Gender Differences in Communication 4

Communication is the means by which ideas and information are spread from person to
person. People use communication to express feelings, emotions, opinions and values, to
learn and teach, and to improve their status. Communication is therefore vital to human
interaction whether between parents and children, bosses and employees or even husband
and wife. The diversity and characteristics of those involved in any interaction can thus
affect communication. Taking account of any diversity in interaction rather than
assuming uniformity is important to achieving effective communication.
Good communication is difficult to master and can be a major source of strife in any
situation or business. Gaps in communication arise when the intended message is not
transmitted or the message is misunderstood. The resultant miscommunication is mainly
due to the different styles of communication amongst people. n order to understand the
differences of communications patterns we should begin by considering the different
elements of the communication process between the sender of the information and
receiver. n any form of communication, the sender has a message to transmit that
becomes encoded. The receiver obtains this encoded message via some medium or
channel e.g. verbal, nonverbal or written, which is then decoded and translated !as shown
in the following diagram". n order for the communication process to work both the
sender and the receiver must understand the codes. #s an example consider the encrypted
messages that were sent during $orld $ar . n order for the receiver to understand the
message, knowledge of the code was important. $e can even consider the situation of an
%nglish speaker in &apan. 'or effective communication either one or both parties should
be able to understand and communicate in the language of the other. Good and effective
communication can therefore be affected by many things including the situation, time,
culture, and gender. The assertion that gender affects communication in different ways
has been accepted by a large part of the population today. Gender differences in
communication may pose problems in interpersonal interactions leading to intolerance,
resentment, stress and decreased productivity. This is extremely critical in business
organi(ations but even more so in your everyday world and therefore an examination of
)
these differences in the first step to understanding the issues involved and moving
towards better communication.
n any study of communication, there is variability in what is meant by *communication*.
+ome individuals may consider only the verbal attributes whereas yet others will consider
nonverbal interactions ,, and the smart will focus on both. #dditionally research studies
have focused either on both the microscopic and the macroscopic levels of
communication. The microscopic level deals with performance or perception of verbal
and nonverbal behavior and the macroscopic assesses behavior on a global level !Canary
- .india, )//0". n this discussion, both verbal and nonverbal aspects of communication
will be considered.
Gender communication 1any people use the words gender and sex interchangeably,
however these words do not mean the same thing. The word sex refers to the genetic and
biological status of being male or female, while gender refers to the psychological and
social manifestations of being male or female, i.e. the socially defined, learned,
constructed accoutrements of sex, such as hairstyle, dress, nonverbal mannerisms, and
interests !2ippa, 0330". Gender therefore focuses on the social construct regarding the
behavioral, cultural, or psychological traits typically associated with one sex. t
concentrates on the roles and responsibilities, expectations, and aptitude of men and
women that are learned, and modified as a result of the interaction of culture, society and
environment.
There are two views regarding gender ,, the essentialist and the social constructionist
views !4obb, 0335". The essentialist view gender as that with which we were born, being
part of our genetic make,up. The male and female roles are therefore distinct identities
and they shape behavior. 6owever, this view might be somewhat limited since it does not
account for the masculine and feminine attributes inherent in people. The social
constructionist upholds the idea that psychological conditioning early in life leads to who
we are and become as a result of the social interactions. Therefore in this view gender is
shaped by society, culture and time.
0
$hat then is gender communication7 +everal have used the term to signify the
differences in communication due to biology and others use it to represent differences
resulting from social, psychological and cultural interactions. 'or most researchers
gender communication focuses on the expressions used by one gender in the relationships
and roles between people. The existence of a difference in gender communication has
been a topic of interest for decades with generali(ations being made between the sexes. #
large volume of work has been published both in the mainstream popular books and in
the research arena with linguistic scholars stressing the differences in communication
style. $hile a large volume of literary work on the subject exists, the findings are not
consistent and much controversy arises mainly as a result of the biased view of the
mainstream publications.
1ost published work on gender differences are believed to fall into 0 categories of bias8
alpha where the difference is exaggerated or beta which presumes that there are few if
any differences between the sexes !Canary - .india, )//0". The bias approach adopts
the view that *similarities rather than differences characteri(e men and women* and that
while *some noteworthy differences between men and women exist, when both within,
and between,gender comparisons are made9 the similarities are as important,,if not more
important,,than the differences* !Canary - .india, )//0"".
The alpha bias can be seen especially with books such as &ennifer Coates: $omen, 1en
and 2anguage, &ohn Gray:s 1en are from 1ars, $omen are from ;enus, 2illian Glass:
6e +ays, +he +ays8 Closing the Communication Gap <etween the +exes, &ulia $ood:s
Gendered 2ives, and .eborah Tannen:s =ou &ust .on:t >nderstand8 $omen and 1en in
Conversation, that have sought to explain the gender differences in communication and
fall into the category of alpha bias. &ennifer Coates !)/?@" wrote about her studies
involving gender separated discussion groups. 'rom her observations she noted that
women reveal a lot about their private lives in their conversations, stick to one topic for a
long time, let all speakers finish their sentences and try to have everyone participate. n
contrast, men discussed things other than their personal relationships and feelings, change
topics freAuently, dominate conversations and establish a hierarchy in communication
over time.
B
The hierarchical view in communication has also been emphasi(ed in scholarly work.
1ales are said to establish a status hierarchy to compete, exert control and maintain the
upper hand !%ckes, 0333". 'emales also establish hierarchies however these are based on
friendship rather than power and accomplishment !4obb, 0335".
n her book .eborah Tannen argues that men and women approach conversation with a
distinct set of rules and interpretations of talk. 1en focus on status and independence9
women focus on intimacy and connection,,a difference that makes communication
between the sexes problematic. +he states that *communication between men and women
can be like cross cultural communication, prey to a clash of conversational styles*
!Tannen, 033)".
n a similar manner to Tannen, &ohn Gray:s !)//0" book, based on participants: reports in
relationship seminars, shows a clear and polari(ed depiction of men and women. Gray:s
theory is that women use superlatives, metaphors, and generali(ations in their speech
which men interpret literally causing miscommunication between the sexes. 6e also
stated that men are more direct and straightforward in their speech.6owever he states that
in addition to a communication difference, there is a difference in thinking, feeling,
perception, reaction, response, love, need, and appreciation. #s a result his book is often
viewed as sexist by many feminists.
.r. 2illian Glass !)//0" noted over )3C sex talk differences in her book. 6er findings are
similar to those of Coates where she noted that men disclosed less personal information
and spoke more loudly than women do. +he stated that men use the techniAue of loudness
to emphasi(e points, while women use pitch and inflection for emphasis. Dther findings
were that men tended to interrupt more often than women do, make direct accusations
and statements, and ask fewer Auestions.
*Gendered lives* by $ood supports the theory that women use communication as a way
to establish and maintain relationships. $ood states that women are responsive,
supportive, value eAuality and work toward sustaining communication. +he goes on to
show the polari(ation of communication by stating that men use communication as a
5
means by which to solve problems, maintain dominance and assertiveness. 1en are less
responsive9 their talk is more abstract and less personal.
Communication styles The authors above have all promoted the idea of different styles of
communication between men and women. To this extent, there are four areas where
gender differences in communication are believed to exist. These are problem solving,
communication of feelings, needs and desires, understanding of a situation and relating to
it and the approach to situations. $hen messages are transmitted from sender to receiver,
there is a potential for distortion of the message due to how it may be perceived.
.ifferences in communication between men and women may be a result of this distortion
or differences in the style and content of the messages. The styles of gender
communication have been expressed as *debate versus relate*, *report versus rapport*, or
*competitive versus cooperative*. These different styles of communication are believed
to be the cause of miscommunication. The commonly accepted differences in these styles
of interaction can be summari(ed as shown8 Competitive E 1ake more commands E
2imited emotional content E Fuantity of speech limited E >se of slang andGor swearing E
Gives information 4elational E #sk more Auestions E .iscuss feelings and perceptions E
6igher Auantity of speech E Polite speech E ncludes more detail The work by Tannen
supports the view of *report talk* and *rapport talk* where her studies have shown that
men engage in solution oriented conversations aimed at the main issue. $omen however
were said to engage in relationship,oriented conversations that targeted to connect with
and relate to the other speaker.
Generally, the communication style of women has been described as being more
emotional than men. $omen focus on feelings and building relationships while men
focus on power, and status. This is also shown in problem solving, where men take a
straightforward approach compared with women who tend to establish intimacy, show
concern and empathy. #dditionally women are also seen to foster cooperation rather than
competition.
1en display a higher percentage of task behaviors ,, providing information, direction, or
answers, and direct disagreement than women do !%ckes, 0333". They use problem
C
solving as an opportunity to demonstrate competence, ability to solve problems and their
commitment to the relationship. $hen thinking about the problem, they expect solutions,
exerting power to accomplish the problem solving task. Dn the other hand, use problem
solving as a way to strengthen relationships, focusing on sharing and discussing the
problem rather than the end result.
Df course, not everyone feels there is a strong difference. This theory of two
communication styles has been rejected by 1ulac !)//?". 6e believes that when applied
to written work establishing a difference in communication between men and women was
difficult. 6e bases this viewpoint on a study that reported on individuals of non,%nglish
backgrounds, of different ages and social classes who were are not able to distinguish
whether written %nglish messages had been produced by males or females. 6e maintains
that if such differences exist in speech then these should be an observed difference in
writing style.
+imilar studies involving speech have been investigated to determine whether differences
can be detected in taped conversations where the sex of the speaker was unknown. The
results here are mixed with some of these studies showing no detectable difference and
some studies concluding that a difference was observed.
;erbal communication The communication differences observed between the sexes range
from verbal to nonverbal communication. $hen considering verbal communication
researchers look into speech and voice patterns while nonverbal communication
encompasses body language, facial language, and behavior Glass, )//0".
2iterature reviews of gender differences do not help either way when considering verbal
communication. The evidence shows that men are more talkative than women in mixed,
sex groups !%ckes, 0333". 1any linguists will have us believe that women are more
talkative than men. $omen are also considered to interrupt conversations and finish
sentences. 6owever there are studies that contradict the idea of interruptions as the
domain of women. +cientists have sought to rationali(e the reason for the lack of
@
agreement between studies as being a failure to define what an interruption and to
distinguish between the different types and well as the environment.
;erbal differences include the use of vulgar words, aggressiveness and a tendency to
attack the speaker, dominate and interrupt the conversation by men !%unson, 033C". Dn
the other hand, women are considered as being polite and less aggressive. 6owever,
while there are differences in the speech patterns, everyone shows varying degrees of
what is considered to be masculine and feminine speech characteristics. This raises the
issue of stereotyping and bias, and the effect of other factors that can influence speech
patterns. $ith the interaction of external and internal factors other than gender on
communication and the controversy surrounding the two language styles, it is difficult to
demonstrate differences in verbal communication based on gender only. #s a result,
nonverbal communication is seen as the area where gender differences in communication
exist.
Honverbal communication refers to those actions that are distinct from speech. Thus
nonverbal communication includes facial expression, hand and arm movement, posture,
position and other movements of the body, legs or feet !1ehrabian, 033I". Honverbal
communication or body language has been consistently shown to be different in the two
sexes !Glass, )//0".
$omen are considered to be more nonverbally warmer than men with a tendency to
smile and lean toward others during conversation. $omen also use a pleasant warm voice
in conversation that is not characteristic of conversations between men !%ckes, 0333".
.ifferences have also been noted with respect to the gestures used while speaking. 1en
are observed to use straight and sharp movements, while women tend to have more fluid
movement. n terms of posture, women tend to keep arms next to their bodies and cross
their legs while men often have an open wider posture ,, arms away from the body and
legs apart.
#nother difference lies in visual dominance, with men being considered to be more
visually dominant than women. ;isual dominance is defined as the ratio of the time spent
I
maintaining eye contact while talking to the time spent maintaining eye contact while
listening !%ckes, 0333". Df course, one needs to take into account that women have wider
peripheral vision allowing them to give the impression they are looking in one direction
while actually looking in another direction.
n communication men tend to sit other side,by,side next to each or stand at some
distance. $omen sit face,to,face with other women or stand closer, indicating a more
open and intimate position that help them connect with one another. 'or men, a face,to,
face position indicates challenge or confrontation.
Honverbal differences have been categori(ed as being8 ). primary , hereditary
characteristics of male and femaleness. n this aspect the developmental difference in
bone structures of males and females determine how they walk, their gestures, and other
nonverbal behavior. <ody shape is also considered as it relates to nonverbal
communication since it affects posture ,, larger shoulders in man, and breasts in women.
0. secondary , modeling or observation of same,sex role models. Children model the
behavior of parents and conseAuently learn to follow the patterns of same,sex role
models, boys using nonverbal movements similar to their fathers: and little girls act like
their mothers. B. tertiary , popular explanations of reinforcement or conditioning for male
or female behavior. Positive reinforcement of behavior increases the behavior, whereas
negative reinforcement decreases it and culture is thought to shape appropriate behavior
for boys and girls !Payne, 033)". n childhood play, boys are encouraged in activities that
involve rough,and,tumble play for boys and girls have been cuddling and nurtured.
#lthough this has been changing in recent times, this division still exists in some
societies and cultures.
Honverbal differences are said to exist along lines of the sex role expectations of society.
+pecific gender role nonverbal communicative behavior is learned however men and
women also use other nonverbal styles not typical of their sex for practical purposes
!Payne, 033)". 6ere the external influences of the situation may dictate the use of
nonverbal communication. Honverbal communicative behavior is also affected by
culture. 'or example the use of space varies from culture to culture, from an appreciation
?
and respect for personal space to a negation. +tudies involving the use of space as a part
of interpersonal communication recogni(es that *people of different cultures do have
different ways in which they relate to one another spatially* with spatial use defining
social relationships and social hierarchies !Payne, 033)". %xamples include the difference
in posture between manager and employee, the close proximity by #rabic speakers, and
the traditional position of the male at the head of the table in $estern society.
Hature versus nurture The concept of nature versus nurture has been used to explain the
differences in verbal and nonverbal communication. t was introduced in )?I5 by 'rancis
Galton and since then there has been a debate on which accounts for the observed
differences.
Hature relates to biological evolution, genes, hormones, and neural structures. n contrast,
nurture is related to culture, social roles, settings and learning, and stereotypes. Hature
and nurture both produce sex differences in behavior and gender,related individual
differences within the sexes. #dvances in biological psychology, neuroscience, and
molecular genetics have resulted in new findings that provide evidence on the theory of
nature versus nurture of gender !2ippa, 0330".
The influence of gender differences begins very early in childhood and can shape the
communication of style of the adult !Tannen, 033)". +tudies on children have shown that
there are language differences between boys and girls as early as preschool !%ckes,
0333". Tannen highlights differences in the way young girls and boys use language in
childhood, stating that girls make reAuests, use language to create harmony and use more
words while boys make demands, create conflict and use more actions.
The differences in adults are thought to stem from influences in childhood such as parents
and playtime instruments. n the first few years of life girls are more used to physical
touch by their mothers during childhood compared with boys. $omen therefore use
touch to express caring, empathy and emotions. n contrast, men regard touch as way to
communicate sexual interest, orders, and as a symbol of control. 1en are seen as being
/
more competitive and verbally assertive due to childhood influences of toys such as guns
and swords.
# person:s communication skills in addition to being partially genetic, are therefore also
shaped by factors such as society, culture and education. +ociety often expects that a
woman should be polite and well behaved. This stems from childhood when girls were
told that it is better to be seen and not heard.
+tatus and 4ole Dne argument that has been ongoing since the early 03th century is that
gender varies with status and role in society. %ven with the advances in thinking, there
still exists a division of labor that allocates different work and responsibilities to men and
women in societies and cultures. nteractions involving women are characteri(ed as being
that which draws out supportive, cooperative behavior, whereas men interact to elicit
dominant, directive behavior. # comparison of men and women in the same social roles
is therefore important in the investigation of whether a true gender difference exists or the
observed difference is confounded by status.
n addition, gender differences can also be accounted for by the difference in status.
4esearch has shown that aggressiveness and dominance found to dependent on status on
top of gender !#ries, )//?" and that the differences in communication are sometimes less
noticeable in men and women at the same societal level !Powell - Graves, )//?".
+ituation The context in which communication occur can have an effect dependent on
who is taking part in the interaction, i.e. the characteristics !age, race, class, ethnicity,
sexual orientation", relationships and setting. Communication between friends may be
less stilted than between strangers and acAuaintances. n the studies of differences,
strangers were grouped together and communicative behavior observed over time. +ome
may be shy, others concerned with making a good impression and yet others having a
laisse( faire attitude. These situations will not replicate interactions between families,
friends and co,workers and therefore caution should be applied in the interpretation of the
observed differences.
)3
1eaning of <ehavior 4esearchers consider interruptions to be a mechanism of power and
dominance in conversation. They use this as a benchmark to demonstrate the
pervasiveness of male dominance in daily interactions. 6owever the context in which the
interruption occurred should be considered before application of a meaning to the
behavior. nterruptions may serve many purposes ,, as a show of support, understanding
and agreement !collaboration" or as a disruption or violation of the speaker:s right of
speech !dominance". 6ence occurrences of interruptions cannot be considered without
regarding the reason and function of the interruption.
$hen status and role, culture, situation, and assigning meaning to behaviors are taken
into consideration as confounders, the magnitude of gender differences and the effect si(e
can sometimes appear to be small. Taken into context this means that while there are
some differences that can be attributed to gender, the overall magnitude of the difference
must also include the interaction of several factors.
1asculinity, femininity and communication There are contexts in which men display
feminine behavior, contexts in which women display masculine behavior, and contexts in
which the behavior of is differentiated by gender. <ehaviors that society label as feminine
or masculine are displayed by both men and women9 they are not always sex specific.
# study by 4ahman et al. !033B" found within sex differences in verbal fluency. The
researchers examined gender differences amongst heterosexual men and women, and
homosexual men and women. The results of the study showed that homosexual men and
women had opposite,sex shifts in their verbal fluency scores. To test verbal fluency,
subjects were assessed on letter, category and synonym fluency. 6omosexual men had
the highest scores on letter and synonym fluency while homosexual women had the
lowest scores for letter fluency. The differences were related to the difference in the
functioning of the prefrontal and temporal cortices of the groups.
'our theories have been used to explain gender differences in communication. These are
on the basis of biological, psychologicalGsociological, cultural, and religious differences
!Payne, 033)". The discussion will focus on culture and biological differences.
))
Culture The word culture indicates the lifestyle of the people within a group and denotes
the values, beliefs, artifacts, behavior and communication. Culture is learned being
passed down from generation to generation, providing guidance for ethical and moral
behavior. Gender communication can be considered to be a sub,culture since it is passed
down from generation in the interactions that children have with their parents and other
adults. This idea appears to validate the theory of nurture and its effect on
communication. Tannen !033)" has shown that the role of culture is critical to the
understating of the communication skills of a person. Tone, aggressive speech, and
interruption of the speaker all depend on cultural background. n #sian culture,
aggression is not considered to be appropriate behavior, with both men and women
showing politeness in their conversation with others. .epending on status, tone is used to
indicate displeasure.
+tudies have shown that preschool Chinese girls are bossy and argumentative with boys
depending on the scenario !%ckes, 0333". n the Chinese culture women are dominant in
the domestic context while men play a more powerful role in business. 4ole play in
which domestic scenes are performed show a difference in tone, language and behavior
with girls showing dominance and boys being deferent. n contrast $estern culture does
not show such a demarcation of roles.
# literature review on gender differences in &apan and the >nited +tates looked at sex,
cultures !i.e., nationality", and the interaction of sex and culture to determine which
accounted for differences in communication in men and women !$aldron - .i 1are,
)//?". The review concluded that there are not many major differences in communicative
styles between &apanese men and women. # similar study on #sians in 6ong Jong also
found that although some, there was not that many significant difference in
communication styles between the sexes. $hen the effects of culture and sex were
compared, culture appeared to be the more important variable in affecting
communication. The authors of this study concluded that sex differences manifest
themselves differently in &apan than in the >nited +tates.
)0
<iology and brain structure Gender difference in communication has been related to
biological factors. This age old theory is regarded by some as sexist since it was used in
the past centuries to subjugate women. The current view leans toward a biological basis
of sex differences in brain and behavior. This area has been developed in recent time with
an increasing numbers of studies in the behavioral, neurological and endocrinological
sciences.
That there exist differences in the male and female brain structure has been the topic of
academic research and popular books such as 1oir and &essel:s <rain +ex, where they
discuss the theory in relation to the processing of information. .ifferences in cognition
between the sexes has been documented since the last century, with males showing great
aptitude on visuospatial tasks and females scoring higher in verbal fluency tests !#llen
and Gorksi, 0330".
4ecent studies on structural differences in the brain of men and women account for the
greater verbal fluency by showing that the corpus callosum !the huge crescent,shaped
band of nerve fibers connecting the brain hemispheres" is larger in women than in men
!2ippa, 0330". +ince parts of the corpus callosum as well as the anterior commissure,
another connector, appear to be larger in women they are thought to permit better
communication between hemispheres. #nne Campbell:s !)/?/" work on brain
laterali(ation supports the theory of brain structure differences accounting for differences
in gender communication. The planum temporale, a region of the brain involved in verbal
ability has been shown to have greater symmetry in females !#llen and Gorksi, 0330".
Campbell concluded that the female brain is therefore better organi(ed for
communication being less laterali(ed with functions spread over both sides of their
brains. This she states explains the reason why women use words more expressively than
men. <ased on brain differences women are better communicators than men, a difference
that probably existed at birth.
Current research using f14 !functional magnetic resonance imaging" has shown that
differences in brain anatomy of males and females may explain differences in cognitive
behavior !Gur et al., )///". The superior performance by women on verbal and memory
)B
tasks has been explained by the difference in hemispheric speciali(ation of cortical
function. >sing this background as the basis for their study, Gur et al. !)///" found that
parallels between gender differences in cognition and differences in gray matter exists.
4esults showed that the percentage of gray matter was higher in women and in the left
language hemisphere and women outperformed men on the language tasks.
n a more recent study, researchers in 'rance have found differences amongst males and
females groups on brain activation strength linked to verbal fluency !words generation"
!Gautier et al., 033/". >sing functional magnetic resonance imaging !f14", the study
showed that there is a gender effect, as well as a performance effect, on cerebral
activation. The gender effect was found regardless of performance with men activating
several regions of the brain in comparison to women having high fluency.
These studies involving magnetic resonance imaging of the brain during problem solving
tasks provide evidence that supports the theory of brain structure and gender difference in
communication. Df course, results of studies are still being debated since some studies
are being reviewed for having yielded conflicting results.
+ome studies have shown that a difference exists in hemispheric activity in men
compared with during certain language tasks. #nd a few studies have failed to find
differences in functional asymmetry. +ince the task used in the studies may not be
comparable, then the results should be interpreted with caution since a difference in task
is shown rather than a gender difference. The Auestion of group differences in verbal
abilities which might account for neurocognitive differences elicited between men
Key Issues on Gender and Development
)5
Key Issues on Gender and Development page is a quick introduction to gender-related issues in a
particular sector. This page contains overview of the issues and a list of relevant questions to
consider.
Fragility !onflict | Governance " Infrastructure " Information and !ommunication
Technologies " #rivate $ector Development " Transport " %ater and $anitation
Fragility & Conflict
#ost conflict programs tend to target women for counseling men for &o's. (owever) effective
postconflict reconstruction efforts need to go 'eyond stereotyped methods) and use more
integrated approaches.
Gender Issues in Conflict Prevention and Post-Conflict Reconstruction
*ighty percent of the world+s ,- poorest countries have suffered from a ma&or conflict in the past
./ years. In $u'-$aharan 0frica) conflicts have taken an increasing toll on development
prospects) with almost half of all countries) and one in five 0fricans) directly or indirectly affected
'y conflict. 0s women and men have different needs and play different social and economic roles
in restoring war-torn societies) it is particularly important to ensure that post-conflict interventions
are inclusive. There is a su'stantial 'ody of literature on men+s and women+s different e1periences
of conflict that demonstrate that there are high short- and long-term costs to countries+
development if they fail to address gender-specific needs. The 2nited 3ations $ecurity !ouncil
4esolution .5,/ 6,---7 recogni8es the distinction 'etween women+s and men+s needs and calls
on all actors involved in negotiating and implementing peace agreements to adopt a gender
perspective. This perspective includes paying attention to the special needs of women and girls
during repatriation and resettlement) reha'ilitation) reintegration and post-conflict reconstruction.
Increasingly) the need to e1amine notions of 9masculinities: is also part of an improved response
to post-conflict needs.
Key Issues
Masculinity, males and conflict: Masculinity, males and conflict: ;en and 'oys are often
victims of 'rutal indoctrination during their recruitment to an armed group< this can involve forced
killings) drug a'use) and rape. ;ales commonly lose their traditional male role as providers for the
family) may find themselves displaced from their family+s homes) or 'e una'le to find employment.
$ome find status and power in se1ual violence and possession and use of weapons. #ost-conflict
programs should focus on ways to draw young men into a cohesive society) rather than on
punishing and controlling them. The latter only reinforces a cycle of e1clusion and punishment
and perpetuates violent 'ehavior.
Femininity, females and conflict: %omen are not only the victims of conflict< they are often
actively involved in the fighting. %omen represent 'etween one-tenth to one-third of all
com'atants in regular or irregular armies 6e.g.) guerilla movements7) and often participate in other
active roles) including support functions. Demo'ili8ation and reintegration programs 6D4#s7 for
e1-com'atants should represent the economic) legal and psychological needs of 'oth female and
male e1com'atants. These needs are usually not met 'ecause many women tend not to register
for D4#s for fear of 'eing stigmati8ed for their role in the conflict or for having had illegitimate
children resulting from rape. #ostwar societies go through changes and adapt) making the issue
of reintegration relevant to all mem'ers of society) not &ust to e1-com'atants. D4# planners
should therefore also analy8e the potential side-effects of the D4# on non-com'atants and avoid
any negative impacts.
Gender-ased !iolence "G!# and $I!%&ID': %omen and men are 'oth vulnera'le to G=>
)C
during conflict) al'eit in different ways. %omen are often victims of heightened se1ual a'use and
trafficking during conflict) as they are seen as a form of 'ooty 'y enemy soldiers. $e1ual a'use of
women from enemy camps is seen as a means of demorali8ing the enemy. The gender-'ased
risks of contracting (I>?0ID$ or $TDs should 'e an important aspect of post-conflict
reconstruction efforts.
Private Sector Development
#rivate $ector Development 6#$D7 plays an important role in the %orld =ank Group+s work.
Improving the investment climate and market access provides new income opportunities to 'oth
men and women in developing societies. ;oreover) markettype mechanisms may empower poor
people 'y improving the quality of 'asic social services. @et #$D effectiveness requires an
understanding of the different constraints often faced 'y women and men in this domain. Gender
considerations should thus 'e incorporated into five key #$D areasA disparities in asset
ownership< la'or market im'alances< access to finance< access to markets< and 'usinessena'ling
environment.
Disparities in asset o(ners)ipA In many countries there are gender disparities in asset
ownership. Band is often the most valued asset) and where women are constrained 'y law or
custom in owning land) they are una'le to use land as an input into production or as collateral for
credit. This is inefficient and may hamper growth. 0n e1ample of how to address this issue comes
from >ietnam) where land title certificates have 'een reissued with the names of 'oth hus'ands
and wives) giving women landuse rights previously denied to them.
*a+or mar,et im+alances: Ta'oos and pre&udices against hiring women are costly to society as
a su'stantial proportion of its productive potential is stifled. $kepticism against female workers
may hamper private sector developmentA as it restricts total la'or supply) the price of male la'or is
pushed up and artificial la'or shortages may result. In Besotho) the %orld =ank funded a
sensiti8ation program aimed at increasing female participation in road construction activities.
&ccess to financial services: Designing financial institutions in ways that account for
genderspecific constraints C whether 'y su'stituting for traditional forms of collateral or 'y
delivering financial services closer to homes) markets and workplaces C can increase access to
savings and credit and affect the relative via'ility and competitiveness of femalerun enterprises. In
parts of %est 0frica) 9mo'ile 'ankers: 'ring financial services to clients) eliminating the need to
travel in order to save and 'orrow.
&ccess to mar,ets: %omen+s seclusion from the pu'lic arena) higher time poverty) and lack of
mo'ility limit their access to markets in various ways. For instance) women usually have less
information a'out prices) rules and rights to 'asic services. In 2ganda) this type of inefficiency has
'een tackled 'y Ideas for Earning Money) a !D4om that teaches women new 'usiness skills and
'est 'usiness practices.
usinessena+lin- environment: %omen often 'enefit more than men from
'usinessena'ling environment reforms) as their 'usinesses tend to have more pro'lems with
customs) courts) 'usiness registration) ta1 rates and ta1 administration. To address this issue)
theGender and Growth Assessment tool was developed to help countries identify key investment
climate constraints for women and provide a roadmap of needed reforms) which local
organi8ations can work on implementing following assessment completion. The tool was a %orld
=ank Group effort led 'y IF! Gender *ntrepreneurship ;arkets 6G*;7 in 2ganda) and has 'een
replicated in Kenya) Tan8ania) and Ghana. The issue of women+s access to networks cuts across
all key areas. 0s social norms may discourage women from mi1ing freely with men) participation
in womenonly 'usiness associations can help women make connections) share information)
identify 'usiness opportunities) generate crossreferrals) and act as support for entrepreneurs who
)@
might otherwise feel isolated. =usiness organi8ations can also lo''y for a more
'usinessfriendly environment for women in general. In 0fghanistan) an important task for the new
;inistry of %omen+s 0ffairs was to set up the 0fghan %omen+s =usiness !ouncil) with support
from 23IF*;.
Key Issues
(ow do women+s and men+s access to assets differD 0re there gender differences in
ownership of 'ank accounts) access to credit and land) and in property lawsD
%hat is the female la'or force participation rate in a countryD (ow does men+s and
women+s participation differ in scale) sector of operation) and earningsD 0re there gender
differences in the proportion of individuals employed in the informal sectorD
0re se1 disaggregated #$D statistics availa'le at the national levelD
Information and Communication Technologies (ICT
%omen and men have different needs and constraints when accessing and using IC.. In many
societies) women+s and men+s access to and use of technology are rooted in 'ehavioral) cultural)
and religious traditionsA
!ultural and social attitudes are often unfavora'le to women+s participation in the fields of
science and technology) which limits their opportunities in the area of I!T.
%omen are often financially dependent on men or do not have control over economic
resources) which makes accessing I!T services more difficult.
0llocation of resources for education and training often favors 'oys and men.
In some societies) women+s seclusion from the pu'lic arena makes access to community
telecenters difficult.
2nless e1plicit measures are taken to address the constraints women face) advances in I!T may
increase gender disparities and their potential impact will 'e reduced.
Gender-responsive I!T can make technologies) from telephones to computers) availa'le to more
people and offer ways for 'oth women and men to access information and markets) and
participate in new income generating activities. %hen I!T policies and programs recogni8e the
different constraints women and men face) I!T will contri'ute to reducing women+s 'urden of
la'or in time consuming tasks) provide income generating activities) and provide an important
source of employment in 'oth I!T and other fields.
Key Issues
0re there gender differences in access to I!TD
(ow does the use of I!T affect men and women differentlyD (ow can I!T 'e used to
reduce gender inequalitiesD
0re 'oth men and women included in I!T decision makingD 0re gender issues
considered when setting national I!T prioritiesD
Governance
The current approach to reducing poverty and promoting economic growth stresses the need for
communities to 'e a'le to influence the pu'lic institutions that affect their well-'eing. Good
governance is central to this approachA pu'lic institutions must 'e efficient) transparent) and
accounta'le< and the processes of governance must 'e inclusive and participatory so that all
)I
citi8ens have opportunities to demand accounta'ility from their governments.
/)y Gender Issues are Relevant to Good Governance
Gender equality is an important goal in itself and a means for achieving development.
Development policies and institutions must ensure that all segments of society - 'oth women and
men - have a voice in decision making) either directly) or through institutions that legitimately
represent their interests and needs. @et) persistent and pervasive gender disparities in
opportunities) rights vis-E-vis the state and pu'lic institutions) and voice) particularly limit women+s
a'ility to participate as full citi8ens in social) economic) and political life. The e1clusion of women
from full participation constrains the a'ility of pu'lic sector policies and institutions to manage
economic and social resources effectively. $uch gender-'ased e1clusion compromises the
prospects for high-quality service delivery.
Key Issues
There are several key aspects of pu'lic sector good governance) 'ut a few of them in particular
have specific gender-relevant considerations worth e1aminingA
Citi0ens)ip: To what e1tent do policies and practices support women and men to reali8e
their duties) rights) and access to services as citi8ensD
*e-islation and enforcement: (ow do legal and &udicial systems improve the socio-
economic and legal status of women and menD (ow effectively do the legal and &ustice
sectors address women+s and men+s status and protection under the lawD
Pu+lic e1penditures: To what e1tent do pu'lic e1penditures reflect governments+ e1plicit
gender equality goals and target the delivery of high-quality services to all citi8ensD
'tructures and processes of -overnance: (ow can women+s participation in political
decision- making processes 'e reali8edD Do the structures and processes for
representation at central and decentrali8ed levels focus on including interest groups
which have previously 'een e1cludedD Do they include women in critical num'ers in key
institutions) e.g.) parliaments and local governmentsD
Delivery of services: %hat priority is given to participatory and transparent decision
makingD %hat policies can enhance institutional accounta'ility and responsiveness to
women+s specific needs for services in key sectorsD

Infrastructure
The infrastructure sector is often assumed to 'e gender neutral) with women and men 'enefiting
equally from pro&ects. Females and males) however) have different roles) responsi'ilities and
constraints) which result in gender-'ased differentials in demand for and use of infrastructure
facilities and services. The development effectiveness and sustaina'ility of the infrastructure
sector could increase significantly 'y addressing gender differences in demand and utili8ation.
This involves incorporating a gender perspective in selecting and designing infrastructure
interventions) assessing safeguards issues) and conducting monitoring and evaluation.
$*B*!TIF3 FF I3F40$T42!T24* I3T*4>*3TIF3$. 4ecogni8ing gender asymmetries in
demand affects selection of infrastructure activities to 'e undertaken in a countryA
'election of interventions across infrastructure sectors2 Back of access to certain
types of infrastructure services 6e.g.) water) sanitation) fuel and transport7 negatively
)?
affects women more than men and can act as a drain on economic growth in a
community. %omen and girls are disproportionately affected 'y lack of access to
infrastructure services since they 'ear a larger share of the responsi'ility and time for
household maintenance and care activities. Infrastructure investments within a country)
particularly those in transport) energy and water sectors) must 'e prioriti8ed 'ecause of
their potential to reduce the opportunity costs to girls and the time and energy costs to
women of their household roles.
'election of interventions (it)in infrastructure sectors2 %hich interventions are to 'e
selectedD Is there a demand for a feeder road or a trunk road 6connecting village to main
town7D $hould water connections 'e provided in village centers or in homesD The answer
depends on who is asked. !alculating the potential 'enefits of a pro&ect requires
measuring gender differences in demand. For e1ample) women have larger transport
'urdens than men and are typically the main users and providers of household water and
cooking fuel. Thus demand assessment techniques must measure gender disparities in
demand.
$0F*G204D$. For certain infrastructure sectors such as mining or power generation) gender-
relevant considerations might 'e of critical importance in the conte1t of safeguard issues) such as
environmental impacts of increased soil erosion) degradation of water quality) contamination of
drinking water systems) and so on. These environmental effects can disproportionately affect
women 'y increasing their workloads and reducing their a'ility to protect their families+ health and
well'eing. The most effective approach to safeguarding the environment would therefore 'e one
that recogni8es gender differences in roles and responsi'ilities.
;F3ITF4I3G 03D *>0B20TIF3. 4ecogni8ing gender asymmetries affects the design of
monitoring and evaluation of pro&ects. Ignoring this fact might understate or overstate the impact
of a pro&ect. *ffective monitoring requires developing indicators for each stage of pro&ect cycleA
design) implementation) outputs) impact) and for assessing changes in social and economic
characteristics of the communities affected 'y the pro&ect. 0 few e1amples of gender-sensitive
indicators areA use of gender-disaggregated data in pro&ect planning and monitoring) men+s and
women+s groups levels of engagement in pro&ect processes) promotion of men+s and women+s
initiatives 'y the pro&ect facilitator) increase in the num'er of women using intermediate means of
transport or using the time saved 'y improved access to water for other developmental purposes)
and improved access to markets for women traders.
Key Issues
%hat are the gender differences in demand for energy) water) sanitation) transport) and
I!TD %hat are the main economic) time) and cultural constraints to access to
infrastructureD
%hen setting infrastructure priorities) do policies reflect women+s and men+s different
constraints and needsD
0re 'oth women and men 'eing trained as managers and operators of community
infrastructure facilitiesD Do women and men differ in their willingness to pay 6%T#7 for
infrastructure servicesD (ow does this affect service deliveryD
0re pro&ects 'eing designed to fully incorporate an understanding of their gender-related
impactsD
Transport
=ecause women and men in developing countries have different transport needs and priorities)
they are frequently affected differently 'y transport interventions. For e1ample) Rural .ransport
)/
Pro3ects that 'uild roads for motori8ed transport often do not 'enefit rural women) who mainly
work and travel on foot in and around the village. ;oreover) the construction of roads may have
an indirect effect on women as the increased mo'ility of their male counterparts could lead to the
spread of $I!%&ID'. In fact) international evidence shows that the transport sector is a ma&or
vector for this pandemic 6$ocial analysis in transport pro&ects) ,--G7. 4r+an .ransport 'ystems)
which are designed to transport people to and from employment centers) may also respond
inadequately to the needs of women) who must com'ine income generation with household
activities) such as taking children to school and visiting the market.
The failure of the transport sector in meeting women+s needs and priorities affects women
negatively in several ways. =ecause of lack of access to adequate transport) women en&oy less
mo'ility than men< their access to markets and employment is circumscri'ed. %omen+s safety
suffers when their needs are not taken into account in transport pro&ect design) for instance due to
the a'sence of street lighting. %omen+s health is also negatively affected 'y the lack of adequate
transport. *very minute a woman dies in child 'irth) 'ut many of these deaths 6and the disa'ility
caused 'y o'structed la'or7 could 'e avoided with timely access to transport 6Gender and
transport resource guide) ,--G7.
Furthermore) poor women) who 'alance productive) social) and reproductive roles) often have
higher demands on their time than poor men. Gender-responsive infrastructure interventions can
free up women+s time 'y lowering their transaction costs. This) in turn) increases girls+ school
enrollment and facilitates women+s participation in income-generation and decision-making
activities. *vidence from #akistan shows that an all-weather motora'le road may increase girls+
primary school enrollment 'y /- percent and female literacy 'y H/ percent 6Dalil *ssakali) ,--/7.
0ddressing transport-related gender inequalities is smart economics. It 'enefits society as a
whole. 4educing women+s time costs and increasing their mo'ility and safety increases women+s
productivity which makes society as a whole more productive. Gender-responsive transport
services can thus serve as a powerful vehicle to achieving several of the ;DGs. They help
empower women) improve health) provide education opportunities and ultimately reduce poverty.
Key Issues
%hat are the gender differences in demand for transportD
%hen setting transport priorities) do policies reflect men+s and women+s different
constraints and needsD
Is transport pro&ect design and implementation 'ased on consultations with women as
well as menD
%hat transport pro&ects 'enefit women as well as men the mostD
!ater and Sanitation
%omen and men generally have very different roles in water supply and sanitation 6%$$7
activities. These differences are particularly evident in rural areas. Fften women are the main
users) providers) and managers of water in rural households. %omen are also the guardians of
household hygiene. ;en are usually more concerned with water for irrigation or for livestock.
(ence women tend to 'enefit most when access to water) and the quality and quantity of water
improves. Improvements in %$$ infrastructure are likely to shorten women+s and girls+ time spent
carrying heavy containers to collect water) there'y freeing up their time for incomegenerating
activities and school attendance) respectively. Given their longesta'lished) active role in %$$)
women generally know a'out current water sources) their quality and relia'ility) any restrictions to
their use) and how to improve hygiene 'ehaviors. @et for many years) efforts to improve %$$
services had a tendency to overlook women+s central role in water and sanitation. %hile women
03
were often more direct users of water C especially in the household C men traditionally had a
greater role than women in pu'lic decisionmaking. It is essential to fully involve 'oth women and
men in demanddriven %$$ programs) where communities decide what type of systems they want
and are willing to help finance. (aving 'oth men and women involved makes sense for two
reasonsA
First) evidence shows that women+s participation is highly correlated with %$$ pro&ect
effectiveness. $econd) the 'enefits from incorporating gender aspects into the %$$ sector will not
only accrue to women)'ut also to men. Improvements in %$$ infrastructure will help increase
women+s human capital) reduce their time constraints) allow for new incomegenerating activities)
and improve community health. This will in turn increase the productivity of society as a whole)
there'y creating new income. (ence) improving %$$ services makes economic sense for men as
well as for women.
Key Issues
%ho is voicing community preferences on the selection of %$$ technologies) facility
sites) arrangements for financing and management of water servicesD
0re 'oth men and women discussing water and sanitation pro'lems and possi'le
solutionsD
Do e1tension teams have men and women on themD Do they target men and women+s
groups separately for consultation) if local cultures differ significantly 'etween women and
menD
0re 'oth women and men 'eing trained as managers of community facilitiesD

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