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SME2713 Manufacturing Processes

Prepared by Richard Foo Jin Hoe
jinhoe@fkm.utm.my
SME2713
MANUFACTURING PROCESSES
CHAPTER - 2
MANUFACTURING
ASPECTS
-Version 2.0- 10.05.2014
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SME2713 Manufacturing Processes
Prepared by Richard Foo Jin Hoe
jinhoe@fkm.utm.my
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The main intention of manufacturing is to produce useful products that can be sold. IN order to sell these products, these good has to be
functional, with reasonable pricing and come with high quality that can be acceptable by customer or consumer. In order to produced as per
mentioned above, the manufacturer has to take a few important aspects related to the manufacturing processes from the stage of design until
the product is being produced. Those aspects mentioned here involved assembly, specification, standardization, quality control, testing and
checking, limits and fits, and also tolerances.
2.0 MEASURINGSYSTEM
The characteristics and quality of a measuring instruments are generally described by certain specific terms as below,
ACCURACY: The degree of agreement of the measured dimension with its true magnitude.
CALIBRATION: Adjusting or setting an instrument to give readings that are accurate within a reference standard.
LINEARITY: The accuracy of the readings of an instrument over its full working range.
MAGNIFICATION/AMPLIFICATION: The ratio of instrument output to the input dimension.
PRECISION: Degree to which an instrument gives repeated measurement of the same standard.
RESOLUTION: Smallest dimension that can be read on an instrument.
RULE OF 10 (Gage Maker's Rule): An instrument or gage should be 10 times more accurate than the dimensional tolerances of the part
being measured. Similarly, a factor is of 4 is known as the Mil Standard Rule.
SENSITIVITY: Smallest differences in dimension that an instrument can distinguish or detect.
SPEED OF RESPONSE: How rapidly an instrument indicates the measurement, particularly when a number of parts are measured in
rapid succession.
STABILITY/DRIFT: An instrument's capability to maintain its calibration over a period of time.
Selection of an appropriate measuring instrument for a particular application depends on he foregoing consideration. In addition, the size and
type of parts to be measured, the environment (temperature, humidity, dust, and so on), operator skills required, and costs have to be
considered in the purchase of such equipment.
2.1 MEASUREMENT
Any measurement must be made to an acceptable degree of accuracy, but it must be realized that no measurement is exact. The accuracy
of determination is, therefore, as important as the measured dimensions and the inherent errors in any method of measurement should be
kept to a minimum. But how can errors be kept to a minimum in the manufacturing environment?
Selection of appropriate work-piece specifications.
Selection of an appropriate measurement system to meet the chosen specifications.
Provision of a suitable environment for the measurement system.
Applying an predetermined inspection system to check and record production work-piece specifications.
Periodic calibration checking of the adopted measurement system to ensure dimensional reliability of the equipment.
Applying an appropriate process control system as a means of tracking and correcting process errors.
2.2 SURFACE FINISH
Surface finish (or surface technology) can be related to:
The roughness of surface,
The characteristics of surfaces as they apply to wear and lubrication,
Special surface treatments for enhancing a surfaces performance or appearance,
Fabrication technology is on the measurement of surface roughness.
Surface roughness is varies depending on condition of processing such as the cutting edge shape and condition, cutting speed, feed rate,
rigidity, an available power so that, amongst other considerations. All surfaces have their own characteristics and a wide variety of
surface patterns result from the different production conditions. Each surface texture has its own waviness, roughness, lay and flaws or
defects. These features of a surface have well-defined and measurable quantities which can be specified on a part drawing like shown
below.
Lay: The direction of the predominant surface pattern, determined by the production method.
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Flaw: Random irregularities such as scratches, holes, cracks, peaks and ridges.
Waviness: Irregularities on a surface in the form of waves. On smooth machined surfaces such waves measure.
Roughness: Irregularities on a surface more closely spaced than waviness. Roughness may be superimposed on a wavy surface.
2.3 TOLERANCING
Machine can produce high levels of accuracy. However, their ability to continually repeat this accuracy is extremely limited by factors
such as,
Temperature changes during processing,
The rate of tool wear,
Deflection due to tool setup and wear in machine parts,
Vibration within the machine tool,
Human error.
When parts are produced singly, it might seems that their size is of little relevance, but more often than not each of these parts must mate
with another part in performing a particular function. To achieve the functional requirements of assembled parts, one of the following
three courses can be taken.
2.3.1 MAKE TOSUIT ASSEMBLY
In this method of assembly, an individual parts and component is produced to be as accurate as possible to the desired size as per
designed with the use of existing tooling and equipment, so that close fits can be achieved. This method is hard to apply into the
high quantity production. This is because highly skillful labor is required, high quantity of component can't be produced, and can't
be selected randomly to be assembled. Other than that, the quality of products is hard to control, time consuming and therefore very
costly. Each time a part is to be replaced, its replacement has to be individually machined.
2.3.2 SELECTIVE ASSEMBLY
Here parts are produced to a given size range that can be easily achieved. Before assembly, they are graded into groups with, say,
those whose size is at the high end of the range forming one group, middle of the range size forming another group and those at the
lower end of the range form a third group. Thus, selective assembly is a method whereas each and every component is measured
and being graded into different grading according to the range of limits and fits. Say there is 5 grades for a shaft and 5 grades for a
hole, so if shaft of grade 5 is assembled with a grade 5 hole, then the assembly will be functioning perfectly. On assembly, the
mating part can be selected for fit with one from the group giving the best fit. The process is less costly, however some losses are
incurred in selecting for assembly. Replacement part must also be selectively chosen, or individually machined. This system is used
under two condition, that's;
The component can't be produced economically into the precision required but can be measured and graded.
These assemblies can be changed/replaced in a complete unit/set.
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This method is generally used in the assembly of ball bearing, roller, cylinder, or piston on a automobile application.
2.3.3 INTERCHANGEABLE ASSEMBLY
Ideally, an ideal manufacturing method is those which has the following characteristics, they are;
Using the most economical manufacturing methods. This method normally involved the usage of automated machine, partial
automated machine, in another words, labor involving here generally are those semi skillful labor.
All of the components can be interchangeable, whereas if there are 1000 shafts and holes, then each and every of them can fix into
each other and still functioning perfectly.
All of the assembly produced can be accepted even though there will be a slight variation in the fitting.
Those manufacturing method which can meet the 3 requirement above is said to be a interchangeable manufacturing. The intention of
this assembly system is that anyone part will fit any of its mating parts as required. With this interchangeability, assemble costs are
much reduced and maintenance is better facilitated. This type of manufacturing is to be said a result from the usage of standards related
with size and fits for mating parts. As mentioned above, this is a system whereas anyone of component produced can be mated with its
pair perfectly, in another words, anyone of the component produced can be interchangeable within each other without any modification.
Theoretically, even if the same component is being produced in different location, different machine, different worker, still if it is
following the same specification and standard, then all of the component produced can be interchange between each another. This will
resulted in cost reduction because assembly job is made easy and spare parts can be made in advanced for future usage.
To enable this method, the limits of acceptance of the component must be pre-determined from the standard to suit its application.
Manufacturing processes involved must have a high level of accuracy so that the component produced is at its acceptable limits. Further
more, a good quality control system should be implemented so to assure component produced is within specification. In order for
interchangeability to be possible, close dimensional control is necessary, along with the standardization of different classes of fit.
Therefore, when designing for parts that are to fit closely together they should be dimensioned according to the required fit.
2.4 CALIBRATION
Not every company has the facility for product and/or equipment calibration, including the calibration of machine/machine tools.
Therefore some companies offer a calibration and re-conditioning service. This is not onlt providing an economical means of
maintaining internal inspection and quality standards, but also a means of ensuring the maintenance of the link for traceability to
national standards. The calibration is carried out by using standard procedures against recognized primary standards by;
Repeating a sequence of five point measurement to ensure a direct match with a master standard.
Then, repeating a check on the master standard.
Finally, repeating the whole process if any incomparable measurements are found.
When the calibration is done, a first report and a certificate of calibration is issued as an accepted assurance of the quality of calibration
carried out on certified equipment. Such calibration fully meet the requirement of major standard around the world such as ISO9000,
EN29000, BS5750, and etc.
2.5 SPECIFICATION
Specification is a detail and precise description of certain things. In the context of manufacturing a products, a product can be produced
after we have the technical drawing telling the production on the characteristic of the products we will be making. This drawing did not
contain too much information especially on the quality control specification of the products. Thus, manufacturing engineer has to
produce the working drawing and clear specification so that desired product can be produced. It is very important that every individual
in the organization is using the same set of specification and standards so to avoid misunderstanding, confusion and mistakes.
Specifications that normally involved are, materials, finishing requirement, heat-treatment requirement, dimension, tolerances,
roundness requirement, straightness requirement, concentricity requirement, and etc. Every requirement normally represented by a
standard symbols as shown below (just to list a few);
Flatness
Strai ghtness
Roundness
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2.6 STANDARD
Standards can be defined as a defined criteria related to size, shape, quality and etc for a certain things/goods. With the use of standard
concept mentioned above, the production of goods can be made easy, simplified, that's with the use of standard parts of component like
screw, gear and etc, made by standard equipment and machine, and is being inspected using the standard equipment and tools, and so on.
Standard methods, standard component, and standard equipment is produced using a certain standard, there is a few functioning body
which coordinate the specification such as the International Standard Organization (ISO), British Standard Institution (BSI), American
National Standard Institute (ANSI), and etc. Recent years, due to the global competition, the ISO9000 Series seems to be a requirement
for every organization to stay competitive. As mentioned above, there's various standards whereas an engineer can refer and use, it
includes dimension, tolerances, limits and fits, specification of material and its characteristics, machine, equipment, inspection methods,
assembly and etc. The usage of standards is very important because it gives direct effects towards quality.
2.6.1 THE ISOAND QS STANDARD
With increasing international trade, global manufacturing, and price-sensitive competition have come a wide choice of industrial
and consumer products. Customers increasingly are demanding high quality products and services at lowprices and are looking for
suppliers that can response to this demand consistently and reliably. In turn, this trend has created the need for international
conformity and consensus regarding the establishment of methods for quality control, reliability and safety of products. In addition
to these considerations, equally important concerns regarding the environment and quality of life are being addressed with new
international standards.
2.6.2 THE ISO9000 STANDARD
Published in 1987 and then revised in 1994 and 2000 respectively. The ISO 9000 standard (Quality Management and Quality
Assurance Standards) is a deliberately generic series of quality system management standards. The ISO9000 standard permanently
has influenced the manner in which manufacturing companies conduct business in world trade and has become the world standard
for quality. The ISO9000 series includes the following standards,
ISO9001, Quality system: Model for quality assurance in design/development, production, installation, and servicing.
ISO9002, Quality system: Model for quality assurance in production and installation.
ISO9003, Quality system: Model for quality assurance in final inspection and test.
ISO9004, Quality management and quality system elements: Guidelines.
Companies voluntarily register for these standards and are issued certificates. For certification, a company's plants are visited and
audited by accredited and independent third-party teams to certify that the standard's 20 key elements are in place and are
functioning properly. Depending on the extent to which a company fails to meet the requirements of the standard, registration may
or may not be recommended at that time. The audit team does not advise or consult with the company on how to fix discrepancies
but merely describes the nature of the noncompliance. Periodic audits are required to maintain certification. The certification
process can take from six months to a year or more and can cost tens of thousands of dollars. The cost depends on the company's
size, number of plants, and product line. The ISO 9000 standard is not a product certification, but a quality process certification.
Companies establish their own criteria and practices for quality. However, the documented quality system must be in compliance
with the ISO 9000 standards. Thus, a company cannot write into the system any criterion that opposes the intent of the standard.
Registration symbolizes a company's commitment to conform to consistent practices, as specified by the company's own quality
system (such as quality in design, development, production, installation, and servicing), customers (including government agencies)
are assured that the supplier of the product or service (which may or may not be within the same country) is following specified
practices. In fact, manufacturing companies are themselves assured of such practice regarding their own suppliers who have ISO
9000 registration; thus, suppliers also must be registered.
2.6.3 THE ISO14000 STANDARDS
Published in 1996 and pertaining to international EMS (Environmental Management System). It concerns the way an organization's
activities affect the environment throughout the life of its products. A rapidly increasing number of companies in many countries
have been obtaining certificate for this standard. These activities,
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May be internal or external to the organization,
Range from production to ultimate disposal of the product after its useful life,
Include effects on the environment, such as pollution, waste generation and disposal, noise, depletion of natural resources,
and energy use.
2.7 LIMITS AND FITS
Engineering drawing do not state the type of fit necessary to allow mating parts to correctly function, but states a tolerance on
dimensions to satisfy the needs of each particular class of fit, generally to meet the requirement of interchangeability. Limits can be
defined as the maximum and minimum dimensions of parts. Fits can be defined as the range of looseness or tightness that can result
from the application of specific combination of allowance and tolerance in the design of mating part features.
Shaft: By convention, the term refers to all external features of a part, including features which are not cylindrical.
Hole: By convention, the term refers to all internal features of a part, including features which are not cylindrical.
Actual Size: A dimension of a part obtained by measurement.
Limits of size: The maximum and minimum sizes permitted for a feature. Both limits must always be stipulated in full.
Basic size: The size by reference to which the limits of size are fixed. The basic size is the same for both members.
Tolerance: The arithmetic difference between the maximum limit of size and the minimum limit of size for a dimension.
Allowance: The arithmetic difference between the high limit of size of the shaft and the low limit of size of the hole. (For
Clearance Fit: Allowance is always positive; Meanwhile, for Interference Fit: Allowance is always negative)
The interchangeable manufacturing can only be done under these two conditions, that's;
Types of fits of the mating parts should be of clearance fit, interference fit, or transition fit and etc.
Tolerance allowance at each dimension.
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jinhoe@fkm.utm.my
There is 2 types of standard which is very famous in limits and fits, they are the BS 4500 (ISOlimits and fits in metric units) and Newall
limit system (used by Newell Engineering Co. Ltd.) which consist of 6 shaft class and 2 hole class from basic size up until 150 mm and
using the bilateral tolerance. Standard BS 4500 is more widely used and more completed. These standard uses the hole basis system. It
obtained the size range up until 3150 mm. According to the BS4500, some basic size can gives 28 holes ranging from symbol A to ZC.
It's the same with shaft which gives 28 shafts ranging from symbol A to ZC too. (IT 01, IT 0, IT 1, , IT 16). IT is the International
Tolerance Grade, it is a group of tolerances that vary depending on the basic size, but provide the same relative level of accuracy within
a grade. IT 16 will produces a more course finishing product, thus the limits and fits tolerance will be bigger. In reverse, IT 01 will
produce a very fine finishing product, thus the limits and fits tolerance will be very small. In another words, the smaller the ITnumber is,
the finer the tolerances is.
From all the hole and shaft standard in BS4500, the normally used hole standard is H7, H8, H9, and H11. Meanwhile the normally used
shaft standard is c11, d10, e9, f7, g6, h6, k6, n6, p6, and s6.
Example,
Consider one component of size 50 mm diameter is mated together. It was given that the grading of hole is H7 and shaft is n6. You have
to find,
a) Hole tolerance,
b) Shaft tolerance,
c) Hole size range,
d) Shaft size range
e) Minimum looseness,
f) Maximum looseness, and
g) The types of fits.
Solution,
Before doing anything else, you would found out that there is 2 alternatives that can give you the 50 mm hole and shaft tolerance as
shown below,
Always go for the lower one, thats alternative 1. So, your answer now is,
Hole, Shaft,
50 mm 50 mm
Thus,
a) The hole tolerance will be = (+0.025) - (0) = +0.025 mm
b) The shaft tolerance will be = (+0.033) - (+0.017) = +0. 016 mm
c) Hole size range = 50 50.025 mm
+0.025
+0.000
+0.033
+0.017
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jinhoe@fkm.utm.my
d) Shaft size range = 50.017 50.033 mm
e) Minimum clearance = Lower Hole Size - Upper Shaft Size = 50 - 50.033 = -0.033 mm (Interference)
f) Maximum clearance = upper Hole size - lower Shaft Size = 50.025 - 50.017 = +0.008 (Looseness)
g) The type of fits is Transition fits.
ALTERNATIVE - 1
ALTERNATIVE - 2
ALTERNATIVE - 1
ALTERNATIVE - 2
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2.8 TYPE OF FITS
In BS 4500, there are 2 fit systems, they are; Shaft-based System: A system of fits in which the different clearance and interference firs
are obtained by associating various holes with a single shaft. (More often used, for example, where bar stock is to be used.) Hole-based
System: A system of fits in which the different clearance and interference fits are obtained by associating various shafts with a single
hole. (More often used: for example, when standard drills and reamers are to be used. For this reason the Hole-based System is more
common). Fitting of two mating part is the degree of looseness/tightness of the two mating part. The pair of fitting has to be determined
to ensure the mating part can function properly at a satisfactory level. The degree of fitting between the hole and shaft depends on the;
Magnitude of tolerance,
Tolerance and also the basic size,
Magnitude of basic size.
There are 3 types of fits, they are;
Clearance fit, when the maximum limit of the shaft is less than the minimum limit of the hole, a clearance fir exists. A gap always
exists between the mating parts. This is a fit that allows for rotation or sliding between mating parts.
Minimum clearance = Differences between upper shaft size and lower hole size.
Maximum clearance = Differences between lower shaft size and upper hole size.
ALTERNATIVE - 1
ALTERNATIVE - 2
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Interference fit, when the minimum limit of the shaft is greater than the maximum limit of the hole. The arithmetic difference
between these two limits is known as the interference. This is a fit that having limits of size so prescribed that interference is always
result when mating part are assembled.
Minimum interference = Differences between upper hole size and lower shaft size before assembled.
Maximum interference = Differences between lower hole size and upper shaft size before assembled.
Transition fit, when the specified limits for both the hole and the shaft give a range of fits between clearance and interference. (i. e.
the tolerance zones for both the hole and the shaft overlap). This is a fit with small clearance or interference that allows for accurate
locating of mating parts. Varies from clearance fits to interference fits.
2.9 TOLERANCES
Whatever effort you put in the manufacturing is with the aim to achieve a production of component/parts size that is pre-determined by
the production drawing. However, as mentioned previously, to manufacture to the exact dimension is not possible to achieve. That's why
we need to have a set of variation to the desired dimension. This variation is called tolerances. It's the design engineer's job to fix the
tolerance to all of the dimension, determine how tight or lose one dimension can be so that the component/parts can be
manufacture/produce economically. Because the smaller the tolerances is, then the more expensive the manufacturing cost is.
There are 3 ways in which the tolerances is decided, they are;
Bilateral tolerance - It's a deviation (plus or minus) from the basic size.
Unilateral tolerance - It's a deviation in one direction only fromthe nominal dimension.
Dimension limits - It's useful whenever total tolerance is small or during large manufacturing quantity when gauge is widely used.
The unilateral tolerance is a more preferred method because of its flexibility. The degree of fits between holes and shafts is determined
by the magnitude of tolerance and position from its basic size. The degree of looseness is also depending on the magnitude of basic size.
The value of tolerance given will be depending on the fewfactors, such as;
Component/Part's function,
Available processes, and
Manufacturing and assembly cost.
The manufacturing and assembly cost will increase if the tolerances is narrowed, because;
A more advanced/better machine or equipment is required,
Highly experienced labor required, and
A more detail inspection and equipment handling required.
These shows the fact that quality and cost is always affecting the manufacturing sector.
3.0 QUALITY ASSURANCE, TESTING, AND INSPECTION
3.1 INTRODUCTION
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Manufactured products develop certain external and internal characteristics, which result (in part) from the production processes used.
External characteristics most commonly involve dimensions, size, and surface finish and integrity issues such as surface damage from
cutting tools or friction during the processing of the work piece. Internal characteristics include defects, such as porosity, impurities,
inclusions, phase transformations, embrittlement, cracks, debonding of laminations, and residual stresses.
Some of these defects may exist in the original stock, and some are introduced or induced during the particular manufacturing operation.
Before they are marketed, manufactured parts and products are inspected for several characteristics. This inspection routine is important
in order to;
Ensure dimensional accuracy so that parts properly fit into other components during assembly,
Identity products whose failure or malfunction has potentially serious implications, such as bodily injury or fatality. Typical
examples are the failure of cables, switches, brakes, grinding wheels, railroad wheels, turbine blades, pressure vessels, and welded
joints.
Product quality always has been one of the most important aspects of manufacturing operations. In viewof a global competitive market,
continuous improvement in quality is not a major priority, particularly for large corporations in industrialized countries. In Japan, the
single term termKAIZEN is used to signify never-ending improvement.
The prevention of defects in products and on-line inspection of parts are major goals in all manufacturing activities. We again emphasize
that quality must be built into a product and not merely checked for after the product already has been made. Thus, close cooperation
and communication among design and manufacturing engineers and direct involvement and encouragement of the company
management are vital.
Major advances in quality engineering and productivity have been made, largely because of the efforts of quality experts such as
Deming, Taguchi, and Juran. The importance of the quality, reliability, and safety of products in global economy now is recognized
internationally by the establishment of various ISO and QSO standards and by the Malcolm Baldrife National Quality Award in the
United States.
3.2 PRODUCT QUALITY
We all have used term like "poor" quality" or "high quality" to describe a particular product or the products of a particular company;
Although we may recognize it when we see or use a product, quality is difficult to define precisely. Simply and generally, quality may
be defined as a product's fitness for use. Several dimensions of quality generally are identified; these include characteristics such as
performance, durability, reliability, robustness, and serviceability, as well as aesthetics and perceived quality. Thus, quality is a broad
based characteristics or property, and its factors consist not only of well-defined technical considerations but also of subjective opinions.
The general perception is that a high quality product is one which performs its functions reliably over a long period of time without
breaking down or requiring repairs. We have seen that design and manufacturing engineers have the responsibility of selecting and
specifying materials for the components of the products to be made. However, it is important to note that materials possesses better
properties generally are more expensive and may be more difficult to process than those with poorer properties. The level of quality that
a manufacturer chooses for its products may depend on the market for which the products are intended.
Total quality cost depends on several variables, including the level of automation in the manufacturing plant. Thus, there are many ways
for the engineer to review and modify overall product design and manufacturing processes to minimize a product's cost without affecting
the quality. Contrary to general public perception, high quality products do not necessarily cost more, especially when considering the
fact that poor quality product;
Present difficulties in assembling and maintaining components.
Result in the need for in-field repairs.
Have the significant built-in cost of customer dissatisfaction.
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Quality standards are essentially a balance between several considerations. This balance is also called Return On Quality (ROQ) and
usually includes some limit on the expected life of the product.
3.2 QUALITY ASSURANCE
Quality assurance is the total effort made by a manufacturer to ensure that its products conform to a detailed set of specifications and
standards.. it can be defined as all actions necessary to ensure that quality requirements will be satisfied; whereas, quality control is the
set of operational techniques used to fulfill quality requirements. These standards cover several types of parameters, such as dimension,
surface finish, tolerances, composition, and color, as well as mechanical, physical, and chemical properties. In addition, standards
usually are written to ensure proper assembly, using interchangeable defect-free components and resulting in a product that performs as
originally intended by the designers.
Quality assurance is the responsibility of everyone involved with design and manufacturing. The often repeated statement that quality
must be built into a product reflects this important concept. Although a finished product can be inspected for quality, quality cannot be
inspected into a finished product. An important aspect of quality assurance is the capability to,
Analyze defects as they occur on the production line,
Promptly eliminate them or reduce them to acceptable levels.
In an even broader sense, quality assurance involves evaluating the product and customer satisfaction. The sum of all these activity is
referred to as the total quality control; and, in a larger sense, total quality management. It is clear that, in order to control quality, we
have to be able to,
Measure quantitatively the level of quality,
Identify all of the material and process variable that can be controlled.
The quality level built in during production then can be checked by continuously inspecting the product to determine whether it meets
the specifications for dimensional tolerances, surface finish, defects, and other characteristics.
3.3 TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT (TQM)
TQM is a system that emphasizes the concept that quality must be designed and built into the product. It is a systems approach in that
both management and employees make a concerted effort to consistently manufacture high-quality products. Defect prevention (rather
than defect detection) is the major goal here. Leadership and teamwork in the organization are essential. They ensure that the goal of
continuous improvement in manufacturing operation is imperative, because they reduce product variability and they improve customer
satisfaction. The TQM concept also requires us to control the processes and not the parts produced, so that process variability is reduced
and no defective parts are allowed to continue through the production line.
3.4 STATISTICAL METHODS OF QUALITY CONTROL
Because the numerous variables involved in manufacturing processes and operation, the implementation of statistical techniques is
essential. To understand SQC (Statistical Quality Control), let's first review the terms that are used commonly,
Sample size; The number of parts to be inspected in a sample. The properties of the parts in the sample are studied to gain
information about the whole population.
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Random sampling; Taking a sample from a population or lot in which each item has an equal chance of being included in the
sample. Thus, when taking samples from a large bin, the inspector should not take only those that happen to be within reach.
Population; The total number of individual parts of the same design from which samples are taken; also called the universe.
Lot size; A subset of population. A lot or several lots can be considered subsets of the population and may be considered as
representative of the population.
The SPC method take certain measures and action to prevent producing further defective parts. This technique consists of various
elements,
Control charts and control limits
Capabilities of the particular manufacturing process
Characteristics of the machinery involved
3.5 SIXSIGMA
A quality standard in increasingly wider practice is the six sigma requirement. Six sigma means that there are only 3.4 defective parts
per million parts on each side of the distribution (or a total of 6.8 parts per million). Because of the nature of statistical distribution, this
tacitly forces improvements in process capability to reduce variability. The six sigma concept also has been extended to business and
office processes and operations.
3.6 EQUIPMENT/TOOLINGAIDINGQUALITYCONTROL
In order to produced and maintain quality products, and inspection is carried out with the help of some equipment or tooling, gauge,
destructive test, and un-destructive test. These equipment or tooling is used to measure distance, angle, surface texture, roundness,
clearance, and etc on the components/parts. The major aim of inspection is to compare an unknown specimen with a specimen of known
specification/standard.
Listed beloware the equipment/tooling/technique that is usually seen in quality control,
Equipment/Tooling,
Ruler, combination square, gauge, optical comparator, toolmaker's microscope, protractor, bar sign, plat sign angle gauge, profile,
optical flat, profilometer, autocollimator, and etc.
Un-destructive test
Visual checking, magnetic test, ultra sound, laser, radiography and etc.
3.7 INSPECTION
It's agreeable that there is definitely no 2 identical items. This is also applied in the production of component or parts. As mentioned
above that there is a lot of factors that caused variation in any component even though it is made in the same way, using the same
machine, and by the same worker. Part of the factors is due to the variation of raw material used, machine inaccuracy, incorrect usage of
tooling, tool wear, and human error.
The main function of inspection is to assure that those component or part that doesn't meet requirement do not bypass the manufacturing
and go straight to the customers. Always remember that there will be a various stage of inspection in as early as incoming materials,
work in progress, before critical or expensive process, and final outgoing inspection.
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