4.

NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES

4.1 NUCLEAR FISSION
When U is bombarded by thermal neutron (low energy neutron), it splits into
two approximately equal parts with the liberation of a large amount of energy.
4.1.1 Definition
Nuclear fission is defined as "the process of splitting of heaier nucleus into
two (or) more smaller nuclei with simultaneous liberation of large amount of
energy".
4.1.2 Mechni!" of n#c$e% fi!!ion
!"# When U
!"#
is bombarded by thermal neutron (slow moing), unstable
U
!"$
is formed. %he unstable U
!"$
then diides into two approximately equal
nuclei with the release of neutrons and large amount of energy.
I$$#!t%tion
&plitting of U
!"#
has been shown below.
'
Fi&. 4.1 The fi!!ion '%oce!! i$$#!t%te(
(uring the nuclear fission a large amount of energy is released.
4.2 C)ARACTERISTICS Of NUCLEAR FISSION
'. ) heay nucleus (U
!"#
(or) *u
!"+
), when bombarded by slow moing
neutrons, split into two or more nuclei.
!. %wo or more neutrons are produced by fission of each nucleus.
". ,arge quantities of energy is produced as a result of conersion of small
mass of nucleus into energy.
-. )ll the fission fragments are radioactie, giing off p and y.radiations.
#. %he atomic weights, of fission products ranges from about /0 to '$0.
$. )ll the fission reactions are a self.propagating chain.reactions because
fission products contain neutrons (secondary neutrons) which further
cause fission in other nuclei.
/. %he nuclear chain reactions can be controlled and maintained steadily by
absorbing a desired number of neutrons. %his process is used in nuclear
reactor.
!
1. 2ery secondary neutron, released in the fission process, does not stri3e a
nucleus, some escape into air and hence a chain reaction cannot be
maintained.
+. 4ultiplication factor5 %he number of neutrons, resulting from a single
fission, is 3nown as the multiplication factor.
When the multiplication factor is less than ', a chain reaction does not
ta3e place.
4.* NUCLEAR FUSION
Nuclear fusion is defined as, "the process of combination of lighter
nuclei into heaier nuclei, with simultaneous liberation of large amount of
energy". Nuclear fusion occurs in sun.
E+"'$e
energy He H H + +
-
!
!
'
!
'
4.*.1 Diffe%ence! ,et-een n#c$e% fi!!ion n( f#!ion
S.
No.
N#c$e% fi!!ion N#c$e% f#!ion
'. 6t is the process of brea3ing a heaier
nucleus.
6t is the process of combination of
lighter nuclei.
!. 6t emits radioactie rays. 6t does not emit any 3ind of
radioactie rays.
". 6t occurs at ordinary temperature. 6t occurs at high temperature (7
'0
$
8).
-. %he mass number and atomic
number of new elements are lower
than that of parent nucleus.
%he mass number and atomic
number of product is higher than
that of starting elements.
#. 6t gies rise to chain reaction. 6t does not gie rise to chain
reaction.
$. 6t emits neutrons. 6t emits positrons.
/. 6t can be controlled. 6t cannot be controlled.
"
4.4 NUCLEAR C)AIN REACTIONS
6n the nuclear fission reaction the neutrons emitted from the fission of
U
!"#
atom may hit another U nuclei and cause fission producing more neutrons
and so on. %hus, a chain of self sustaining nuclear reactions will be set up with
the release of enormous amount of energy. 9ut the amount of energy released
will be less than expected. %hus the fission of U
!"#
by slow moing neutrons is
a chain reaction.
4.4.1 Definition
) fission reaction, where the neutrons from the preious step continue to
propagate and repeat the reaction is called nuclear chain reaction.
Re!on fo% $e!! ene%&.
&ome of the neutrons, released in the fission of U
!"#
, may escape from
the surface to the surroundings or may be absorbed by U
!"1
present as impurity.
%his will result in brea3ing of the chain and the amount of energy released will
be less than expected.
4.4.2 )o- to i"'%o/e "o#nt of ene%&.0
'. :or a nuclear chain reaction to continue, sufficient amount of U
!"#
must be present to capture the neutrons, otherwise neutrons will escape
from the surface.
C%itic$ "!!
%he minimum amount of fissionable material (U
!"#
) required to continue
the nuclear chain reaction is called critical mass.
%he critical mass of U
!"#
lies between ' 3g to '00 3g.
-
12 S#'e% c%itic$ "!!
6f the mass of the fissionable material (U
!"#
) is more than the critical
mass, it is called super critical mass.
1,2 S#,-c%itic$ "!!
6f the mass of the fissionable material is smaller than the critical mass, it
is called &ub.critical mass.
!. %hus the mass greater or lesser than the critical mass will hinder the
propagation of the chain reaction.
I$$#!t%tion
When U
!"#
nucleus is hit by a thermal neutron, it undergoes the
following reaction with the release of three neutrons.
2ach of the three neutrons, produced in the aboe reaction, stri3es
another U
!"#
nucleus causing ("x") + subsequent reactions. %hese + reactions
further gie rise to (" x +) !/ reactions. %his process of propagation of the
reaction by multiplication in threes at each fission is called chin %ection.
Fi&. 4.2 U
2*3
fi!!ion chin %ection i$$#!t%te(
#
4.3 NUCLEAR ENERGY
%he enormous amount of energy released during the nuclear chain
reaction of heay isotope li3e U
!"#
(or) *u
!"+
is called N#c$e% ene%&..
4.3.1 Definition
%he energy released by the nuclear fission is called nuclear fission
energy (or) nuclear energy.
I$$#!t%tion
%he fission of U
!"#
or *u
!"+
occurs instantaneously, producing enormous
amount of energy in the form of heat and radiation.
Fi&. 4.* N#c$e% ene%&. i$$#!t%te(
4.3.2 C#!e of the %e$e!e of ene%&.
%he enormous amount of energy released during the nuclear fission is
due to the loss in some mass, when the reaction ta3es place. 6t has been
obsered that during nuclear fission, the sum of the masses of the products
formed is slightly less than the sum of masses of target species and bombarding
neutron. %he loss in mass gets conerted into energy according to 2instein
equation
2 ; mc
!
$
where
c; elocity< m; loss in mass and 2; energy.
4.4 NUCLEAR REACTOR o% 5ILE
6f a nuclear fission reaction is made to occur in a controlled manner,
then the energy released can be used for many constructie purposes.
4.4.1 Definition
%he arrangement or equipment used to carry out fission reaction under
controlled conditions is called a nuclear reactor.
E+"'$e
%he energy released (due to the controlled fission of U
!"#
in a nuclear
reactor) can be used to produce steam, which can run turbines and produce
electricity,
4.4.2 Co"'onent! of n#c$e% %ecto%
%he main components of the nuclear reactor are
1. F#e$ %o(!
%he fissionable materials used in the nuclear reactor is enriched U
!"#
.
%he enriched fuel is used in the reactor in the form of rods or strips.
E+"'$e
U
!"&
< *u
!"+
F#nction6 6t produces heat energy and neutrons, that starts nuclear chain
reaction.
/
2. Cont%o$ %o(!
%o control the fission reaction (=ate), moable rods, made of cadmium
(or) boron, are suspended between fuel rods. %hese rods can be lowered or
raised and control the fission reaction by absorbing excess neutrons.
6f the rods are deeply inserted inside the reactor, they will absorb more
neutrons and the reaction becomes ery slow. >n the other hand, if the rods are
pushed outwards, they will absorb less neutrons and the reaction will be ery
fast.
ray Cd n Cd + +
''-
-"
'
0
''"
-"
ray B n B + +
''
#
'
0
'0
#
E+"'$e!
?d
''"
< 9
'0
:unction5 6t controls the nuclear chain.reaction and aoids the damage
of the reactors.
*. Mo(e%to%!
%he substances used to slow down the neutrons are called moderators.
Fi&. 4.4 F#nction! of "o(e%to%
1
When the fast.moing neutrons collide with moderator, they lose energy
and gets slow down.
E+"'$e
>rdinary water, @eay water, Araphite, 9eryllium.
F#nction6 %he 3inetic energy of fast moing neutrons (' meB) is
reduced to slow neutrons (0.!# eB).
4. Coo$nt!
6n order to absorb the heat produced during fission, a liquid called
coolant is circulated in the reactor core. 6t enters the base of the reactor and
leaes at the top. %he heat carried by out.going liquid is used to produce steam.
E+"'$e
Water (act as moderator C coolant), @eay water, liquid metal (Na or
8), )ir (?0
!
).
F#nction6 6t cools the fuel core.
3. 5%e!!#%e /e!!e$
6t encloses the core and also proides the entrance and exit passages for
coolant.
F#nction6 6t withstand the pressure as high as !00 3gDcm
!
.
4. 5%otecti/e !hie$(
%he nuclear reactor is enclosed in a thic3 massie concrete shield (more
than '0 meters thic3).
+
F#nction6 %he enironment and operating personnels are protected from
destruction in case of lea3age of radiation.
7. T#%,ine
%he steam generated in the heat exchanger is used to operate a steam
turbine, which dries a generator to produce electricity.
4.4.* Li&ht 8te% N#c$e%-5o-e% 5$nt
Definition
Li&ht--te% nuclear.power '$nt is the one, in which U
!"#
fuel rods %e
submerged in water. @ere the water acts as coo$nt n( moderator.
Fi&. 4.3 Li&ht -te% n#c$e% 'o-e% '$nt
8o%9in&
%he fission reaction is controlled by inserting or remoing the
control rods of 9
'0
automatically from the spaces in between the fuel rods.
%he heat emitted by fission of U
!"#
in the fuel core is absorbed by the coolant
(light water). %he heated coolant (water at "00E?) then goes to the heat
exchanger, containing sea water. %he coolant here, transfers heat to sea water,
which is conerted into steam. %he steam then dries the turbines, generating
electricity.
'0
5o$$#tion
%hough nuclear power plants are ery important for production of
electricity, they will cause a serious danger to enironments.
5%o,$e" on (i!'o!$ of %ecto% -!te
(isposal of reactor waste is another important problem because the
fission products iF., 9a
'"+
C 8r
+!
are themseles radioactie. %hey emit
dangerous radiation for seeral hundred years. &o the waste is pac3ed in
concrete barrels, which are buried deep in the sea.
4.7 :REEDER REACTOR
Definition
9reeder reactor is the one which conerts non.fissionable
material (U
!"1
, %h
!"!
) into fissionable material (U
!"#
, *u
!"+
). %hus the
reactor produces or breeds more fissionable material than it consumes.
I$$#!t%tion

+ + e Pu n U !
!"+
+-
'
0
!"1
+!
Non.fissionable :issionable
'
0
'
0
!"+
+-
"n ducts Fissionpro n Pu +
6n breeder reactor, of the three neutrons emitted in the fission of U
!"#
,
only one is used in propagating the fission chain with U
!"#
. %he other two are
allowed to react with U
!"1
. %hus, two fissionable atoms of *u
!"+
are produced
for each atom of U
!"#
consumed. %herefore, the breeder reactor produces more
fissionable material than it uses.
''
Fi&. 4.4 5%inci'$e of ,%ee(e% %ecto%
6n general.
(i) %he fissionable nucleides such as U
!"#
C *u
!"+
are called fi!!i$e
n#c$ei(e!.
(ii) %he non.fissionable nucleides such as U
!"1
C %h
!"!
are called fertile
nucleides.
4.; SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION
&olar energy conersion is the process of conersion of direct sunlight
into more useful forms. %his solar energy conersion occurs by the following
two mechanisms.
'. %hermal conersion.
!. *hoto conersion.
4.;.1 The%"$ con/e%!ion
%hermal conersion inoles absorption of thermal energy in the form
of 6= radiation. &olar energy is an important source for low.temperature heat
(temperature below '00E?), which is useful for heating buildings, water and
refrigeration.
'!
Metho(! of the%"$ con/e%!ion
'.&olar heat collectors
!.&olar water heater
1. So$% het co$$ecto%!
&olar heat collectors consist of natural materials li3e stones, bric3s (or)
materials li3e glass, which can absorb heat during the day time and release it
slowly at night.
U!e!
6t is generally used in cold places, where houses are 3ept in hot
condition using solar heat collectors.
2. So$% -te% hete%
6t consists of an insulated box inside of which is painted with blac3
paint. 6t is also proided with a glass lid to receie and store solar heat. 6nside
the box it has blac3 painted copper coil, through which cold water is allowed to
flow in, which gets heated up and flows out into a storage tan3. :rom the
storage tan3 water is then supplied through pipes.
Fi&. 4.7 So$% -te% hete%
'"
4.;.2 5hotocon/e%!ion
*hotoconersion inoles conersion of light energy directly into
electrical energy.
Metho(! of 'hotocon/e%!ion
*hotogalanic ?ell or &olar ?ell
4.< 5)OTOGALVANIC CELL OR SOUR CELL
Definition
*hotogalanic cell is the one, which conerts the solar energy (energy
obtained from the sun) directly into electrical energy.
5%inci'$e
%he basic principle inoled in the solar cells is based on the
photooltaic (*B) effect. When the.solar rays fall on a two layer of semi.
conductor deices, a potential difference between the two layer is produced.
%his potential difference causes flow of electrons and produces electricity.
Con!t%#ction
&olar cells consist of a p.type semiconductor (such as &i doped with 9)
and n.type semiconductor (such as &i doped with *). %hey are in close contact
with each other.
8o%9in&
When the solar. rays fall on the top layer of p.type semiconductor, the
electrons from the alence band get promoted to the conduction band and cross
the p.n Gunction into n.type semiconductor. %here by potential
difference between two layers is created, which causes flow of electrons (ie., an
'-
electric current). %he potential difference and hence current increases as more
solar rays falls on the surface of the top layer.

Fi&. 4.; So$% ce$$
%hus when this p and n layers are connected to an external circuit,
electrons flow from n.layer to p.6ayer, and hence current is generated.
4.<.1 A''$iction! of !o$% ce$$!
1. Li&htin& '#%'o!e
&olar cells can be used for lighting purpose. Now a days electrical street
lights are replaced by solar street lights.
Fi&. 4.< So$% $i&ht
'#
2. So$% '#"'! %#n ,. !o$% ,tte%.
When a large number of solar cells are connected in series it form a
solar battery. &olar battery produces more electricity which is enough to run,
water pump, street.light, etc., %hey are also used in remote areas where
conentional electricity supply is a problem.
Fi&. 4.1= So$% '#"' %#n ,. !o$% ce$$! 1:tte%.2
". &olar cells are used in calculators, electronic watches, radios and %Bs.
-. &olar cells are superior to other type of cells, because these are nonpolluting
and eco.friendly.
#. &olar energy can be stored in Ni.?d batteries and lead.acid batteries.
$. &olar cells can be used to drie ehicles.
/. &olar cells, made of silicon, are used as a source of electricity in space craft
and satellites.
'$
4.1= 8IND ENERGY
4oing air is called wind. 2nergy %eco/e%e( from the force of the wind
is c$$e( -in( energy. %he energy possessed by wind is because of its high
speed. %he wind energy is harnessed by ma3ing use of wind mills.
4.1=.1. 8in( "i$$!
%he stri3e of blowing wind on the blades of the wind mill ma3e it
rotating continuously. %he rotational motion of the blade dries a number of
machines li3e water pump, flour mills and electric generators.
Now a days windmill uses large siFed propeller blades and are
connected to a generater through a shaft. Wind mills are capable of generating
about '00 3W electricity.
Fi&. 4.11 8in( "i$$
4.1=.2 8in( f%"!
When a large number of wind mills are. installed and Goined together in
a definite pattern it forms a wind farm. %he wind farms,. produce a large
amount of electricity.
'/
Con(ition
%he minimum speed required for satisfactory wor3ing of a wind
generator is '#. 3m D fir.
A(/nt&e!
(i) 6t does not cause any air pollution.
(ii) 6t is ery cheap.
(iii) 6t is renewable
Di!(/nt&e!
'. *ublic resists for locating the wind forms in populated areas due to noise
generated by the machines and loss of aesthetic appearance.
!. Wind forms located on the migratory routes of birds will cause haFards.
4.11 FUEL CELLS
Definition
:uel cell is a oltaic cell, which conerts the chemical energy of the
fuels directly into electricity without combustion. 6t conerts the energy of the
fuel directly into electricity. 6n these cells, the reactants, products and
electrolytes pass through the cell.
:uel H >xygen I7 >xidation products H 2lectricity.
E+"'$e!
@ydrogen.oxygen fuel cell< 4ethyl alcohol.oxygen fuel cell.
'1
4.11.1 ).(%o&en-O+.&en f#e$ ce$$
@ydrogen.oxygen fuel cell is the simplest and most successful fuel cell,
in which the fuel.hydrogen and the oxidiser.oxygen and the liquid electrolyte
are continuously passed through the cell.
De!c%i'tion
6t consists of two porous electrodes anode and cathode. %hese porous
electrodes are made of compressed carbon containing a small amount of
catalyst (*t, *d, )g). 6n between the two electrodes an electrolytic solution
such as !#J 8>@ or Na>@ is filled. %he two electrodes are connected through
the oltmeter.
8o%9in&
@ydrogen (the fuel) is bubbled through the anode compartment, where it
is oxidised. %he oxygen (oxidiser) is bubbled through the cathode
compartment, where it is reduced.
'+
Fi& 4.12 )
2
- O
2
F#e$ ce$$
At ctho(e
%he electrons produced at the anode pass through the external wire to
the cathode, where it is absorbed by oxygen and water to produce hydroxide
ions.
0
!
H !@
!
0 H -e" I7 -0@K
At no(e
@ydrogen molecules are oxidised at the anode with the liberation of
electrons, which then combine with hydroxide ions to form water.
!@
!
H -0@
.
I7 -@
!
0 H -e
.
Ce$$ %ection
!@
!
H -0@
.
I7 -@
!
0 H -e
.
At no(e
!@
!
H -0@" I7 -@
!
0 H -e
.
At ctho(e
>
!
H !@
!
> H -e
.
I7 -@>
.
>erall cell reaction5 !@
!
H 0
!
I7 !@
!
0
%he emf of the cell ; 0.1 to '.0B
F#e$ :tte%.
When a large number of fuel cells are connected in
series, it form fuel battery.
!0
A''$iction!
'. @
!
.>
!
fuel cells are used as auxiliary energy source in space ehicles,
submarines or other military.ehicles.
!. 6n case of @
!
.>
!
fuel cells, the product of water is proed to be a
aluable source of fresh water by the astronauts.
4.12 ANNA UNIVERSITY >UESTIONS
'. What is a nuclear reactor. (escribe the components of a light.water nuclear
power plant with a suitable bloc3 diagram. (Lune 0#)
!. With a neat s3etch explain the functioning of a nuclear reactor. ((ec. 0#)
". Write in brief about chain reaction and nuclear fission reactions. (4ay. 0/)
-. What are breeder reactorM 2xplain with an example.
#. What are nuclear chain reactionsM 2xplain how to improe the amount of
nuclear energy with illustration.
$. &tate the principle and application of solar batteries.
(4ay !001)
/. (escribe the construction and wor3ing of @
!
.0! fuel cell.
((ec !001)
1. What are fuel cellsM 2xplain the construction and wor3ing
of fuel cells.
+. What is wind energyM @ow is wind energy harnessedM
'0. 2xplain the construction and wor3ing of solar water heater.
!'
3. :ATTERIES
3.1 INTRODUCTION
6n electrochemical cells, the chemical energy is conerted into electrical
energy. %he cell potential is related to free energy change ()A). 6n an
electrochemical cell, the system does wor3 by transferring electrical energy
through an electric circuit. %hus )A for a reaction is a measure of the
maximum useful wor3, that can be obtained from a chemical reaction.
ie., )A ; maximum useful wor3
9ut we 3now that
maximum useful wor3 ; n:2
When a cell operates, wor3 is done on the surroundings (flow of electricity).
A ; .n:2 (or) A N 0
(ecrease in free energy is indicated by (.)e sign.
>ne of the main uses of the galanic cells is the generation of portable
electrical energy. %hese cells are 3nown as batteries.
3.1.1 :tte%.
) battery is an arrangement of seeral electrochemical ceils connected
in series, that can be used as a source of direct electric current.
%hus,
) Ce$$6 6t contains only one anode and cathode.
A :tte%.6 6t contains seeral anodes and cathodes.
!!
3.1.2 Re?#i%e"ent! of ,tte%.
) useful battery should fulfil the following requirements
'. 6t should be light and compact for easy transport.
!. 6t should hae long life both when it is being used and when it is
not used.
". %he oltage of the battery should not ary appreciably
during its use.
3.2 TY5ES OF :ATTERY
'. *rimary 9attery (or) *rimary cells
(or) Non.reersible 9attery
6n these cells, the electrode and the electrode reactions cannot be
reersed by passing an external electrical energy. %he reactions occur only
once and after use they become dead. %herefore, they are not ch%&e,$e.
E+"'$e!
(ry cell, mercury cell.
2. Secon(%. :tte%. 1o%2 Secon(%. ce$$!
1o%2 Re/e%!i,$e :tte%.
6n these cells, the electrode reactions can be reersed by passing an
external electrical energy. %herefore, they can be %ech%&e( by passing electric
current and used again and again. %hese are also called Sto%&e ce$$! 1o%2
Acc#"#$to%!.
!"
E+"'$e!
,ead acid storage cell, Nic3el.cadmium cell.
*. F$o- ,tte%. 1o%2 F#e$ ce$$!
6n these cells, the reactants, products and electrolytes are continuously
passing through the cell. 6n this chemical energy gets conerted into electrical
energy.
E+"'$e
@ydrogen.oxygen fuel cell.
3.* AL@ALINE :ATTERY
De!c%i'tion
6t is an improed form of the dry cell, in which the electrolyte N@
-
?' is
replaced by 8>@. 6n al3aline battery, the powdered Finc is mixed with 8>@ C
4n0
!
to get a gel. ) carbon rod (graphite), acts as cathode, is immersed in the
electrolyte in the centre of the cell. %he outside cylinderical Finc body is made
of Finc, act as anode.
Ce$$ Rection!
At no(e6 An
1!2
B !>@
.

1?2
On(>@)
!

1!2
B 2e
-
At ctho(e6
!4n>
!

(s)
H @
!
>(l) H !e
.

4n
!
>
"

(s)
H !>@
.

(aq)
O/e%$$ Ce$$ Rection
On
(s)
H !4n>
!

(s)
H @
!
0
(l)
On(>@)
!

(s)
H 4n
!
0
"(s)
!-
3.*.1 A(/nt&e! of $9$ine ,tte%. o/e% (%. ,tte%.
%he main adantages of al3aline battery oer dry battery are 5
(i) Oinc does not dissole readily in a basic medium.
(ii) %he life of al3aline battery is longer than the dry battery, because there
is no corrosion on On.
(iii) )l3aline battery maintains its oltage, as the current is drawn
from it.
6t is used in calculators, watches etc.,
3.4 LEAD STORAGE CELL OR LEAD ACCUMULATOR OR ACID
STORAGE CELL
Sto%&e ce$$
) lead acid storage cell is a secondary battery, which can operate both
as a oltaic cell and as an electrolytic cell. When it acts as a oltaic cell, it
supplies electrical energy and becomes "run down". When it is recharged, the
cell operates as an electrolytic cell.
De!c%i'tion
) lead.acid storage battery consists of a number of (" to $) oltaic cells
connected in series to get $ to '! B battery.
Fi&. 3.1. Le( !to%&e ce$$
!#
6n each cell, the anode is made of lead. %he cathode is made of lead
dioxide *b0
!
or a grid made of lead, pac3ed with *b0
!
. ) number of lead plates
(anodes) are connected in parallel and a number of *b0
!
plates (cathodes) are
also connected in parallel. Barious plates are separated from the adGacent ones
by insulators li3e rubber or glass fibre. %he entire combinations is then
immersed in dil. @
!
&0
-
("1J by mass) haing a density of '."0 gmDml.
%he cell may be represented as<
5, P 5,S=
4
'')
2
S=
4

(aq)
P 5,O
2
P 5,
8o%9in& 1Di!ch%&in&2
When the lead.acid storage battery operates, the following
reaction occurs.
)t anode5 ,ead is oxidiFed to *b
!H
ions, which further combines
with
!
-
SO
forms insoluble *b&>
-
.

+ + e PbSO SO Pb
s
ing disch
ing ch
aq s
!
) ( -
arg
arg
!
) ( - ) (
)t cathode5 *b>
!
is reduced to *b
!H
ions, which further combines with
!
-
SO
forms insoluble *b&>
-
.
O H PbSO e SO H PbO
s
ing disch
ing ch
s ! ) ( -
arg
arg
!
- ) ( !
! ! - + + + +
+
>erall cell reaction during use (discharging)5
) ( -
arg
arg
) ( - ! ) ( ! ) (
! !
s
ing disch
ing ch
aq s s
PbSO SO H PbO Pb + +
H !@
!
> H2nergy
!$
:rom the aboe cell reactions it is clear that, *b&0
-
is precipitated at
both the electrodes and @
!
&0
-
is used up. )s a result, the concentration of
@
!
&0
-
decreases and hence the density of @
!
&0
-
falls below '.! gmDml. &o the
battery needs recharging.
Rech%&in& the :tte%.
%he cell can be charged by passing electric current in the opposite
direction. %he electrode reaction gets reersed. )s a result, *b is deposited on
anode and *b0
!
on.Gthe cathode. %he density of @
!
&0
-
also increases.
%he net reaction during charging is
) ( - ! ) ( ! ) (
arg
arg
- ! ) ( -
! ! !
eq s s
ing disch
ing ch
s
SO H PbO Pb Energy O H PbSO + + + +
Uses
'. ,ead storage cell is used to supply current mainly in automobiles
such as cars, buses, truc3s, etc.,
!. 6t is also used in gas engine ignition, telephone exchanges,
hospitals, power stations, etc.,
3.3 NIC@EL-CADMIUM CELL 1o%2 NICAD :ATTERY
%his is also a rechargeable battery.
De!c%i'tion
Nic3el.cadmium cell consists of a cadmium anode and a metal grid
containing a paste of Ni0
!
acting as a cathode. %he electrolyte in this cell is
8>@.
!/
6t is represented as5
C(CC(1O)2
2
CC @O)
1?2
CNiO
2
C Ni
8o%9in& 1Di!ch%&in&2
When the Nicad battery operates, at the anode cadmium is oxidised to
?d
!H
ions and insoluble ?d(>@)
!
is formed. 6t produces about '.-B.
At no(e6 ?admium is oxidised to ?d
!H
and further it combines with
>@
.
ions to form ?d(>@)
!
.

+ + e OH Cd Oh Cd
s
ing disch
ing ch
s
! ) ( !
) ( !
arg
arg
) (
At ctho(e6 Ni>
!
is reduced to Ni
!H
ions which further combine with >@
.
ions to form Ni(>@)
!
.

+ + + OH OH Ni e O H NiO
s
ing disch
ing ch
s
! ) ( ! !
) ( !
arg
arg
! ) ( !
>erall reaction during use (discharging)5
Energy OH Ni OH Cd O H NiO Cd
s s
ing disch
ing ch
s s
+ + + +
) ( ! ) ( !
arg
arg
! ) ( ! ) (
) ( ) ( !
:rom the aboe cell reactions it is clear that, there is no formation of
gaseous products, the products ?d(>@)
!
and Ni(>@)
!
adhere well to the
surfaces. %his can be reconerted by recharging the cell.
Rech%&in& the :tte%.
%he recharging process is similar to lead, storage battery. When the.
current is passed in the opposite direction, the electrode reaction, gets
reersed. )s a result, ?d gets deposited on anode and Ni0
!
on the cathode.
%he net reaction during charging is
!1
O H NiO Cd Energy OH Ni OH Cd
s s
ing Ch
ing disch
s s ! ) ( ! ) (
arg
arg
) ( ! ) ( !
! ) ( ) ( + + + +
A(/nt&e
'. 6t is smaller and lighter.
!. 6t has longer life than lead storage cell.
'. ,i3e a dry cell, it can be pac3ed in a sealed container.
Di!(/nt&e
6t is more expensie than lead storage battery.
U!e!
6t is used in calculators, electronic flash units, transistors and cordless
appliancesQ.
3.4 LIT)IUM :ATTERY
,ithium battery is a solid state battery because instead of liquid $r a
paste electrolyte, solid electrolyte is used.
Con!t%#ction
%he lithium battery consists of a lithium anode and a %i&
!
cathode. )
solid electrolyte, generally a polymer, is pac3ed in between the electrodes. %he
electrolyte (polymer) permits the passage of ions but not that of electrons.
8o%9in& 1Di!ch%&in&2
When the anode is connected to cathode, lithium ions moe from anode
to cathode. %he anode is elemental lithium, which is the source of the lithium
ions and electrons. %he cathode is a material capable of receiing the lithium
ions and electrons.
!+
,i ,i
H
He
.
%i&
!
He
.
%i&
.
!
Fi&. 3.2 So$i( !tte $ithi#" ,tte%.
At no(e6 ,i(s) Li
B
B e
-
At ctho(e6 %i&
!(s)
H e
.
%i&
.
!
>erall reaction5
,i(s) H %i&
!(s)
,i
H
H%i&
.
!
,i
H
H %i&
.
!
,i%i&
!
Rech%&in& the :tte%.
%he lithium battery can be recharged by supplying an external current,
which dries the lithium ions bac3 to the anode. %he oerall reaction is
,i%i&
!
,i
H
H %i&
.
!
%his cell is rechargeable and produces a cell oltage of ".0 B.
3.4.1 Othe% t.'e! of Secon(%. Lithi#" :tte%ie!
(i) ,iD4n0
!
(ii) ,iDB
!
0
#
(iii) ,iD4o0
!
(i) ,iD?r
"
0
1
)dantages of ,i battery
It i! the ce$$ of f#t#%eD -h.0
"0
(i) 6ts cell oltage is high, ".0 B.
(ii) &ince ,i is a light.weight metal, only /g (' mole) material is required to
produce ' mole of electrons.
(iii) &ince ,i has the most negatie 2E alue, it generates a higher oltage
than the other types of cells.
(i) &ince all the constituents of the battery are solids there is no ris3 of
lea3age from the battery.
() %his battery can be made in a ariety of siFes and shapes.
3.4.2 Lithi#" - S#$'h#% :tte%.
,ithium.&ulphur battery is a rechargeable battery. 6ts anode is made of
,i. &ulphur is the electron acceptor, the electron from ,i is conducted to & by a
graphite cathode. (".)lumina (Na)l
''
0
'/
) is used as the solid electrolyte, which
separates anode and liquid sulphur.
Fi& 3.* The Lithi#"-S#$'h#% ,tte%.
%his solid electrolyte allows the ,i
H
ions to migrate to equaliFe the
charge, but will not allow the big poly sulphide product ions.
%his battery is operated at high temperatures as ,i and & should be in
their molten states.
"'
V%io#! %ection!
%he arious electrode reactions are
)t anode 5 !,i !,i
H
H !e
.
)t cathode 5 & H !e
.
&
!.
O/e% $$ %ection6 !,i H & !,i
H
H &
!.
%he &
!.
ions, formed, react with elemental sulphur to form the polysulphide ion.
&
!.
H n& R&
n

H

'
S
!.
%he direct reaction between ,i and & is preented by the alumina present in the
cell.
A(/nt&e! of Li-S ,tte%.
'. ,i.& battery has light weight unli3e the lead acid battery.
!. 6t possesses a high energy density.
". 6t is used in electric cars.
"!