Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Index
1. PROLOGUE
2. INTRODUCTION
3. MAGNITUDE OF PHOSPHATIC FERTILIZER
PRODUCTION AND USE
4. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION BY PHOSPHATIC
FERTILIZER INDUSTRY
5. NEED FOR A NOVEL PHOSPHORUS
NUTRIENTSUPPLEMENTATION
6. HOW CAN THIS BE ACHIEVED?
7. MODE OF ACTION OF COLION_P
8. SALIENT FEATURES OF COLION_P
9. RECOMMENDED DOSE:
10. PROXIMATE ANALYSIS:
11. REFERENCES
PROLOGUE
ABOUT
INORGANIC/ ORGANIC/CHELATED/ PROTEINATED/ NANO MINERALS
Conventional animal nutrient supplements including
A) Minerals
B) Amino acids
C) Vitamins
D) Drugs
have certain specific inherent drawbacks like
1) Poor bio-absorbability
2) Toxicity
3) Unpalatable taste
4) Poor solubility
5) High bio-absorption inhibiting activity (High reactivity)
Science long back recognized that the body must have certain minerals to
accomplish its work and preserve its health. However, recently Modern Science
conceives that these minerals must be in their Chelated, Proteianated, Organic,
Colliodal or Nano state to do the consumer any use at all; based on the following
observations.
1. Minerals are inorganic as they exist naturally in the soil and water.
2. Minerals are organic as they exist in plants and animals.
3. Only plants can transform inorganic minerals into organic minerals.
4. Animals must eat plants or plant-eating animals to obtain their organic minerals.
5. Inorganic minerals are useless and injurious to the animal organism.
Minerals and mineral mixes and premixes used in animal feed can contain
contaminants such as dioxin and various heavy metals. Some mineral mixes and
premixes are by-products or co-products of industrial metal production and can
become contaminated. For example, mineral mixes containing zinc oxide obtained
from brass production have been found to have high levels of dioxin contamination.
FDA has issued an alert to the feed industry warning against the use of mineral mixes
and premixes that are by-products or co-products of industrial metal production
(FDA CVM Update, 2003).
EPA is aware that hazardous wastes are sometimes recycled as nutritional
supplements in animal feed preparations but does not necessarily consider this use
to constitute disposal of hazardous waste. For example, zinc oxide reclaimed from
emission control dust from electric arc furnaces is a listed hazardous waste, but EPA
permitted it to be used as a nutritional feed supplement for animals
(EPA, 1994).
Minerals may also contain heavy metal contaminants such as lead, arsenic,
cadmium, and mercury. AAFCO lists 133 different mineral products used as feed
ingredients, and the typical levels of these contaminants in mineral feed
ingredients. Lead is considered only moderately toxic by the American Association
of Food Control Officials (AAFCO), and the maximum tolerance in complete feed is
30 ppm.
Because inorganic minerals and organic minerals have the same chemical
compositions, they were being treated as same, for a long time by the early
nutritionists. The mineral, iron, in the bloodstream has the same chemical
composition as the mineral, iron, in a nailiron is iron, after all. However, only of
late, nutritionists visualized the differences between these two forms of iron.
Although there was a nutritive similarity between Chelated, Proteinated, Nano,
Colloidal, Organic and Inorganic minerals, each of these will have different impacts
on the performance of the Animals.
It is necessary that the minerals in the soil be elaborated into organic compounds by
the plant before they can be assimilated by the animal or human body. The various
mineral compounds produced synthetically differ in their structure and in the
relative positions of their component molecules than those produced in the plant.
Over sixty years ago a German scientist named Abderhalden conducted a series of
experiments comparing how several species absorbed different forms of iron. He
found that animals fed with food poor in iron, plus in addition of inorganic iron, were
unable in the long run to produce as much hemoglobin as those, receiving a natural
iron-sufficient diet.
While the inorganic iron may be absorbed into the body, it is not utilized in the
formation of hemoglobin, but remains unused within the tissues. Abderhalden also
concluded that any apparent benefit of the inorganic iron resulted from its
stimulating effect.
Chemically, it is true that iron in the bloodstream and iron in nails are the same and
that calcium in rocks (known as dolomite) is identical to calcium in the bones.
However, it is a grave error to believe that the body can digest and assimilate and
utilize powdered nails and crushed rocks.
The word chelate is derived from the Greek word meaning "claw". Technically
chelates hold trace elements in suspension while in transit.
A mineral amino acid chelate is composed of an amino acid that has two or more
donor groups combined with the mineral so that one or more rings are formed, with
the mineral being the closing component of this heterocyclic ring. Chelate structures
contain covalent bonds which give these chelates properties that are much different
than ionically bonded mineral salt forms. Mineral amino acid chelates are bidentate
(the mineral is attached at two ends of amino acid ligand), and have a ring in their
structure, while mineral complexes are unidentate (mineral is attached at one end of
its ligand) with no ring structure. It has been shown that a bidentate (chelated)
glycino group absorbs at the IR wavelength of 1643 cm-1, an ionized unidentate at
1610 cm-1, and a unionized unidentate at 1710 cm-1. In addition, it has been shown
that the carboxyl group in the amino acid glycine absorbs at the band of infra-red
light of 504 cm-1. The degree of absorption at this band segment has been shown to
diminish as the amount of bound glycine increases in a sample.
The term organic mineral refers to a variety of compounds including metal-amino
acid complexes, metal amino chelates, metal proteinates, metal-polysaccharide
complexes, metalyeast complexes, and metal-organic acid complexes. (Patton, 1990)
An organic mineral is simply a combination of a metal ion with an organic ligand such
as amino acids, proteins, polysaccharides, yeast, or organic acids. Specifically, the
metal ion is bound to the organic ligand through multiple attachments (either ionic
or covalent) with the metal ion occupying a central position in the structure (Kincaid,
1989, Nelson, 1988). During organic mineral formation, the metal ion and organic
ligand act as mutual electron donors (ligand) and electron acceptors (metal cations)
forming a heterocyclic ring structure (Nelson, 1988). Generally, the metal ion is
attached to electronegative areas (two or more) on a ligand.
The minerals can be absorbed along with the amino acids as a single unit utilizing the
amino acid(s) as a carrier molecule. Therefore, the problems associated with the
competition of ions for active sites and the suppression of specific nutritive mineral
elements by others can be avoided.
Interest is also building in using organic trace minerals in place of a portion of the
feed inorganic mineral supplement in order to get maximum growth and health with
lower levels of mineral intake, thus lowering the amount of minerals excreted from
the birds
(Bao et al., 2006).
Reducing mineral levels in litter placed on the land is an issue in many countries and
lower levels of complexed trace minerals may aid in reducing litter mineral excess.
A number of minerals have been shown to play crucial roles in broiler health and
organic trace minerals have been shown to have a role in boosting cellular and
humoral immunity in broilers. Organic zinc compounds have shown benefits in
improving immunity in birds
(Pimental et al., 1991a; Kidd et al., 1994).
In addition, chicks hatched from breeder hens fed organic trace minerals have shown
improved cellular and humoral immunity as well
(Kidd et al., 1992; Kidd et al., 1993).
The neutralization of stomach acid by pancreatic secretions into the intestine could
have negative consequences on mineral absorption because without the influence of
acid, some minerals may not remain dissociated and may bind with other
components present in the intestinal contents, rendering them unavailable for
absorption. One way this problem can be avoided is for the mineral to be
surrounded by ligands, or weak binding agents, which will protect the mineral
from stronger binding agents, even in the absence of acid, yet allow normal
absorption to occur.
SALIENT FEATURES OF PROTEINATED MINERALS
1. Counteracts Anti Nutritional Factors, which affect the mineral absorption
2. Health improvement (immune status, functional nutrition)
3. Improve the bioavailability of minerals
4. Improvement in the quality of animal produce (meat, milk, egg, wool etc.,)
5. Ensures over all animal welfare
6. Performance improvement
7. Protects environment by reducing metal pollution through excreta.
8. Reduces degenerative effect of trace minerals on vitamins in premixes and
feed.
9. Reduction of antagonism, interferences and competition among minerals.
THE CHELATE MOLECULAR WEIGHT: BELOW 800.
AVERAGE WEIGHT OF THE HYDROLYZED AMINO ACIDS IS AROUND 150-200
TECHNOLOGY FOR PREPARATION OF PROTEINATED MINERALS
HYDROLYSIS OF PROTEIN
SEPARATION BY CENTRIFUGE
AND ULTRAFILTRATION
CHELATION PROCESS
REMOVAL OF UNBOUND MINERAL
MODE OF ACTION OF PROTEINATED MINERALS
1. STABLE IN RUMEN ENVIRONMENT & ABOMASUM
2. DELIVERED IN SMALL INTESTINE AS SUCH.
3. ABSORBED THROUGH ACTIVE TRANSPORT (MORE BLOOD LEVEL)
4. IT ACTS AS A BIOLOGICAL COMPLEX (MORE TISSUE LEVEL)
5. ENTER INTO DIFFERENT POOL
6. METABOLIZABLE IN DIFFERENTLY
(NEATHERY ET AL 1972) (PHARMACO-DYANAMICS NUTRIENT) (USING
65
ZN)
Strategies used to synthesize nanoparticles
Traditionally nanoparticles were produced only by physical and chemical methods. Some of
the commonly used physical and chemical methods are ion sputtering, solvothermal
synthesis, reduction and sol gel technique. Basically there are two approaches for
nanoparticle synthesis namely the Bottom up approach and the Top down approach.
In the Top down approach, scientists try to formulate nanoparticles using larger ones to
direct their assembly. The Bottom up approach is a process that builds towards larger and
more complex systems by starting at the molecular level and maintaining precise control of
molecular structure.
Physical and chemical methods of nanoparticle synthesis
Some of the commonly used physical and chemical methods include:
Sol-gel technique, which is a wet chemical technique used for the fabrication of metal oxides
from a chemical solution which acts as a precursor for integrated network (gel) of discrete
particles or polymers. The precursor sol can be either be deposited on the substrate to form
a film, cast into a suitable container with desired shape or used to synthesize powders.
Solvothermal synthesis, which is a versatile low temperature route in which polar solvents
under pressure and at temperatures above their boiling points are used. Under solvothermal
conditions, the solubility of reactants increases significantly, enabling reaction to take place
at lower temperature.
Chemical reduction, which is the reduction of an ionic salt in an appropriate medium in the
presence of surfactant using reducing agents. Some of the commonly used reducing agents
are sodium borohydride, hydrazine hydrate and sodium citrate.
Laser ablation, which is the process of removing material from a solid surface by irradiating
with a laser beam. At low laser flux, the material is heated by absorbed laser energy and
evaporates or sublimates. At higher flux, the material is converted to plasma. The depth over
which laser energy is absorbed and the amount of material removed by single laser pulse
depends on the materials optical properties and the laser wavelength. Carbon nanotubes
can be produced by this method.
Inert gas condensation, where different metals are evaporated in separate crucibles inside
an ultra high vacuum chamber filled with helium or argon gas at typical pressure of few 100
pascals. As a result of inter atomic collisions with gas atoms in chamber, the evaporated
metal atoms lose their kinetic energy and condense in the form of small crystals which
accumulate on liquid nitrogen filled cold finger. E.g. gold nanoparticles have been
synthesized from gold wires.
NANO PARTICLES OF MINERALS
Current research is going on regarding the use of magnetic nanoparticles in the
detoxification of military personnel in case of biochemical warfare. It is hypothesized that by
utilizing the magnetic field gradient, toxins can be removed from the body. Enhanced
catalytic properties of surfaces of nano ceramics or those of noble metals like platinum and
gold are used in the destruction of toxins and other hazardous chemicals (Salata, 2005).
Photocatalytic activity of nanoparticles has been utilized to develop self- cleaning tiles,
windows and anti- fogging car mirrors.
The high reactivity of Titanium nanoparticles either on their own or when illuminated by UV
light have been used for bactericidal purposes in filters.
An important opportunity for nanoparticles in the area of computers and electronics is their
use in a special polishing process, chemical-mechanical polishing or chemical-mechanical
planarization (CMP), which is critical to semiconductor chip fabrication. CMP is used to
obtain smooth, flat, and defect-free metal and dielectric layers on silicon wafers. This
process utilizes slurry of oxide nanoparticles and relies on mechanical abrasion as well as a
chemical reaction between the slurry and the film being polished. CMP is also used in some
other applications, such as the polishing of magnetic hard disks.
Nanoscale titanium dioxide and zinc oxide have been used as sunscreens in cosmetics. The
primary advantage of using these nanoparticles is that they are well dispersed and transmit
visible light, acting as transparent sunblocks. On the other hand, inorganic sunscreens
appear white on the skin- a potential drawback.
The interaction of silver nanoparticles with HIV I has been demonstrated in vitro. It was
shown that the exposed sulfur binding residues of the glycoprotein knobs were attractive
sites for nanoparticle interaction and that the silver nanoparticles had preferential binding
to the gp 120 glycoprotein knobs. Due to this interaction, it was found that the silver
nanoparticles inhibited the binding of the virus to the host cells in vitro (Elechiguerra et al.,
2005).
Magnetic nanoparticles are also used in targeted therapy where a cytotoxic drug is attached
to a biocompatible magnetic nanoparticle. When these particles circulate in the
bloodstream, external magnetic fields are used to concentrate the complex at a specific
target site within the body. Once the complex is concentrated in the target, the drug can be
released by enzymatic activity or by changes in pH or temperature and are taken up by the
tumour cells (Pankhurst et al., 2003).
Porous nanoparticles have also been used in cancer therapy where the hydrophobic version
of a dye molecule is trapped inside the Ormosil nanoparticle. The dye is used to generate
atomic oxygen which is taken up more by the cancer cells when compared to the healthy
tissue. When the dye is not entrapped, it travels to the eyes and skin making the patient
sensitive to light. Entrapment of the dye inside the nanoparticle ensures that the dye does
not migrate to other parts and also the oxygen generating ability is not affected.
Alivisatos (2001) reported the presence of inorganic crystals in magnetotactic bacteria. The
bacterium was found to have about 20 magnetic crystals with a size range of 35- 120nm
diameter. The crystals serve as a miniature compass and align the bacteria with the external
magnetic field. This enables the bacterium to navigate with respect to the earths magnetic
field towards their ideal environment. These bacteria immobilize heavy metals from a
surrounding solution and can be separated by applying a low intensity magnetic field. This
principle can be extended to develop a process for the removal of heavy metals from waste
water.
Bioremediation of radioactive wastes from nuclear power plants and nuclear weapon
production, such as uranium has been achieved using nanoparticles. Cells and S layer
proteins of Bacillus sphaericus JG A12 have been found to have special capabilities for the
clean up of uranium contaminated waste waters (Duran et al., 2007).
Gold nanoparticles are widely used in various fields such as photonics, catalysis, electronics
and biomedicine due to their unique properties. E. coli has been used to synthesize gold
nanoparticles and it has been found that these nanoparticles are bound to the surface of the
bacteria. This composite may be used for realizing the direct electrochemistry of
haemoglobin (Du et al., 2007). p- nitrophenol is widely used in pesticides, pharmaceutical
industries, explosives and in dyes and is known to be a carcinogenic agent. Gold
nanoparticles have been synthesized using the barbated skullcap extract. The nanoparticles
synthesized by this method have been modified to the glass electrode and this has been
used to enhance the electronic transmission rate between the electrode and p- nitrophenol
(Wang et al., 2009).
Tripathy et al., (2008) reported the antibacterial applications of the silver nanoparticles
synthesized using the aqueous extract of neem leaves. The nanoparticles were coated on
cotton disks and their bactericidal effect was studied against E.coli. Duran et al., (2005)
reported the significant antibacterial activities of the silver nanoparticles synthesized using
Fusarium oxysporum.
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INTRODUCTION
P is an important nutrient but the concentration of plant available P is generally
low (0.7 to 1.2% of total P) in arid soils. Further, nearly 70% of the applied
phosphate fertilizers is converted to -1 unavailable forms after application. Total
quantity of P in arid soils is >600 kg ha , but its availability is restricted. Thus,
application of phosphate fertilizers is a must for good crop.
Phosphate fertilizers are mainly synthesized from rock phosphate.
Phosphorus is a nonmetallic chemical element in group 15 (nitrogen family, formerly Va)
of periodic table; atomic number 15 atomic mass 30.9738; melting point ca 44.1 C (white);
boiling point ca 280 C (white); specific gravity 1.82 (white), 2.34 (red), 2.70 (black); valence
-3, +3, or +5 ; electronic config. 2-8-5 or 1s 22s 22p 63s 23p 3. The phosphorus molecule is
composed of four phosphorus atoms, P4. Phosphorus exists in a number of allotropic
forms [white (alpha and beta), red, black and/or violet] in the same physical state.
Phosphorus (P) is an essential mineral that is found in all cells within the bodies of every
living being.
Phosphorus is primarily found as phosphate.
The major building blocks of biology are covalent molecules comprising proteins,
polysaccharides, and nucleic acids.
The nucleic acids deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA) are polymers
based on phosphate ester monomers. The high-energy phosphate bond of ATP is the
major energy currency of living organisms. Cell membranes are composed largely of
phospholipids.
Metabolic functions of Phosphorous
Phosphorous provides the energy to cells to multiply and grow. The phosphate
ion present in the fertilizers get attached with adenosine moity to synthesize
adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the energy currency of cells.
Another biomolecule synthesised by the photosynthetic tissue contains phosphate ion,
called reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) that drives the
fixation of carbon dioxide to form starch.
A variety of enzymatic activities are controlled by alternate phosphorylation and
dephosphorylation of proteins. The metabolism of all major metabolic substrates depends
on the functioning of phosphorus as a cofactor in a variety of enzymes and as the principal
reservoir for metabolic energy.
The ability of plants to acquire phosphate-P during deficiency conditions also
increases due to the synthesis of phosphate transporters. These biomolecules
also transport phosphite ions. Phosphite is rapidly absorbed and translocated
within the plant. However, the uptake is pH dependent and subject to
competition by phosphate ions. Phosphite in presence of a small quantity of
phosphate will not be recognised by phosphate transporters. Despite having
similar mobility, the phosphite is a non-metabolized form of phosphorous and
plants cannot use this as the sole source of phosphorous. Phosphate can be
assimilated into organic P compounds within minutes of uptake.
Antagonistic nature of the Minerals.
Phosphorous Deficiency Symptoms:
IN AGRICULTURE:
Enhanced root growth at the cost of shoot development
Increased root to shoot ratio
Low yields
Purple (anthocyanin pigment) colouration of leaves and petioles
Purple and weak stems
IN ANIMALS:
Phosphorus deficiency in cattle may cause symptoms related to reduced appetite,
including retarded growth rate of young cattle, low milk yield and impaired fertility.
Skeletal abnormalities associated with osteomalacia may appear as stiffness, reluctance to
move, shifting lameness, cracking sounds in joints when walking, an arched back and in
severe cases, spontaneous fractures.
Sources of Phosphorous:
Percentages of water-soluble and available phosphate in several common fertilizer
sources.
P
2
O
5
K
P
2
O
5
Source N Total Available
Water
Soluble*
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - % - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Superphosphate (OSP) 0 21 20 85 0
Concentrated Superphosphate
(CSP)
0 45 45 85
0
Monoammonium Phosphate
(MAP)
11 49 48 82
0
Diammonium Phosphate (DAP) 18 47 46 90 0
Ammonium Polyphosphate
(APP)
10 34 34 100
0
Rock Phosphate 0 34 3-8 0 0
COLION_P 0.95 45 45 100 0
*Water-soluble data are a percent of the total P2O5
Source: Ohio Agronomy Guide. Ohio Cooperative Extension Service Bull.472.
Pure anhydrous phosphoric acid is a white solid that melts at 42.35 C to form a colorless,
viscous liquid.
Most people and even chemists refer to orthophosphoric acid as phosphoric acid, which is
the IUPAC name for this compound. The prefix ortho is used to distinguish the acid from
other phosphoric acids, called polyphosphoric acids.
Orthophosphoric acid is a non-toxic, inorganic, rather weak triprotic acid, which, when
pure, is a solid at room temperature and pressure. The chemical structure of
orthophosphoric acid is shown above in the data table.
Orthophosphoric acid is a very polar molecule; therefore it is highly soluble in water. The
oxidation state of phosphorus (P) in ortho- and other phosphoric acids is +5; the oxidation
state of all the oxygen atoms (O) is -2 and all the hydrogen atoms (H) is +1. Triprotic means
that an orthophosphoric acid molecule can dissociate up to three times, giving up an H
+
each time, which typically combines with a water molecule, H
2
O, as shown in these
reactions:
H
3
PO
4(s)
+ H
2
O
(l)
H
3
O
+
(aq)
+ H
2
PO
4
(aq)
K
a1
= 7.2510
3
H
2
PO
4
(aq)
+ H
2
O
(l)
H
3
O
+
(aq)
+ HPO
4
2
(aq)
K
a2
= 6.3110
8
HPO
4
2
(aq)
+ H
2
O
(l)
H
3
O
+
(aq)
+ PO
4
3
(aq)
K
a3
= 3.9810
13
The anion after the first dissociation, H
2
PO
4