.75
o
)

Assume the modulus of rigidity for steel is 80 GPa


D.J .Dunn 6

2 TORSION OF NON CIRCULAR SECTIONS

Shear stress cannot act in a direction normal
to a free surface. It follows that at a corner
the shear stress is zero.
D.J .Dunn 7


A way of visualising the shear stress over a
section is found by the use of the elastic
membrane analogy. Imagine a hollow
section with the same dimensions covered in
a thin elastic membrane. The inside is then
pressurised so that the membrane expands.
The shape obtained for a rectangle is like this.
Figure 3

The gradient of the membrane represents the shear stress and this is zero in the corners, zero in the centre and
a maximum at the centre of the longest edge. This theory also works with other shapes such as a tee section.

Figure 4
RECTANGULAR SECTIONS

Without proof the following formulae are offered based
on various sources.
The maximum shear stress in a rectangular section is
2 max
BD
T
= and it occurs at the mid point of the longest
edge.
The angle of twist is
G BD
TL

3
= L is the length of the
shaft.
Figure 5
and are figures that depend on the ratio of the dimensions and are given by the following formulae.
( ) 1.8/n 3
1

+
=

= =
4 4
12n
1
1
n
0.21
3
1
nD
K
n =B/D
Here is a table based on these formulae.

n 1.0 (square) 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 4 5 6 10
0.208 0.238 0.246 0.269 0.278 0.29 0.298 0.303 0.314
0.141 0.196 0.229 0.250 0.263 0.281 0.291 0.298 0.312

Note that as the ratio n increases the values of and tend towards a value of 1/3 and for ratios larger than
10 this figure is used.
Some sources use a constant called the apparent polar second moment of area K which for a rectangle is

=
4
3
B
D
12
1
1
B
D
0.21
3
1
BD K If B =nD,

=
4
4
12n
1
1
n
0.21
3
1
nD K
When n is large
3
nD
K
4
= When square n =1 and
4 4
0.141D
12
1
1 0.21
3
1
D K =

=
n =B/D 1.0 (square) 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 4 6
K 0.141 D
4
0.293 D
4
0.458 D
4
0.624 D
4
0.79 D
4
1.123 D
4
1.79 D
4

Another source gives the maximum shear stress as:
( )
2 2 m
D B
1.8D 3B T

+
= For a square B =D
3 m
D
4.8T
= which is consistent with the previous work.
The same source gives the angle of twist as
KG
TL
=
For a square
G D
7.1TL

4
= and this is consistent with the previous work.

WORKED EXAMPLE No.5

Calculate the maximum shear stress and angle of twist for a square shaft 50 mm side and 1 m long when
it transmits a torque of 3000 Nm. The modulus of rigidity is 83 GPa

SOLUTION

MPa 115.2
0.05
3000 x 4.8
D
4.8T

3 3 m
= = =
o
9 4 4
2.35 or radian 0.041
10 x 83 x 0.05
1 x 3000 x 7.1
G D
7.1TL
= = =

WORKED EXAMPLE No.6

Calculate the maximum shear stress and angle of twist for a rectangular shaft 60 mm x 20 mm and 1 m
long when it transmits a torque of 3000 Nm. The modulus of rigidity is 83 GPa

SOLUTION
9
4
3
4
3
10 x 4 . 126
60
20
12
1
1
60
20
0.21
3
1
0.02 x 0.06
B
D
12
1
1
B
D
0.21
3
1
BD K

=

=

( ) ( ) ( ) { }
MPa 450
0.02 0.06
0.02 x 1.8 0.06 x 3 3000
D B
1.8D 3B T

2 2 2 2 m
=
+
=
+
=

o
9 9
16.38 or 0.285
10 x 83 x 10 x 126.4
1 x 3000
KG
TL
= = =



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D.J .Dunn 9


SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No.3

1. Calculate the maximum shear stress and angle of twist for a rectangular shaft 1 m long and section 40
mm x 30 mm when it transmits a torque of 200 Nm. The modulus of rigidity is 80 GPa
(Answers 24 MPa and 0.7
o
)

2. Calculate the maximum shear stress and angle of twist for a rectangular shaft 1 m long and section 60
mm x 20 mm when it transmits a torque of 400 Nm. The modulus of rigidity is 80 GPa
(Answers 60 MPa and 2.3
o
)