WORKING

WITH
PEWTER
INTERNATIONAL TIN RESEARCH INSTITUTE
Fraser Road, Perivale, Greenford, Middlesex
Tel: 01-997 4254
(I.T.R.I. Publication No. 566)
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER I
CHAPTER II
CHAPTER 111
CHAPTER IV
CHAPTER V
CHAPTER VI
CHAPTER VI1
CHAPTER Vl l l
CHAPTER IX
CHAPTER X
HISTORY
PRODUCTION AND PROPERTIES OF THE METAL
Alloying
Casting into ingots
Making pewter sheet
Standards for pewter
Properties of pewter
INTRODUCTION TO MAKING PEWTERWARE
CAST1 N G
Gravity die casting
Casting in silicone rubber moulds
Casting by lost-wax method
Centrifugal casting
Pressure die casting
SPINNING
Buffing and polishing
OTHER METALWORKING PROCESSES
SOLDERING OF PEWTER
Attaching bases to tankards
J oining side-seamed tankards
Soldering a spout on a coffee pot
Spot weldips
DECORATIVE FINISHES
Chemical treatments
Engraved designs
Mechanical engraving
Etching of pewter
PEWTER FOR THE HOBBYIST
Relief work
Forming in hardwood moulds
Pewter jewellery
Simple castings
ELEMENTS OF PEWTER DESIGN
Pewter drinking vessels
Pewter around the world
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34
2
INTRODUCTION
Pewter largely consists of tin, but because pure tin
would be too soft for practical use, small amounts
of other elements such as copper, antimony and
occasionally bismuth are added to harden it.
Although in older times varying amounts of lead
were used in pewterware, pewter alloys are now
virtually lead-free and therefore non-toxic, the
lead content being strictly limited, principally on
health grounds because of the use of pewter for
food and drink. Moreover, modern pewter does
not tarnish but retains its as-purchased condition
for long periods with proper care. The darkening
of most antique pewter, due to the action of the
atmosphere, results from the presence of lead in
those alloys. This matt or blackened appearance is
prized by some collectors as having aesthetic
virtues. A similar finish, when required, can be
produced on the surface of modern pewter (in
which lead is not an alloying element) by a
chemical treatment. In fact today's pewter can
have many faces, from a highly reflective,
polished look to a duller, satin appearance; but
whatever the finish, it can be maintained by a
simple washing in warm soapy water followed by
careful drying with a soft cloth. Pewter items
should not be placed in dish washing machines
because the high temperature drying cycle could
have a deleterious effect, leading to water marks
being engrained in the metal surface.
Pewter offers new incentives to the designer, who
should bear in mind that the metal has a character
of its own, quite distinct from that of, say, silver or
stainless steel. It can be cast at fairly low
temperatures and shows good fluidity and mould-
filling properties. Pewter is soft compared with
metals like copper or brass and it may be hand
worked by hammering or pressing and decorated
by engraving directly on the surface. One
important method of manufacturing hollow-ware
in pewter is by spinning on a lathe, starting from
flat metal sheet.
Although pewter is an ancient material, it also has
a timeless character. For the designer, there is a
long tradition on which to draw as well as
potential for innovative approaches to working the
metal to create new forms. For the purchaser,
pewter also represents an investment in tin, a
metal whose value is clearly established in the
metal markets. Moreover, the contemporary
pewter bought today may well become the prized
antique of tomorrow, alongside the tappit hens
and porringers of a bygone age.
In the following pages, some guidance is provided
for those craftsmen who wish to widen their
acquaintance with pewter and for the student or
beginner who is interested in trying his hand at
working with this most amenable metal.
3
CHAPTER I - HISTORY
The craft of pewtering dates back to before the
time of the Roman Empire. In fact, the earliest
known example of a pewter vessel is the so-called
"Pilgrim bottle" from Abydos, belonging to the
Egyptian 18th Dynasty of about 1500 B.C.
Analysis has revealed that this bottle was made
from an alloy containing 93% tin, 6% lead and 1 %
copper. Few other artlcles of any significance
before the 11th Century A.D. have been found
but from the 14th to the 16th Century, more tin
was used in England to make pewter (generally an
alloy of about 80% tin with 20% lead) than for any
other application. This period saw the
replacement of many household utensils in stone,
wood, clay and leather by their equivalent in
pewter. Many churches also used an alloy of tin,
lead and copper for organ pipes. A pewterers'
Guild was established in Germany, at Nurnburg in
1285 and by the middle of the 14th Century,
Guilds and Associations began to spring up
throughout Europe. One of the earliest records of
such an Association refers to the formation of the
Worshipful Company of Pewterers in London in
1348. The ordinances drawn up by this Company
covered a number of points touching on the
quality of the wares and conditions of work for
pewterers. In 1503 the Worshipful Company
established maker's touchmarks and it was
required that these and other marks used by the
craftsman be recorded on "tablets of pewter"
kept at the Company's headquarters.
A Guild was set up in Sweden in 1485, but
although pewterware was being made in the
Netherlands, at Dordrecht, at the end of the 13th
Century, a pewterers' Guild was not established
there until 1651, at Leiden.
By this time, pewter articles were to be found in
most middle-class homes as well as in inns and
taverns. The European popularity of pewter at this
time is attested by the fact that pewter was
second only to cloth as the most valuable
manufactured commodity exported from
England. By the end of the 16th Century there was
scarcely a city in Europe without a pewterers'
Guild. This was particularly true of France and
Belgium where Paris, Bordeaux, Marseilles,
Toulouse, LiBge, Ghent and Bruges were notable
examples of cities with flourishing pewterware
manufacturing industries.
Meanwhile pewter had been introduced to the
households of colonial America. The first
pewterers came from England and were reported
to be at work in Boston, New York and
Philadelphia as early as 1640; however, no pieces
can be positively identified as having been
produced in North America before 1700. The
years between 1700 and 1850 marked a
tremendous upsurge of pewterware production
there, but after this period, new developments in
china porcelain caused a decline in popularity of
pewterware. It was, however, during the 19th
Century that most of the great American pewter
craftsmen lived and worked, using the new
pewter known as Britannia Metal, from which lead
was excluded as an alloying element.
The invention of this Britannia Metal, in which tin
was the main constituent, towards the end of the
18th Century, provided some new markets for
pewterware but also did much harm to the
industry through deliberate abuse. Since this new
alloy could be spun more easily on a lathe than
could previous pewter alloys, some manufacturers
resorted to producing goods having insufficient
thickness for practical use. One advantage of the
introduction of Britannia Metal however, was the
fact that it widened the scope of the pewterware
industry, since the range of articles produced in
the new alloy was wider and included such items
as fancy tableware and coffee pots.
China, earthenware, pottery, glass and enamelled
iron were introduced at about the middle of the
19th Century. These were all less expensive than
pewter and adversely affected the pewterware
trade. The skill and craftsmanship of the
pewterers eventually began to overcome this
difficulty although for many years pewter failed to
regain its past popularity.
The 20th Century has seen a revival of interest in
pewter and antique reproductions together with
new designs have developed. During this period,
modern pewter Guilds and Associations have
been established in many of the important pewter
producing countries of the world. The first of
these was the American Pewter Guild Ltd., which
was founded in 1958 to preserve the high quality
of modern pewter, to ensure that the customer
will have the best possible product available and
to promote an increased appreciation and use of
contemporary pewterware. The Guild has
established high standards of quality and
craftsmanship for pewterware which must be met
by its members. It is in the process of developing a
Certification Programme for the purpose of
assuring the quality of pewterware items to the
purchaser, and a registration logo will be stamped
on members' products.
4
, over 350 years old;
Walden, New York.
In 1970 the Association of British Pewter
Craftsmen (A.B.P.C.) was formed and pewter
articles conforming to the specifications of the
Association bear a touchmark incorporating the
letters A.B.P.C. within a circle. Purchasers of
pewterware bearing this touchmark are assured
that the article is of genuine British pewter
containing at least 90% tin, with the balance
made up of copper, antimony and/or bismuth and
has been produced to the high standards of crafts-
manship laid down in the Association agreement.
Germany is a major producer of pewterware with
an industry centred around Munich in the South
and Essen in the North. In 1973 a Pewter Quality
Association, the Gutegemeinschaft Zinngerat was
formed with the object of promoting and ensuring
good quality in the German pewter industry. A
new touchmark was also established for use by
members of the Association.
Since 1974, there has been a Belgian Pewter
Association, the Chambre Syndicale des Maftres
Etainiers de Belgique, whose aims are to control
standards of purity for the pewter alloy used by its
members and to encourage a spirit of co-
operation amongst Belgian pewterers. As an
organised body, it considers it has more scope for
maintaining standards of craftsmanship and
quality and can further the interests of the Belgian
pewter industry. As a guide for the buying
public, all pewterware made or sold by members
bears a label as well as a touchmark, which
guarantees that the alloy contains at least 92%
tin, the remainder being made up of antimony and
copper.
5
CHAPTER II - PRODUCTION AND PROPERTIES
OF THE METAL
Pewter is a high-tin alloy containing some
antimony to harden it and a little copper to
improve its workability. Commonly used pewter
alloys contain up to 6% antimony and about 2%
copper. Large additions of copper are avoided
since they tend to darken the colour of the pewter
and could have a deleterious effect in spun
pewterware; antimony tends to make the alloy
whiter in colour and also improves castability
s omewbk Small amounts of bismuth may be
present 'and silver is added on occasion to
influence the hardening properties.
Tin is an easy metal to deal with, on account of its
non-toxicity and its rather special properties which
include: low melting point (232OC1, good fluidity
when molten, relative softness and good
formability. These properties largely extend t o
pewter. The melting operation is easily performed
on account of the low melting point and very low
vapour pressure of tin, and can be conducted in a
hemispherical cast iron pot or a rectangular,
welded mild steel vessel. One manufacturer melts
pewter in a gas-fired melting pot of 5 tonnes
capacity, the metal being removed in ladles and
cast into moulds so as to produce 30 kg ingots.
However, unless large-scale production is
envisaged, it is probably more convenient to buy
ingots for casting and sheet or blanks for
spinning, from a commercial supplier of these
materials.
Alloying
To make up a pewter alloy, the tin is melted first,
without a flux cover, and -then the alloying
elements are dissolved in the melt. Copper is
added as wire, strip or foil; tinned copper wire is
sometimes used, since by its nature it wets
immediately and dissolves rapidly. Antimony may
be added as solid lumps; these lumps will readily
Making up a pewter alloy by adding tin ingots to a melting pot.
6
dissolve once they are wetted by the tin.
However, if they are not wetted, they remain
undissolved in the melt and float on the surface.
For this reason, additions should not be made in
powder form as these are difficult to wet
satisfactorily. To aid the wetting process when
making additions, copper and antimony should be
dipped in flux just prior to their addition to the
molten tin; an aqueous solution of zinc chloride or
zinc ammonium chloride constitutes a suitable
flux.
Provided these recommendations are followed,
complete solution can be obtained without the
bath temperature exceeding 40OoC. Alloying
should be carried out at the lowest possible
temperature which will achieve the desired results
and the craftsman would be well advised to
experiment in order to find the optimum
temperature for making his alloy composition.
One convenient method of alloying involves
making up 'master alloys' such as 50% tin - 50%
antimony and 90% tin - 10% copper which are
then added to the molten tin in carefully
calculated amounts. Care must be taken to ensure
that these alloys are completely dissolved and the,
melt should be stirred with a steel paddle to
ensure that small pieces of the alloying addition all
dissolve, Should some overheating occur
accidentally, then the melt should be left to cool
undisturbed until the correct casting temperature
is attained, when it should be skimmed carefully
and stirred. Note: remelting alloy which _has
solidified in a pot requires extreme care. Heating
must be done in such a manner that a liquid pipe
is produced vertically in the pot. If bottom heating
is attempted without a liquid pipe, violent ejection
of metal may occur when the pressure of the
expanding liquid erupts through the still solid top
surface and the pot itself may be damaged by
distortion.
Casting into ingots
When alloying is complete, the pewter is either
cast into ingots for use in producing cast
pewterware, or else is cast as slabs for subsequent
rolling to sheet. The moulds are customarily made
of cast iron and they may be water-cooled on the
exterior surface. They are commonly made with
lugs on one side through which pass hinges so
that the t wo halves of the mould open and close
like a book. The interior of the moulds must be dry
before casting, otherwise molten metal may be
ejected from the mould due to rapid formation of
steam, with hazard to the operator,
Pewter slabs which are to be rolled may be cast
either horizontally or in a vertical book-type
mould. With horizoiital casting, directional
solidification is induced by cooling the underside
of the mould, using water or air jets. A depression
will be formed in the top surface of the ingot due
to shrinkage and this may be eliminated in the final
ingot by feeding more metal just before the metal
finally solidifies. To prevent dross and oxide being
cast with the metal, the metal should be poured
from a point below its free surface; if this is not
possible, then the surface must be skimmed
before pouring. Casting temperatures should not
be more than 50% above the melting point, or
coarse-grained ingots can result and segregation
may be promoted. For subsequent rolling to
sheets, an exceptionally good surface finish is
required and the ingot should be 'scalped' on top
and bottom faces before rolling, using a milling
machine. This shaves away the outer,
rough,
surfaces of the metal. More detailed information
on the melting and casting of tin and tin alloys is
available in I.T.R.I. Publication No. 456.
Making pewter sheet
As-cast slabs, 2in (50 mm) thick, are reduced on a
breakdown mill and successive reductions are
then effected on a subsequent rolling mill. The
rolls must have a high degree of finish, at least for
the final reduction stage and care must be taken
to avoid embedding foreign particles in the soft
surface since these could eventually show up as
imperfec~ons in a final pewterware item.
When pewter sheet is to be formed by spinning or
deep drawiag techniques, it is important that the
deformation properties of the sheet are uniform in
all directions. Directional or 'anisotropic'
properties will result in the walls of a formed
vessel having non-uniform thickness and will
cause the appearance of a wavy edge around the
rim of the article. These uneven edges or 'ears' are
both inconvenient and wasteful of material since
they have to be trimmed away to give a regular
edge. Work at the Institute has shown that
anisotropy can be minimised in rolled pewter
sheet by turning the sheet through an angle of
90' at a specific stage of the rolling schedule. As
an alternative to this cross rolling, the sheet may
be heat-treated at 175'C for 10 minutes at a
certain stage before the final rolling reduction.
The final reduction required to give minimum
anisotropy depends on the alloy composition and
the total reduction from cast slab to final
thickness. Details are given in I.T.R.I. Publication
No. 464.
After rolling to the final gauge, which may
typically be in the range 0.025 - 0.075 in (0.6 - 1.9
mm), the sheet is often stamped into blanks of
convenient size and shape for subsequent
processing. Although a premium is charged by
manufacturers for supplying these blanks, the
convenience for the pewterer often outweighs this
cost.
7
Standards for pewter
DIN 17810 1974
Sn Sb 2 Cu 1.5
Sn Sb 5 Cu 1.5
A number of countries now have national
standards for pewter; these are summarised
below:
I I
balance
balance
Standard Specification, Tin 4ntimony Copwr
I I
B.S. 5140 1974
Alloy A at least
90-91
90-93
95-98
5- 7
3-5
1 .O-3.0
3.7-7.0
6- 8
5-7.5
1 .O-3.0
1 .O-2.5
1 .O-2.5
1 .o-2.0
1 .o-2.0
0.25-2.0
1.5-3.0
1 .o-2.0
Properties of pewter
Pewter has a distinctive white colour all its own,
which is subtly different from that obtained with
silver or stainless steel items. The metal, like tin
itself, is soft and this softness is somehow
apparent in the appearance of vessels fabricated
in pewter, which have a unique tactile quality.
Modern pewterware is safe for the serving of food
and beverages without danger of contamination
since if it is made according to National Standards
or to Association qualities, lead is not added as an
alloying element; the alloy has a high resistance to
almost all weak acids. Pewter exceeds most other
alloys in ductility; it can be stretched,
compressed, hammered and bent into any desired
shape. By correct selection of alloy composition a
material suitable for forming by spinning or
pressing can be produced. It becomes softer on
working, so that annealing is not necessary. In
this connection it is an ideal material for the home
craftsman as well as lending itself to modern
production techniques. However, this very
softness imposes certain design limitations which
have to be borne in mind when planning an item
of pewterware. The material is not suitable for
producing sharp edges as in filigree decoration, or
Lead
0.5 max
0.5 max
0.5 max
0.5 max
0.05 ma,
0.05 ma)
0.05 ma)
Comments
Other compositions are permitted
provided lead and cadmium are not
more than 0.5% and 0.05%
respectively and tin is not less than
91%. Elements other than tin,
antimony, copper, nickel, bismuth,
cobalt and silver shall not be more
than 0.2%.
Tin should conform to DIN 1704
(99.75% tin), antimony should be
99.6% pure and copper should
conform to DIN 1708 (99.90%
copper).
Arsenic should not exceed 0.05%
nax, iron 0.015% max and zinc
3.005% max.
for pierced designs. When designing coffee pots
to be in pewter, there is an optimum size beyond
which the weight of hot liquid could lead to
distorrion of the vessel; the same qualification
applies to trays where weights have to be
withstood by unsupported pewter sheet, which
has a tendency to 'creep' under its own weight
especially at temperatures much above ambient.
This should not give the impression that pewter
articles are to be looked at, but not used; pewter
coffee and tea sets, pipe racks, cigarette boxes,
vases, dishes, bowls and drinking vessels of all
kinds all function perfectly well in everyday use.
Cutlery has been produced with steel cutting
edges and decorated pewter handles, a nice
solution to the design problem of combining
attractiveness with functionality.
The normal method of joining pewter components
is by soldering. Because of the low melting point,
this can be easily achieved using a gas-air torch.
However, great cars is required since the melting
point of solder and of pewter are very close,
particularly in those cases where lead-free solder
must be used. This is dealt with more fully on
pages 23 and 24.
8
CHAPTER ill 9 INTRODUCTION TO MAKING
PEWTER WARE
The properties of pewter are such that the
material lends itself to simple crafting techniques,
suitable both for the hobbyist or small-scale
craftsman and for large-scale manufacturing
methods. Quite effective pewter decorations can
be made using only a few simple hand tools and
although more sophisticated techniques are being
introduced into the pewter industry, traditional
equipment is relativeiy simple, consisting of a
melting pot, a series of two-part moulds and
lathes for spinning and turning. The two principal
methods of making pewterware are by casting
and by forming from sheet.
The most used method of making cast
pewterware is by gravity casting into a gunmetal
or cast-iron mould which may be hand held or
supported in some other way. The metal is poured
from a ladle and normal practice is to begin with
the pre-heated mould held almost horizontal and
then gradually to raise one edge until the mould
assembly is in a vertical position, as the metal fills
the cavity. By adopting this procedure, there is
less risk of porosity in the casting. Cooling is
hastened by applying cloths soaked in water to
appropriate parts of the mould and the mould can
be opened in quite a short time. Appendages such
as handles or spouts are cast hollow by slush
casting. This involves pouring metal into the
mould (which is usually held in the gloved hand)
and almost immediately pouring it out again, so
that only a shell of metal has time to solidify in
contact with the walls of the mould.
Small items can be produced in multiple quantities
by centrifugal casting in rubber moulds. Molten
pewter is ladled into a rapidly rotating mould made
of two flat rubber discs which contain mould
cavities between them and the pewter is urged
into these cavities from a central feed hole, by
centrifugal force. Art castings are usually
produced as a single unique casting and the lost
wax process, traditionally used for casting
sculptures, is often employed. In this technique a
wax pattern which represents the art work, is
coated with a refractory slurry which is allowed to
dry. The wax is then melted out and the refractory
is fired to a hard mass, to produce a mould into
which pewter can be cast. The refractory is then
broken away to reveal the art work cast in pewter.
The processes of the engineering plant have been
introduced to the pewter industry by some large
manufacturing companies; these techniques
include pressure die casting (by which large
numbers of small castings are automatically
produced to a standard design) and drawing,
pressing and stamping methods.
Flat sheet in the form of a disc IS the starting point
for spun pewterware and spinning techniques,
whereby the metal is formed over a shaped block
on the lathe, are used to produce much hollow-
ware. Pewter articles produced by spinning are
generally lighter than their cast counterparts and
are therefore cheaper. They are also rather less
robust, their strength depending largely on the
thickness of the starting sheet. Designs produced
by spinning cannot have the complex
ornamentation which is possible in cast pewter,
but spun pewterware is often praised for its
simplicity of outline. Each type of pewterware has
its own devotees and there are some regional
Dreferences.
Simple tankards are conveniently made by folding
sheet into a hollow cylinder and making a soldered
side seam. This tube or collar is placed over a
mandrel on a lathe for final forming by spinning.
Pewter can also be formed by hammering,
planishing and stamping. All these techniques are
discussed in some detail in the following
Chapters.
9
CHAPTER IV - CASTING
The traditional technique of making cast
pewterware is by gravity casting into permanent
moulds. Semi-permanent mould casting is used
for making short runs of pewterware, and for art
casting. There are also a number of newer
techniques such as centrifugal casting in rubber
moulds and pressure die casting.
.-.
Gravity die casting
In this technique, molten pewter is Iqdled into a
metal mould, or die and allowed to solidify. The
casting may then be machined on a lathe to
produce a iustrous finish. The majority of these
dies are made from gunmetal although cast iron
and steel moulds are used on occasion; they are
usually in at least two parts, with locating bolts for
accurate registration. Many of these moulds are
very old but are still in use for making
reproduction items, indeed they are prized by the
Dewterer for their historical value.
The moulds are pre-heated, usually by making
several 'dummy runs'. When they get excessively
hot they may be dipped in water containing some
lime; this provides a thin coating on the cavity
surfaces which improves the surface finish of the
casting and helps its separation from the mould.
Care must be taken that the interior coating has
dried thoroughly before recommencing casting, in
order to ensure there will be no evolution of steam
Gravity die casting of pewter.
The mould is gradually raised
to a vertical position as the
molten pewter i s ladled into
it.
when hot metal is poured in. The temperature of
the molten pewter must be carefully controlled
and the casting temperature varies widely with the
type of article being cast. Large platters of thin
section may require a metal temperature of over
4OO0C for filling of the moulds. Before being used
for casting, the mould has to be given a suitable
dressing or coating on the cavity surfaces. One
traditional mould coating consists of a mixture of
pumice stone dust, mineral earth and the white of
an eyg. The mixture is brushed on the interior
surface of the pre-heated die and the sequence
should be repeated until experience shows that a
sufficient thickness has been built up. Once
coated, the die may be used for many castings
before it needs to be treated again.
The casting technique adopted depends to some
extent on the nature of the article being cast. In
order to avoid turbulence in the molten metal
whilst it is filling the mould, it is usual to
commence with the die held in a near-horizontal
position. The craftsman pours molten pewter
from a ladle into the mould, through a 'tedge' or
runner and he slowly returns the mould to the
vertical position as metal rises in the cavity. Once
the mould is upright, feeding is continued for as
long as metal will enter the mould. Uniform
cooling is promoted by applying wet cloths to the
mould, or sometimes even a wet brush.
Experience is required to decide on the points
10
where cooling should be applied, but often it is at
the thickest section of the casting, or where the
stream of molten pewter enters the mould, an
area of potential overheating. Local cooling
prevents contraction cavities from forming at
these pojnts. Heavy moulds for large castings may
be cooled by lowering them into a tank of water
using a motor driven winch; alternatively the
mould may be located in a tank which is gradually
filled with water. After casting, a 'knocker'
consisting of a solid plug of soft metal (such as
pewter itself) or hardwood is used to loosen the
casting in the mould so that it can be prised out
when the halves of the mould are parted; many
moulds are fitted with lugs which facilitate
handling and opening.
A mould consisting of several
parts which is assembled and
used to produce the casting
on the right. These moulds
are often very old but are still
used to produce reproduction
"antiques".
Turning a pewter casting on
a lathe, to remove slight
surface imperfections and to
achieve a high finish.
The next operation consists of machining the as-
cast item on a lathe so as to remove the cast
surface of the pewter; in this way slight surface
imperfections such as cold shuts remaining from
casting are usually removed. The pewter is
mounted on an ordinary lathe, similar to that used
for turning wood and whilst rotating, the
pewterware is worked with various tools, often
hand made from steel by the craftsman. Thin
layers of metal are removed from the interior and
the exterior of the casting and care is taken not to
remove excessive amounts of metal, which could
weaken the article. When required, a burnished
finish can be achieved on the pewter surface using
special burnishing tools and wax or soap and
water as lubricant. Decorative lines can be scsibed
11
on the outer surface whilst the vessel is spinning
and fine judgment is required to ensure that such
decoration is uniform, particularly when a number
of matched items are being produced. Complex
designs are often cast in several sections and then
joined by soldering. Machining may be carried out
before or after assembly, depending on the design
of the piece.
Handles, spouts, etc., are cast hollow by a slush
casting technique. A hinged book-type mould is
held in the gloved hand, molten pewter is ladled in
until the mould is full and the mould is then
inverted over the melting pot so that metal runs
out through the runner, leaving a hollow shell
casting. The caster has to judge when sufficient
metal has solidified before inverting the mould, so
that the shell is strong and yet the casting is
relatively light. This not only serves to economise
on metal, but also ensures that these appendages
are light and therefore do not add considerably to
the weight or alter the balance of pewtenware to
which they are attached.
Slush cast parts are used on both spun and cast
pewtenware. During a long production run of
simple shapes, an experienced caster will produce
large quantities of castings (rates of over 100
castings per hour have been achieved). Because
holding and repeatedly opening the hot mould can
be a tedious business, some firms have
constructed simple rigs whereby the mould is held
rigid and is inverted automatically; opening and
closing the mould can be performed by operating
a foot treadle on these rigs.
All finished castings are inspected closely for
defects. Unacceptable items may be immediately
returned to the melting pot, so that there is no
material loss, but of course the craftsman's time
has been wasted.
Casting in silicone rubber moulds
The ease of production of small castings has been
greatly increased by the advent of room
temperature vulcanising (RTV) rubbers. These are
liquids which cure, under the influence of a
catalyst, or merely by contact with the
atmosphere, into tough, heat resisting
elastomers. They are quite stable at the
temperature of molten pewter and may be re-used
many times. The technique is often used to
produce the patterns from which rubber moulds
for centrifugal castings are prepared, or as a stage
in the production of an art casting by the lost-wax
technique.
These RTV silicones are simple to use, provided
instructions supplied by the manufacturers are
carefully followed. The silicone and the catalyst
are weighed and mixed together in the appropriate
quantities, using a spatula or a power mixer. The
Slush casting of pewter. Still-molten metal i s being paired
back out, leaving a solidified shell of metal in contact with
the mould walls, which results in a hollow casting.
part to be copied, which may be in wax, wood,
plaster or any other material, is cleaned and then
coated with the mix, using a fine brush and taking
great care to avoid air bubbles which could cause
voids and surface blemishes in the mould and
hence in the final casting.
Once a thin layer has been built up, the part is
located in a box frame, with at least 6 mm
clearance between the pattern and the sides of the
box and the remainder of the silicone is poured
around it, commencing in one corner of the box
and allowing the liquid to distribute itself from
there, around the model. When the level of the
liquid is about half-way up the model, pouring is
stopped for a few minutes, to allow the surface to
level off. Pouring is resumed until the liquid level is
about 1/2 in (13 mm) above the highest point of
the model. When the elastomer has set, the model
is removed through the base. More frequently a
two-part mould is made; this is achieved by
embedding the model up to the half-way mark in
Plasticine, casting a mould around the exposed
half in the manner described and then removing
the Plasticine, inverting the model and casting
around the other half of the model. These moulds
are often backed up with plaster cases which
serve to rigidise and reinforce the rubber mould.
With these two-part moulds, registration devices
should be included in the two halves.
12
Casting by the lost-wax method
The lost-wax technique is an ancient and
traditional method of making single art castings,
mainly bronze, but it has also been adapted to
making castings in pewter which are larger than
those conveniently made by the silicone rubber
technique. The starting point is a wax model and
the art work may be directly created in wax or else
modelled in wood or plaster first and a wax replica
then cast using the silicone rubber mould
technique described above (in the case of molten
wax there would be no such size restriction on this
technique as there would be for molten pewter).
Feeders and risers are also made in wax and are
attached to the wax model by applying a flame to
the surfaces which are held in contact, thus
partially melting them and forming a bond on
ccJ oling. The wax is then coated with a layer of a
fine refractory slurry, applied using a brush.
Dental cement is a suitable material for this
purpose. When this surface coating has dried, a
layer about 1 /4 in (6 mrn) thick is built up with the
same slurry: the surface details of the wax model
are now reproduced in this fine cement. The
coated model is secured in a box frame and a
coarser refractory slurry poured in so as to cover
completely the coated metal. When this
reinforcing backing has thoroughly dried, the
plaster mould is heated in an oven, gently at first
to drive off moisture and then at a higher
temperature to melt the wax model which drains
out of the inverted mould through the feeder hole.
Finally the mould is heated at a high temperature
(over 1000C) to fire the ceramic mould; any
remaining traces of wax are burned off at this
stage. When cool, the mould is ready for casting
and molten pewter is ladled in through the feeder
in the usual way. When the pewter has solidified,
the mould is broken open to release the casting. It
is helpful to colour the original thin skin of dental
cement so that it is clear when the casting surface
is being approached, during the breaking-up
operation. Runners and sprues are detached from
the casting, the pewter is thoroughly cleaned free
from cement and may be filed and polished to the
desired surface finish. This technique has been
used to produce many art castings and such
unusual items as a large pewter plaque and a
Bishop's crozier.
Centrifugal casting
Rubber mould centrifugal casting offers the
possibility of producing small items quickly and
reproducibly even when the parts are of complex
shape. In its essentials, the process consists of
clamping together the halves of a circular rubber
mould which has a central aperture in the top half
connected by runners to a number of mould
cavities. Whilst this mould is rotating rapidly on a
turntable, molten pewter is ladled into the central
orifice and is fed by centrifugal force through the
channels, into the mould cavities. When the
mould is eventually opened, a radial array of cast
parts is obtained, each item being attached by
stems to the solidified core. The parts are then
easily detached and fettled to the required finish.
The rubber moulds may be re-used several
hundred times.
The first step in making a rubber mould casting is
to create a master pattern of the part to be cast;
this should be in brass or some other hard material
which will withstand the temperatures and
pressures of the subsequent vulcanisation process
and which can present a good surface finish and
reproduce intricate detail. Pewter itself is
sometimes used for making master patterns. A
number of these patterns are laid, with their
longest axis aligned radially, on a soft,
unvulcanised rubber disc about 1 in (25 mm) thick
and from 2 ft to 3 ft (60 - 90 cm) in diameter. A
second rubber disc with a central aperture is
placed on top, so as to make a sandwich.
Sometimes sprue formers are inserted between
the moulds so as to form feed channels but more
ubually these sprues or channels are cut out of the
rubber with a sharp knife after vulcanisation.
Locating holes are situated near the outer edges
of the discs and bolts pass through these so as to
ensure accurate registration of the two halves of
the mould. The rubber is vulcanised by placing the
rqould in a special press held at 165 - 185'C under
pressures of about 1/2 tonf/in2 (0.7 kgf/mm2) for
45 to 60 minutes (or as recommended by the
rubber supplier). After it is vulcanised the rubber is
tough and dimensionally stable, but still flexible
enough for small undercuts to be tolerated in the
cast parts. The master patterns are now removed,
leeving mould cavities which accurately reproduce
their contours. The next stage involves cutting
feed channels which connect the cavities with the
central orifice, as mentioned above. This, as well
as the original PO
the disc, requi
understanding of th
to ensure that mol
until all the cavities are e path which the
m,Olten metal has to follow along the sprues
should be minimised. I
ak-release holes may
ex'tremity of each mdul
ed,ge of the disc.
For the casting operation, special centrifugal
casting machines have been designed, consisting
of a turntable to which the rubber mould assembly
in a supporting frame is attached. The unit is
encased in a robust steel cabine
pouring aperture in the hinged lid,
with the central feed hole in the rubber mould via
a feed pipe. The turntable is mounted on a steel
spindk driven by an electric motor and can rotate
at a controlled speed from 500 to 1000 rpm. The
halves of the rubber mould are dusted with french
13
MAKING A LOST WAX CASTING
(a) Burning the last traces of
wax out of a plaster mould.
lbl Pouring pewter into the
mould, which is conveniently
embedded in sand.
(c) Breaking open the mould
when the pewter has cooled.
(d) Extracting the pewter
casting (in this case a
decorative crook for a
Bishop's Crozier). The fine
plaster next to the casting is
convenienlly coloured, to
indicate when the pewter
casting is being approached
in order to avoid damage.
14
Opening a rubber mould, to reveal centrifugally cast
pewter figures, connected by spruas t o the central pouring
point.
chalk to facilitate release of the casting and the
mould is then inserted into the supporting frame
which sits on the turntable. It is held firmly in
position during centrifuging by means of clamps
attached to the turntable by pivots which are
weighted at one end. During rotation these
clamps exert a downward pressure on the mould
because the weights are caused to fly outwards by
centrifugal force. When the required speed has
been reached, the calculated amount of pewter
from a melting pot is ladled through the conical
aperture. The pewter is typically held at 27OoC,
but metal temperature and speed of rotation can
be varied so as to achieve optimum filling of the
mould. After pouring has finished, spinning is
continued for two or three minutes to ensure that
all the metal has solidified. The mould is then
opened, the casting prised out and the sprues
removed with a strong wire cutter. The castings
may be finished using files or other tools. For
costume jewellery and similar quality products,
the castings are often lightly burnished by
barrelling with steel balls and they may be
electroplated. Provided metal temperatures do not
exceed 3OO0C, up to a thousand castings may be
made from these rubber moulds; production of a
fresh mould from the master patterns, as
_ _
described earlier, is relatively simple,
Small decorative or functional parts intended as
attachments to other pewterware and including
hinges, scrolls and other designs, may be made in
this way. Cutlery with decorative pewter handles
has been made by locating the steel shaft within
the mould cavity of the rubber and casting the
handle around it. (The cutting portion of the
cutlery may project outside the rim of the mould if
necessary).
There is currently great interest being shown in
accurately rendered model soldiers, animals and
other figures for collectors, war game enthusiasts
and for dioramas used in instructional displays.
These are easily made in pewter by the centrifugal
casting technique. A model is built up by the
sculptor, in plasticine or some other suitable
modelling material using a wire framework or
armature. If the model is in plasticine, it is allowed
to age until it is fairly hard. A two-part silicone
rubber mould is then prepared (as described
earlier in this chapter) and this is used to cast a
pewter model, to which final details and
adjustments are made by the sculptor. This then
constitutes a master pattern for producing rubber
15
moulds for centrifugal casting. The cast figures
are often hand painted and experts show great
skill in creating verisimilitude in the models,
cleverly reproducing textures such as leather or
fur. Very attractive chess sets have been made by
casting the pieces in pewter and these include
special sets made as commemorative ventures.
Pressure die casting
Pressure die casting is a well established
technique in the engineering industry and in
recent years a number of the larger pewter
concerns have adapted the technique to the
production of small pewterware items. In view of
the capital cost of the equipment, the technique is
only economically feasible when very large runs of
a particular design are required.
In a pressure die casting machine, molten alloy is
held in a reservoir and after the die has been
closed securely, alloy is delivered to it by means of
a pump located in the melt bath. The pump
plunger is advanced, to drive the metal quickly
through a feeding system, whilst air in the die i s
allowed to escape through vents. Sufficient alloy
is introduced to overflow the die cavities and to fill
special overflow wells. Pressure is maintained
whilst the metal solidifies. The die is then opened
and the casting ejected automatically. To prepare
for the next casting the die chamber is cleaned
and lubricated; it is then closed and the casting
process repeated. This cycle is repeated many
times, at short intervals, so that items can be
produced quickly and uniformly. Intricate or
complex patterns can be reproduced accurately
and very little additional finishing of the as-cast
parts is required.
16
CHAPTER V - SPINNING
Spinning is a well known metal-forming process
by which hollow vessels are produced from a flat
starting sheet. However, because of the relative
softness of pewter compared with metals like
brass and copper, production of spun pewterware
requires special techniques and skills of its own.
Spinning takes place on a lathe which is very
similar to an ordinary woodworking lathe. A
pewter disc is mounted between a shaped
mandrel held in the chuck of the lathe and a
follow chuck attached to the tail stock. The lathe
spindle consists of a shaft mounted in a pair of
bearings and driven via a stepped pulley from an
electric motor. In some cases an electric motor
with the shaft threaded at one end to take chucks
directly may serve as a lathe. It is accurately
assembled by allowing the assembly to rotate
slowly and then tapping the circumference of the
loosely held disc until it is aligned centrally. The
follow chuck is then tightened and the disc
allowed to rotate at the required speed for
spinning; many spinning machines can operate at
controlled speeds ranging from about 450 to 1700
rpm. The higher speeds are generally employed,
but for large items slower speeds are less likely to
cause a thinning effect in certain portions. While
the disc is rotating, it is deformed, using special
hand-held toois, consisting of steel rods with
particular end configurations such as hooks, bulbs
or slight curves, mounted into heavy wooden
handles of two or three in (8 - 11 cm) diameter for
ease of handling. These spinning tools are usually
made by the craftsmen themselves or are handed
down from father to son. They are not usually
available commercially although blacksmiths are
still able to make them up. By pivoting the tool
over a movable rest associated with the lathe, it is
possible to apply pressure to the disc, so that it is
deformed over the mandrel, into a cup-like shape.
In the early stages the pressure is balanced by a
second tool, often made of wood, which is held
against the reverse side of the disc. This initial
forming operation is known as drafting and
results in a simple cup-like form which follows the
shape of the mandrel. The diagram illustrates the
operation, the dotted lines showing how the metal
is pushed or rather caused to flow over the
mandrel.
In the next stage a more complex form is spun
from this simple cup by spinning over a second
mandrel of the required configuration. Collapsible
mandrels, consisting of several segments, allow
profiles to be achieved from which a single solid
mandrel could not afterwards be removed. These
mandrels are usually made in hard nylon or some
other plastic, and the segments may be
dismantled and reassembled around the shaft of
the lathe several times at intervals during the
spinning process to ensure that join marks do not
become impressed into the pewter. Before the
advent of collapsible mandrels, vessels with a
narrow section had to be spun on air (i.e.
without inserting any mandrel). The uniformity of
the spun profile had to be checked at intervals,
using a curved template and later calipers for
precise checking, but it was still extremely difficult
to produce a uniform contour without distortion
and to maintain a satisfactory distribution of wall
thickness.
When a mandrel is used, metal is urged to follow
its contours by applying the spinning tool, counter
pressure often being exerted on the diametrically
opposite side of the vessel by pressing with a cloth
held in the hand. Once the appropriate shape has
been attained, the tool is used with a kind of
ironing action which distributes the metal so that
thicker walls are obtained where greatest strength
is required. A skilled spinner can produce a
tankard or goblet which appears, on inspection of
the rim, to be made up of a thicker gauge than the
starting sheet.
Flatware, such as plates or bases for tankards,
may also be made by spinning, when the only
operation may be a simple turning over of the
edge to make a flange (in the case of bases) or a
simple profiling over a flat mandrel (in the case of
plates). Some tankards have a glass insert in the
base and this may be seamed into place by
spinning. When metal has to be trimmed away to
make an even edge, this is achieved by deft
touches with a metal cutting edge. Incised lines
are scribed on the surface whilst spinning and
again care is needed to produce uniform pressure
and an even application of the scribing tool.
In many cases, the first drafting operation is
avoided by making the starting point a cylinder,
which has been formed by rolling metal sheet into
a tube and soldering the side seam. This is done
for cheaper tankards and also when very large
vessels are required for which a starting disc
would have too great a diameter to be
accommodated on a lathe. (However, in the
U.S.A. it is not customary to make hollow-ware in
this manner; spun pewterware produced there
always starts from pewter sheet, and does not
have a soldered side seam).
17
A shaped mandrel is inserted in the formed visible evidence of the soldered side seam and the
cylinder and a final profile arrived at, as described addition of incised lines by way of decoration.
previously. In the case of cheaper, straight-sided Bases for these tankards are spun separately and
tankards, the only operations may be flanging of are attached by soldering. (The soldering process
the ends, pressure of the spinning tool to remove is discussed in greater detail in Chapter VII).
n bl ank
follow block
.~
- \ \ \
Principles of spinning pewter
sheet.
Spinning a pewter dish from
flat sheet. Note the wooden
tool held in the craftsman's
left hand, wh& i s used to
'back up' the pressure
exerted with the metal
spinning tool.
18
The last stage m the production of spun tankards is high
speed polishing.
Buffing and polishing
Once the pewterware has been formed, the
quality of the metal is brought out by a series of
buffing and polishing operations. Some of these
are undertaken before handles, etc., are soldered
into place as they would obviously hamper an all-
over buffing. However, final polishing takes place
on the complete item.
B~uffing takes place against a mop, consisting of
strips of strong cloth such as calico wrapped
around a spindle; this is attached to an electric
motor in such a way that it can rotate rapidly on a
horizontal axis. The surface of the pewter is lightly
pressed against the rotating mop and a suitable
polishing medium is applied. The purpose of
buffing is to remove from the surface traces of
tool marks or other imperfections. The abrasive
medium should be suitable for achieving this
purpose without scratching or otherwise
damaging the pewterware. Often sand moistened
with linseed oil and sometimes containing pumice
in' addition, is used; adequate ventilation must be
provided and the operator should wear a face
mask to avoid ingestion of sand. The.mop or
buffing wheel is lightly touched with a grease stick
while it is rotating, to provide lubrication and then
sand medium is introduced manually between the
mop and the workpiece. 'Underhand' polishing is
usually preferred; i.e. the wheel rotates towards
and down from the operator and the pewter is
applied below the axis of the wheel. The sand is
located in a pit situated underneath the buffing
wheel, and as it falls it can be scooped up and re-
used. Proprietary greaseless compounds are
available, usually in bar form. These may be used
in place of sand and they are formulated from fast-
cutting abrasives combined with a lubricating
binder to produce a tenacious coating on the
buffing wheel surface. They are applied by
holding the stick against the rotating mop for a
second or two. Before using a new mop, an extra
application of compound should be made and a
few seconds allowed for it to dry on the mop.
Speeds of up to 1800 rpm may be used for
buffing. When a satin finish is required on
pewterware, a coarser abrasive is used which
virtually has a 'scratch brushing' effect; these
items are not then normally polished further.
The pewterware is next washed, to remove all
traces of sand and grease and allowed to dry in a
hot air oven. Other parts may be soldered into
position at this stage. Final polishing is performed
using softer mops which are first lightly greased;
jeweller's rouge (litharge), made into a paste with
water or methylated spirits, may be used as a
polishing medium when a highly reflective finish is
to be produced on the pewterware.
19
SPINNING OF PEWTER
(a) Drafting the pewter sheet
over a formed chuck.
(b) Trimming &ps with a
metal tool, whilst the vessel
is rotating.
(c) Assembling a 'split chuck'
produce vessels with MWW
sections, the chuck being
dismantled for removal after
spinning.
which can be used to
(d) Forming the drafted
pewter vessel over the chuck
so that it takes up the
required profile.
CHAPTER VI 9 OTHER MTAL WORKING
PROCESSES
Pewter sheet for making hollow-ware is now
usually supplied as blanks of the particular shape
required, i.e. as a disc for spinning seamless
vessels and as a tapered sheet for producing side-
seamed tankards. This supply of readymade
blanks lends itself to the large scale production of
pewterware. When a relatively small number of
items are required or blanks of unusual
configuration are needed, these can be cut out
manually, using templates and a sharp knife or
shears, since pewter is a relatively soft metal. The
blanks for making side-seamed vessels are passed
a number of times through specially designed
rollers which cause them to curl into cylindrical
forms. The subsequent procedure for making up
these tankards has been discussed elsewhere.
A rather similar technique has been used to
fabricate organ pipes from rolled pewter sheet.
The sheet is marked out using templates and then
cut to shape. The cylindrical body is formed by
hand around a suitable mandrel, by beating with a
Merking out a pewter blank, using a template of the
required shape. Pewter i s easily cut, using shears or stout
scissors.
21
hardwood tool. Masking size is spread around the
joint area and a V-channel is cut down the length
of the seam and masking size scraped away at the
joint. Solder is applied to the side seam, using a
fairly cool soldering iron and the seam is made
slowly but steadily. It should be noted that for
most soldering operations involving pewter, a
soldering iron is not used because of the danger of
the hot soldering bit burning through the pewter
sheet if it should make more than very brief
contact with the surface.
A traditional method of making plates and trays
consists of cold forming pewter sheet into a metal
or wooden mould. This may be achieved by
hammering the sheet, using special wooden or
plastic tipped mallets which do not mark the
surface, so as to force it to follow the contours of
the mould.
In the modern pewter industry, shallow vessels
may be produced by mechanically pressing the
sheet into metal dies. Bodies of tankards and the
surfaces of dishes may be hammered with special
metal planishing hammers which produce regular
indentations in the pewter. These serve to
strengthen the pewterware and produce an
attractive finish. The technique requires much skill
and is necessarily a slow process. Today, cheaper
and faster mechanical techniques are used to
produce a somewhat similar effect on lower-cost
mass-produced pewterware. The pewter sheet is
placed in contact with a special die bearing the
indented pattern (or other decorative designs) and
the two passed through rollers. The sheet is then
formed into the finished article in the pre-
decorated condition.
Other metalworking processes, suitable to the
hobbyist, are discussed in Chapter IX; engraving
on pewter is covered under 'Decorative Finishes'
in Chapter VIII.
22
,
CHAPTER VII - SOLDERiNG OF PEWTER
The standard method of joining pewter
components is by soft soldering. A strip of the
pewter itself, or a tin-based low-melting alloy, is
used as filler metal and under the action of heat
this melts, "wets" the surfaces to be joined and
by capillary action is drawn into the gap between
them. The surfaces to be joined must be cleaned
and are preferably scraped to expose fresh metal
just before soldering.
A gas/air torch is a convenient form of heating
and this is widely used in the pewter industry for
soldering operations. Considerable care is needed
to avoid overheating portions or even melting a
hole in the metal, due to the small difference in
melting point between pewter and solder.
However, the torch can produce a fine jet of flame
which can be directsd accurately to the point
where it is needed; practice is required in the best
technique for using it, The torch is often hooked
on the edge of the operator's work bench or
supported on a jig and to avoid accidental burns,
the flame should be extinguished between
soldering operations or at least adjusted to a
cooler, luminous flame which is easily seen. As a
simple alternative to the gadair torch for small
scale precise work, a mouth operated blowpipe
may be used to direct precisely a jet of flame from
a bunsen burner. Occasionally hot air blowers are
utilised, the air temperature being adjusted so as
to exceed the liquidus of the solder alloy. There is
less risk of melting the pewter itself with this
method, but the rate of heating is much slower
than with a flame.
Solder may be used as strip or as wire and should
be dipped in a liquid flux just before application.
This flux serves to remove oxides or other thin
films of contaminants from the surfaces to be
joined and hence promotes wetting. Suitable
fluxes include glycerine containing some
hydrochlor]c acid or a 25% solution of rosin in
alcohol. Sometimes flux cored solder wire is used
which has a solid core of flux located inside the
solder wire. This flux core may be rosin-based or
of a mild acid type.
Attaching a handle to a pewter tankard, using solder wire
and a gdai r torch. Note the turntable on which the vessel
is placed for ease of handling.
23
Commonly used solder alloys are shown in the
Table. Pewter itself is also used, for soldering the
side seams on tankards and for other soldering
applications where joints might conceivably come
into contact with food or drink.
Tin Lead
63" 37"
60 40
70 30
SOLDER ALLOYS FOR JOINING
PEWTER
OF OC OF OC
361 183 361 183
361 183 372 190
361 183 378 192
Alloy
Composition
*This alloy is a eutectic, i.e. it melts at one unique
temperature and not over a range of temperature.
Quantities of bismuth may be added when a lower
melting point solder is required. Tin-lead cad-
mium alloys were sometimes also used for this
purpose but are not recommended and are little
used now, partly on the grounds of toxicity of
cadmium-containing materials. A 42% tin - 58%
bismuth alloy is however sometimes used as a
non-toxic solder for pewterware.
Typical soldering procedures used to attach
various components to a pewter vessel are
discussed in the following.
Attaching bases to tankards
The pewter bases are stacked on a wooden
turntable, one on top of the other, to a height of a
foot or so (about 30 cm). They are pre-heated by
gently playing a torch flame over them whilst they
are made to rotate on the turntable. When the
requisite temperature has been reached, the mass
of the stacked bases acts as a heat reservoir to
maintain this temperature during soldering of the
individual bases. The body of a tankard is placed
over the topmost base, solder wire is dipped in
flux and then applied to the joint between base
and tankard whilst the assembly slowly revolves.
By means of a torch flame, the solder is melted
and care is needed to regulate the heat flow so as
to ensure a small steady supply of solder. This fills
the capillary space between the base and the
tankard wall and produces a secure, leak-proof
joint. On completion of soldering, water is poured
into the tankard and this serves to cool the joint as
well as providing a test of water tightness. The
tankard with its base attached is then removed
and a fresh tankard body is placed over the next
base on the stack. In , a quantity of bases
may be soldered quickly and reproducibly.
Joining side-seamed tankards
The formed cylinder of pewter sheet which is to
become a tankard body is held firmly so that the
edges making up the side seam are just touching.
These edges are cleaned by filing or lightly
scraping with a knife and then heat is applied
along the length of the seam from a fixed gadair
torch. The solder stick or wire is dipped in an
alcohol/rosin flux and applied to the ends of the
seam and to a point near the middle. This 'spot'
soldering maintains the configuration of the
cylinder whilst heat continues to be applied along
the length of the seam. The stick is then dragged
sideways or 'wiped' along the length of the seam.
Solder flows into the joint gap and right up to the
interior surface of the vessel. When cool, the
cylinder is placed over an iron mandrel and
hammered so as to beat down the raised seam. A
skilled craftsman can make the joint almost
invisible at this stage; final traces are removed
during buffing and polishing operations. In any
case, handles are usually sited over the seam area
and serve to mask further any slight evidence of a
joint.
An alternative procedure sometimes adopted
consists of mechanically constraining the curled
cylinder of pewter so that the edges remain
touching and facing downward, fluxing and
placing lengths of solder wire along the seam on
the inside surface, When a torch flame is directed
gently over the seam area. these pieces of solder
melt and fill the joint.
Soldering a spout on a coffee pot
The position of the spout is first decided upon and
marked upon the surface of the pot (if there is a
side seam, the spout or the handle will be located
there). The spout is pressed firmly against the
cylinder and its contour is traced on the surface.
Areas to be soldered are scraped clean and a hole
tre of the spout area. Starting
rea under the spout is cut out,
aw blade. Flux is applied and
the spout is held in position. Heat i s applied from a
fixed gas/air torch and solder wire is wiped along
the joint so that molten solder flows into and fills
the gap between the surfaces. Handles and other
be soldered in position in a similar
A 'spot welding' technique has been used for
precise soldering of small parts as when attaching
ewter figures. The figure is
e of a battery and by lightly
to be joined with a small
nected to the other pole,
akeS place and the surfaces
melted, forming a strong bond on
24
SOLDERING A SIDE SEAM
(a) The sheet previously cut
to shapa, is folded into a
tapered cylinder and held
together for application of
solder.
(b) Solder wire is applied,
using a fixed gaslair torch for
heating; initially a number of
'spot joints' are made to hold
the cylinder in place.
(c) The solder wire is
gradually wiped down the
seam so as to make a
soldered side seam.
(d) The completed side seam.
This is afterwards hammered
flat with the vessel held over
a metal mandrel.
25
CHAPTER Vl l l - DECORATIVE FINISHES
The appearance of pewter can be enlivened and enriched
by applying surface decoration. A selection of finishes i s
shown here.
There are a number of ways of enhancing the
decorative appearance of pewter and these range
from finishes imparted mechanically (by buffing
and polishing) to chemical treatments and
engraving and etching.
In addition to the standard finishes such as highly
reflective and duller satin surfaces, darkening
treatments can be applied to pewter to simulate
the appearance of the antique material. Pewter
from earlier periods tarnished easily, due partly to
the presence of considerable quantities of lead.
This 'antique look' is held to be desirable by many
devotees of pewter and whilst modern pewter
remains bright in a normal atmosphere, chemical
treatments have been devised which will darken
the surface of the metal permanently and to a
controlled degree. It should be remembered that
this is only a thin surface film and that any
polishing or abrasion is likely to remove it,
exposing the bright surface underneath.
Chemical treatments
A number of solutions have been developed for
producing coloration on pewter surfaces. The
work must be free from grease and oxide films and
this can be ensured by lightly rubbing the surface
with a paste of magnesium oxide and water and
by rinsing before immersion in the colouring
solution.
NOTE Some of these solutions contain
poisonous or corrosive substances and
care must be taken in handling them.
Rubber gloves and eye protectors should
be worn by the operator and spillages
should be diluted with copious amounts
of water and mopped up. In preparing
solutions, particular care is needed when
diluting concentrated acids; acid should
be added slowly to water, with stirring to
dissipate heat, and water should never be
aaded to the concentrated acid.
26
Blue-black patina
2.5 g copper sulphate
50 ml nitric acid (concentrated)
950 ml water
Brownish-black patina
80 g arsenious oxide
40 g copper sulphate
450 ml hydrochloric acid (concentrated)
500 ml water.
5 g ammonium chloride
Grey to black patina
100 ml sulphuric acid (concentrated)
900 ml water.
15 ml nitric acid (concentrated)
Here, pewter vessels are being given a chemical darkening
treatment; after rinsing they asreallowed to dry. The dark
colour achieved is permanent.
The intensity of the colour obtained from
treatment in all these solutions is time-dependent
and immersion times can vary from about 30
seconds to about 4 minutes, depending on the
degree of darkening desired. Treated parts should
be water washed and allowed to dry, perhaps in a
warm cabinet. The coating may be relieved by a
light buffing which allows highlights to gleam
through here and there. The patinas, obtained
from the chemical treatments are sometimes
coated with a wax polish, or sprayed with lacquer
to ensure a greater degree of permanence. This is
particularly the case with costume jewellery.
Electrolytic processes have been used for
colouring pewter and an adherent coating can be
achieved in one or two minutes. The pewter item
is immersed in the treatment bath and made the
cathode; a steel anode is also immersed in the
bath and a current is passed through the solution.
Operating details can be obtained from suppliers
of proprietary processes, such as Enquist
Electroblack, available from The Enquist
Chemical Co. Inc., 100 Varick Avenue, Brooklyn,
N.Y. 11237, U.S.A. One suitable process is
described in the International Tin Research
Institute Publication No. 504.
Engraved designs
The interest of fairly commonplace pewterware,
such as straight-sided tankards, is very often
heightened by applying engraved or etched
decoration. Hand engraving is now restricted to
the higher priced end of the pewterware market,
since the time of a skilled engraver is required in
this work. The craftsman transfers a selected
design, often of his own composition, to the
surface of the pewter vessel, either by pencilling
over Plasticine or by dusting with chalk. The metal
is then engraved directly through this design using
special tools. One error here and the pewterware
is spoiled since there is no way of erasing
mistakes. The tools, known by such picturesque
names as shavers, spotters, gravers and
wrigglers, are made by the individual craftsman
by honing down mild steel rod on a special stone.
The engraving technique takes a great deal of
practice to master. Basically the craftsman tends
to push the tool against the pewter surface, rather
than dragging it along.
Mechanical engraving
To cope with the production rates required in
todays pewter industry, modifications of the
engraving process have been introduced. A
pantograph arrangement may be utilised whereby
a pointer, guided around the contours of a master
pattern, controls an engraving needle at the other
end of the arm, which cuts into the surface of a
rigidly supported pewter vessel, tracing the
master pattern on the pewterware.
Although such engraved works do not bear the
individual touch of the craftsmans hand, the
technique does allow simple designs to be applied
rapidly and reproducibly to pewterware. A more
widely used procedure consists of rolling a pewter
blank in contact with a patterned die, so that the
pattern is in fact pressed rather than cut, into the
surface. Quite complex detail or lettering can be
reproduced by this method.
27
Etching of pewter
Another art technique which has been adapted to
pewter decoration is etching. A modification of
the silk screen etching technique, so widely used
in printing, is used to produce pictures and
lettering on pewter surfaces. A mask is placed
over the pewter sheet and acid is allowed to pass
through the unmasked areas on to the pewter
surface. In this way, the pewter is selectively
etched or darkened and a design is faithfully
transferred to the surface.
This process and the mechanical engraving
technique are only applicable to flat sheet, and the
decorated sheet is subsequently made up into
pewter items. For art works, where achievement
is more important than cost of production and the
pressures of mass production do not apply,
engraving and etching represent exciting ways of
enriching the surface. There are numerous artist-
craftsmen throughout the world who are
producing beautiful designs in pewter for use as
wall plaques or table tops. Pewter presents a very
suitable surface for such work and the subtle
lustre of the metal adds a further dimension to the
finished work. A procedure followed by one such
artist in Australia is described below.
Heavy gauge pewter sheet is coated with bees-
wax, darkened with a small quantity of asphaltum.
A drawing is outlined on thin paper and then
traced on to this wax. Using a suitable scribing
tool, the wax is selectively removed from the
traced lines. The whole is then immersed in dilute
nitric acid which, as well as dissolving away
portions of metal at exposed pewter surfaces,
imparts a grey-to-black patina to the etched line,
providing a strong outline. The acid strength
determines the nature of the etching; sharper
vertical edges result from stronger solutions,
whilst softer, rounded edges are produced by
more dilute acid. After etching, the wax is
removed with a suitable solvent and the pewter
surface is finished by hand. When mounted on a
timber base, these etchings make attractive wall
hangings.
28
CHAPTER IX 9 PEWTER FOR THE HOBBYIST
Pewter makes a very suitable craft material, being
clean and pleasant to handle. It is soft and can be
folded easily; it can be modelled in relief, have
holes punched in it and in the thicknesses
normally employed is capable of being cut with
strong household scissors or with a knife.
Although some practice is required for soldering
pewter, it is easily glued to many materials and
ent for much craft -work.
offers scope t o the mere
I I as to the more advanced student,
artist it can be a stimulating new
3
The basic equipment consists of a working
surface for relief work, which may be board
covered with a layer of felt or linoleum; hardwood
and stakes; and suitable hand tools for
, scribing, filing, cutting and hammering.
castings are to be attempted, a melting
be required (a saucepan on a gas ring
would be adequate) and a supply of mould making
materiais (plaster or silicone rubber). Fortunately,
today there are many well stocked craft shops
where most of these items can be purchased;
improvised with a little ingenuity.
ewter ingots and sheet can be
from commercial manufacturers.
pliers will probably stipulate a minimum
h they will consider. There is scope
schools and colleges which have
ing courses to purchase bulk supplies
Id be made available to students at a
s the simplest techniques for a beginner
relief work, in which the surface of the
metql is raised by applying gentle pressure on the
reverse side. Wooden tools such as those used for
Plasticine modelling may be utilised for working
the metal or thick wooden knitting needles may be
cut down and sanded to particular end
configurations; even a glass rod may be used for
simple modelling.
First practice attempts should be made with a
small piece of scrap pewter sheet. The piece is laid
down on a felt covered"b"oard and a design lightly
traced on the surface by laying a pencil drawing
over it and going over the lines firmly with a
wooden scribe. For first attempts, a relatively
simple design should be used. The drawing is then
removed and slightly heavier pressure applied to
selected portions; on reversing the sheet these
parts will be seen to be raised somewhat. With
practice, the degree of pressure needed to
produce different amounts of relief can be
established. Wider raised areas can be achieved
by using blunter tools with a thicker end. When a
satisfactory relief design has been achieved, the
deprebsions occurring on the under side may be
backing. Such designs can be purely
attractive effects.
Simpie designs can be achieved merely by laying a
cardboard stencil on a pewter sheet and
hammering it into the surface of the pewter. If a
press is available, the pewter plus stencil may be
placed in this in order to achieve the same
indentation more uniformly. When the stencil is
peeled away, its shape is impressed into the
pewter surface. This may then be etched by
placing small crystals of copper sulphate on the
indented surface and applying, with a small
Relief patterns can ba produced on pewter sheet by
placing it on a soft surface and applying pressure with a
speci al tool on the reverse side. Here, final adjustments are
being made to the raised design.
29
camel-hair brush, a solution of 50% hydrochloric
acid or nitric acid, containing some copper
sulphate. (Caution should be exercised in using
these acids, which can cause severe burns if left in
contact with the skin. Spillages should be mopped
up with copious amounts of water). This mixture
blackens the surface and the presence of the solid
crystals ensures a patterned or mottled finish.
After about one minute, the solution and crystals
are washed off, the plaque is dried and may, if
desired, be polished, using a proprietary metal
polish.
Forming in hardwood moulds
Slightly more advanced techniques can be used in
making ash trays, dishes or shallow bowls by flow
forming. For this purpose hardwood moulds are
needed. Simple moulds can be carved by hand
and can then be used many times: if a wood
turning lathe is available, more elaborate moulds
can be made.
In order to make a simple pewter bowl, a disc of
pewter about 10 in (25 cm) in diameter is cut from
sheet, taking care to remove any sharp snippets of
metal and filing down rough edges. This sheet is
then placed in a shallow mould with an inside
diameter of at least 12 in (30 cm). Using a wooden
or a fibre mallet, the largest available, the edge of
the disc is raised by pounding around the outside
perimeter with overlapping strokes about 3/4 in
(20 mm) inside the edge of the disc, the outer
edge of the sheet being supported against the
mould surface. A mallet is also used to press the
disc gently into the mould. A delicate touch will
prove more effective than hitting the metal too
hard. Once the pewter is set nicely into the 12 in
mould, it is transferred to a 9 in (22 cm) diameter
mould and the process is repeated. In this
manner, the curvature of the bowl is gradually
built up, using a series of moulds of decreasing
diameter. If a flat base is required, then the
starting disc should have a 3 in ( 8 cm) diameter
circle inscribed on it at the centre and this area is
kept clear of the mallet. To adjust the circularity of
this base after forming the bowl, a 3 in wooden
disc may be set in place inside the bowl, which is
placed on a sand bag, or other yielding surface.
Hitting the disc firmly with the mallet will impress
a regular circular indentation into the base.
An oval tray can be made by inscribing two
ellipses on a pewter sheet, one ellipse inside the
other, leaving about a 1 in (25 mm) border. The
larger ellipse is cut out and this border is then
turned up by hammering against a hardwood
stake held in a vice, gradually working around the
edge of the sheet.
Pewter jewellery
Pewter jewellery has an attractive, expensive look
and is very popular today. A variety of items can
be made by the home craftsman, in fact much of
the jewellery seen in the shops is made on this
basis. Some simple ideas are presented here,
which the enthusiastic amateur can take up and
develop further.
Effective designs can be
achieved on pewter by
impressing a stencil into the
surface and then applying
special chemical treatments.
30
A 'leaf brooch' can be made by transferring a leaf
design to pewter sheet (perhaps using a template
if a number of similar articles are to be produced)
and the shape cut out, using stout scissors or
shears. The edges should be carefully trimmed
1 and rounded by hammering and filing. The veins
, of the leaf are then incised into the metal with a
'suitable scriber and the surface of the leaf is
textured by hammering all over. The finished item
should be cleaned in petroleum spirit and perhaps
given a coat of lacquer. Safety catches can be
attached to the reverse of the brooch using a
strong adhesive.
Attractive bracelets can be made by cutting out a
strip of pewter, as wide as the intended bracelet
and tapering towards the ends, these ends being
rounded in profile. The cut edges should be filed
and hammered to remove any sharp portions. The
strip is then curled around a cylindrical mandrel
and a textured surface is imparted by beating with
a hammer having a serrated hitting surface. (This
may be achieved by scoring the hammer surface
with a file). A second hammer is used to bevel the
outer regions of the bracelet which have not been
textured and the object is 'laid down' (so as to
keep its curvature) using a rubber or plastic-faced
hammer which does not impart to the metal the
"spring-back" associated with the use of a metal-
faced hammer. Other methods of decoration may
be used; gemstones may be attached to the
surface, using a strong adhesive, the pewter may
be engraved, or it may be 'hand scratched'. This
last process can be achieved by laying a metal
stencil on the surface of the strip before it is
curled, and rapidly running a steel tool, freehand,
in a random fashion, over the area exposed within
the stencil. All items should be lacquered before
use, to preserve the surface finish and
appearance. Small pendants can also be made by
casting in silicone rubber moulds, as described in
Chapter VII.
Simple castings
Plaster of paris is a convenient material for making
simple rioulds and quite effective cast pewter
designs can be made without too much difficulty.
The part to be copied is placed in a holding box
and plaster slurry is carefully poured in until it
reaches half-way up the model. When this has
set, the top surface of the plaster is swabbed with
hot soapy water and this is allowed to dry.
Texturing a pewter bracelet by striking it with a metal
hammer bearing a specially roughened surface. The
bracelet is supported over a metal mandrel.
31
Pouring is recommenced until the pattern is
completely covered with plaster to a depth of at
least 1 /2 in (12 mm). When the second half of the
mould has set, the two halves may be separated at
the parting surface. The mould should be
thoroughly dried but overheating, which could
cause the mould to distort or crack, should be
avoided. A channel through which molten pewter
can be poured, is then cut into the two halves of
the mould, tapering from the widest point at the
outside of the mould, t o a narrow portion at the
mould cavity. A mould wash of colloidal graphite
should be painted on the surfaces of the mould
cavity (or these surfaces may be blackened over a
candle flame). Before casting, the two halves of
the mould are securely clamped together and
provision of locating pins and corresponding holes
when making the original mould will ensure that
the two halves are accurately registered. Pewter
for the casting operation may be melted in a
saucepan on a gas ring; off-cuts and other scraps
frcm sheet-forming processes may be melted
down for this purpose. Any dross on the surface
of the molten pewter should be skimmed off and
the metal is then ladled into the mould. Using
plaster moulds, no undercut sections are possible
unless the mould is subsequently to be broken.
However, by using RTV silicones for mould
making, as described in Chapter VII, undercuts
are possible.
More advanced techniques of soldering, metal
forming and casting are probably best studied
under a qualified supervisor and there is a good
case for the basic techniques of pewter crafting
being incorporated into the metalworking syllabus
at schools and colleges. Pewter should lend itself
well to classroom methods. Moreover, there is
always a need for craftsmen in the pewter
industry, so that a basic training in the skills of
working with pewter would stand the student in
good stead as regards a future career, or at least
instil in him an appreciation of the craftsmanship
involved in making the items seen in the shop.
32
CHAPTER X 9 ELEMENTS OF PEWTER DESIGN
A consideration of traditional elements plays a
large part in the design of pewterware and indeed
this aspect is a major selling point. Certainly,
many traditional designs are elegant and show a
great respect for the advantages and the
limitations of pewter. Much modern pewterware
is based on original older designs, the craftsman
adding his own personal contribution in bringing
his work into the contemporary idiom. An
interesting feature of modern pewtenware is the
influence exerted by national preferences. Thus
German pewter tends to be heavy, with elaborate
ornamentation, Scandinavian products are
simpler and more functional, whilst J apanese and
Malaysian pewterware have the subtlety and
delicacy associated with the East.
The earliest pewterware was probably entirely
functional; before earthenware pottery and
porcelain had been developed, pewter
represented a convenient material for making
plates, bowls and drinking vessels. The survival of
much of this pewter in a relatively intact state
shows that the design capabilities of the material
were well understood. Large sections of thin
metal should not be left unsupported, particularly
if they are to bear loads, as in the case of trays.
Vessels to hold hot liquid should be designed in
such a way that adequate thickness is provided at
vulnerable areas where distortion might otherwise
occur. Although hot tea or coffee can be
dispensed perfectly safely from a pewter pot,
liquids should not be heated in such a vessel, for
example on a gas ring, since the low-melting
metal would soften and distort. Modern pewter
does not blacken or tarnish, but when deciding on
a surface finish, the intended end use must be
taken into consideration; thus for a tankard or
goblet which will be much used, a satin finish, less
prone to finger marking might be the most
suitable. However, if the chief function is to be a
decorative ornament, then a highly reflective
finish may be considered more eye-catching.
Modern pewter contains no added lead and is
quite safe to use in contact with food and drink.
Its appearance is easily maintained, a wash in
warm soapy water followed by rinsing and drying,
being sufficient to remove any accrued dirt or
grease. The neutral' colour of pewter and its
surface appeal make it suitable for use in modern
interior decoration schemes and the wide range of
finishes and textures which can be achieved
further widen its decorative scope. Pewter can be
combined with other materials to good effect;
thus heat conduction to the handle of a coffee pot
can be reduced by adding a cane or wooden
handle to the pewter vessel. Used in coniunction
with a coloured lampshade, pewter makes an
attractive table lamp; glass and pewter unite to
good effect in many items.
Modern candlestick designs;
the clean simple lines are
typical of much British
pewter.
33
Pewter drinking vessels
Perhaps the item most closely connected with
pewter in the mind of the public is the tankard.
This developed from the beaker, which first
appeared at the end of the 16th Century and
which did not have a handle; tankards with
handles and lids first appeared around the mid -
17th Century. These were flat topped but were
soon followed by tankards with domed lids. After
1800, most tankards, in Britain at least, did not
have covers. There are traditional tankards which
are tulip-shaped, thistle-shaped and barrel-
shaped; there is also the gracefully curved
Georgian seamless tankard, so popular today.
In addition to tankards there are measures for ale
and wine, one of the best known being the tappit
hen, which has a capacity of 3 imperial pints. This
lidded and lipped vessel is still a favourite amongst
pewter manufacturers; another popular item is the
'Irish Haystack' which rises in a domed 'haystack'
configuration from a lower, straight-sided section.
Traditional goblets and pitchers and the two-
handled 'loving cup' are other favourites with the
public.
These antique designs still influence modern
pewterware production and in fact, facsimile
versions of the original styles are 'best sellers' in
the pewter industry. In this connection, old
casting moulds, perhaps centuries old, are still
used on occasion and pewterware cast in them
bears on its surface the original touchmarks and
blemishes. The adoption of this practice raises the
interesting question as to whether or not these
items are 'antiques', as they are cast in the original
mou Ids.
Many designers take these traditional pewter
vessels as a point of departure for newer
products, modifying and amending them so as to
imprint their own individuality on an established
style. In some cases, silverware designs have been
interpreted in pewter.
Pewter around the world
The appearance in the market place of pewter
from many countries affords the potential
customer a wider choice than ever before. One of
the most active countries in terms of pewter
manufacture is Germany and the public there are
able to purchase a wide range of products, both
utilitarian and decorative. Table lamps,
candlesticks, wall hangings, clocks, lighters, ash
trays and pipe racks as well as a whole variety of
tankards, goblets, beakers, bowls and plates are
catalogue items for many manufacturers. A
popular feature comprises a set of wooden
shelves which display pewter spoons, plates,
steins and goblets, the whole making an attractive
wall decoration. One also finds many designs in
which an adventurous combination of pewter with
glass or wood has been undertaken.
A hanging wall clock,
showing the ornate
decoration characteristic of
German pewter.
34
It is commonly accepted that the recent re-
awakening of interest in pewter had its origins in
the innovations in design which were made by the
Scandinavian craftsmen in. the 1920's. Today
Scandinavian pewter is still noted for its style,
particularly in the field of costume jewellery.
French and Belgian pewter items rely heavily on
long-established styles and they are mainly made
by casting techniques. However, there are a
number of artist-craftsmen who turn out
individual designs of striking originality, using the
ancient technique of beating with a hammer. One
firm in Belgium employs sand casting methods to
produce sculptures and other works of art in
pewter. Although slower than conventional metal
mould casting, an exceptional degree of finish is
obtained in the pewter giving a high quality
product.
North America is the world's major market for
pewter and affords invaluable export outlets for
the pewterware manufacturers of Europe. In
addition it has its own flourishing pewter industry,
dating back to the Colonial period at the middle of
the 17th Century. Many items in the
manufacturers' inventories date back to this
period for their origins, for example the Paul
Revere bowl, the Copeland spoon and the
J efferson cup. There are specialist workshops in
the U.S.A. which repair antique pewter items
which are highly prized by collectors. Most U.S.
pewter is produced by spinning; in addition, many
works are made by hand crafting methods and
there are some noted North American artist-
designers working in pewter.
Pewter from Malaysia is now appearing on the
European scene and this industry, set up to take
advantage of the locally-produced tin metal, is
flourishing. Casting is the method of manufacture
and an attractive finish is obtained with the pewter
alloy, which has a very high (97%) tin content.
Many designs carry engravings of Malaysian
motifs.
The continent of Australia, unlike North America,
was developed at a time when pewter was no
longer in vogue as a material for household
materials and hence there is no long tradition of
pewter production. However, there are now a
number of firms manufacturing pewter in that
continent and no doubt a characteristic
Malaysian pewterware has an appeal of i ts own, as can be
seen in these cast items.
35
'Australian style' will emerge in due course.
Another newcomer to the pewter scene is J apan.
J apanese pewterware is characterised by extreme
delicacy and degree of finish astonishing in hand-
made items. The colours and textures used for
decoration, too, give the pewterware a unique
appearance. Typical products include sake sets
(comprising a jug and small drinking vessels), tea
sets, flower vases, cake dishes and liquor goblets.
In 1955 the International Tin Research Institute
organised an international exhibition called
"Pewter of Today" at which a representative
collection of pewter from many countries could be
seen.
The exhibition opened in London, in a major
department store and subsequently was staged in
many other cities in Europe and the U.S.A. It was
instrumental in reviving interest in pewterware,
which had been in abeyance over the period of
World War II. A permanent, international display
of pewterware is maintained at the Institute's
Headquarters in Perivale, London, and this shows
examples of the best in modern pewter. There is a
strong interest these days in the craft aspect of
pewter, possibly as a reaction against the machine
age. In 1976, London's Victoria and Albert
Museum held an exhibition entitled "Metalwork in
the Making" at which visitors were able to see
craftsmen making pewter on equipment which
had been set up in the museum and could also
purchase examples of the work.
In 1978 a Silver J ubilee Design Competition was
sponsored by the Worshipful Company of
Pewterers in London and many of the entries
displayed an originality which bodes well for the
future of the pewter industry. The Institute
recently produced a colour booklet on "Modern
Pewter" which contains numerous illustrations of
the pewterware currently being produced
throughout the world. A 16 mm film with sound,
called "Pewter, an Ageless Metal" is freely
available on loan from the Institute or its Tin
Information Centres. This is a general interest film
and shows many of the manufacturing techniques
described in this book, as well as illustrating the
many kinds of pewterware available to the public.
36
The Institute wishes to thank its friends in the pewter industry for their assistance in the compilation
of this book. In particular, the following companies who provided assistance in producing the
illustrations: ~
Culf and Ka y (Sheffield) Ltd., Sheffield, England.
James Dixon and Sons Ltd., Sheffield, England.
Englefields (London) Ltd., London, England.
Fashionware Products (Sheffield), Sheffield, England.
Pipecraft, Norfolk, England.
PMC (Sheffield) Ltd., Sheffield, England.
N. Saunders (Metal Products) Ltd., Twickenham, England.
Selangor Pewter Co. Sdn. Bhd., Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
James Smellie Pewter, Birmingham, England.
The Walden Spoon, Walden, New York, U.S.A.
Wardle and Matthews L td., Sheffield, England.
Lorenz Weber and Co. L td., Frondenberg, W. Germany.
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