Term/Phrase Definition

H using H
c
H
c
(reactants) - H
c
(products)
H using H
f
H
f
(products) - H
f
(reactants)
Activation energy The minimum energy required to start a reaction by the breaking of bonds.
Addition polymer A very long molecular chain formed by repeated addition reactions of many unsaturated alkene molecules.
Addition polymerisation
The process in which unsaturated alkene molecules add on to a growing polymer chain one at a time, to form a very
long saturated molecular chain.
Addition reaction
A reaction in which a reactant is added to an unsaturated molecule to make a saturated molecule. 2 reactants -> 1
product.
Adsorption The process that occurs when a gas, liquid or solute is held to the surface or a solid or more rarely, a liquid.
Alicyclic hydrocarbon A hydrocarbon with carbon atoms joined together in a ring structure.
Aliphatic hydrocarbon A hydrocarbon with carbon atoms joined together in a straight or branched chains.
Alkanes The homologous series with the general formula C
n
H
2n+2

Alkyl group An alkane with a hydrogen atom removed, e.g. CH
3
, any alkyl group is often shown as R.
Atom economy
Molecular mass of the desired product/sum of molecular masses of all products x100 (i.e. the proportion of desired
products compared with all the products formed.)
Average bond enthalpy
The average enthalpy change that takes place when breaking by homolytic fission 1 mol of a given type of bond in the
molecules of a gaseous species.
Biodegradable material A material that is broken down naturally in the environment by living organisms.
Boltzmann distribution The distribution of energies of molecules at a particular temperature often shown as a graph.
Bond enthalpy
The enthalpy change that takes place when breaking by homolytic fission 1 mol of a given bond in the molecules of a
gaseous species.
Carbocation An organic ion in which a carbon atom has a positive charge.
Catalyst
A substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction by providing an alternate pathway of lower activation energy
without being used up (is regenerated at the end of a reaction)
Chemical system The reactions and products.
Cis-trans isomerism A special type of E/Z isomerism in which there is a non-hydrogen group and hydrogen on each C of a C=C double bond.
Cracking The breaking down of long chained saturated hydrocarbons to form a mixture of shorter chained alkanes and alkenes.
Curly arrow
A symbol used in reaction mechanisms to show the movement of an electron pair in the breaking or formation of a
covalent bond.
Dehydration
Dehydration is an elimination reaction in which water is removed from a saturated molecule to make an unsaturated
molecule. 1 molecule -> 2 molecules.
Displayed formula Shows the relative positioning of all the atoms in a molecule and the bonds between them.
Dynamic equilibrium
The equilibrium that exists in a closes system when the rate of the forward reaction is equal to the rate of the reverse
reaction (and the macroscopic properties remain constant.)
E or Trans isomer Opposite
E/Z isomerism
A type of stereoisomerism in which two different groups attached to each carbon of a C=C double bond may be
arranged differently in space because of the restricted rotation of the C=C double bond.
Electrophile
An atom or group of atoms that is attracted to an electron rich centre or atom, where it accepts a pair of electrons to
form a new covalent bond.
Elimination reaction The removal of a molecule from a saturated molecule to make and unsaturated molecule. 1 reactant -> 2 products.
Empirical formula The simplest whole number ratio of atoms of each element present in a compound.
Endothermic
A reaction in which the enthalpy of the products is greater than the enthalpy of the reactants, resulting in heat being
taken in from the surroundings (H +ve)
Enthalpy change of
combustion
The enthalpy change that takes place when one mole of a substance reacts completely with oxygen under standard
conditions in their standard states.
Enthalpy change of formation
The enthalpy change that takes place when one mole of a compound is formed from its constituent elements in their
standard states under standard conditions.
Enthalpy change of reaction
The enthalpy change that accompanies a reaction in the molar quantities expressed in a chemical equation under
standard conditions in their standard states.
Enthalpy cycle
A diagram showing alternative routes between reactants and products which allows the indirect determination of an
enthalpy change from other known enthalpy changes using Hess' law.
Enthalpy profile diagram A diagram for a reaction to compare the enthalpy of the reactants with the enthalpy of the products.
Enthalpy The heat content that is stored in a chemical system.
Esterification The reaction of an alcohol with a carboxylic acid to produce an ester and water.
Exothermic
The enthalpy of the products is smaller than the enthalpy of the reactants in a reaction, resulting in heat loss to the
surroundings. (H -ve)
Fractional distillation
The separation of the components in a liquid mixture into fractions, which differ in boiling point by means of
distillation, typically using a fractionating column.
Fragmentation The process in mass spectrometry that causes a positive ion to split into pieces, one of which is a positive fragment ion.
Functional group The part of the organic molecule responsible for its chemical reactions.
General formula The simplest algebraic formula of a member of a homologous series.
Hess' law
If a reaction can take place by more than one route and the initial and final conditions are the same, the total enthalpy
change is the same for each route.
Heterogenous catalysis
Catalysis of a reaction in which the catalyst has a different physical state from the reactants, frequently reactants are
gases whilst catalyst is a solid.
Heterolytic fission
The breaking of a covalent bond, with both of the bonded electrons going to one of the atoms, forming a cation and an
anion.
Homogenous catalysis
Catalysis of a reaction in which the catalyst and reactants are in the same physical state, frequently aqueous or
gaseous.
Homologous series
A series of organic compounds with the same functional group, the same chemical properties, but with each successive
member differing by CH
2

Homolytic fission The breaking of a covalent bond, with one of the bonded electrons going to each atom, forming two radicals.
Hydrocarbon Organic compounds that contain only hydrogen and carbon.
Hydrolysis A reaction with water or aqueous hydroxide ions that breaks a chemical compound into two compounds.
Initiation The first step in a radical substitution in which the free radicals are generated by ultraviolet radiation.
le Chatelier's principle
When a system in dynamic equilibrium is subjected to a change, the position of equilibrium will shift to minimise the
change.
Limiting reagent The substance in a chemical reaction that runs out first.
M+1 peak
A small peak one unit beyond the molecular ion peak arising from the presence of the isotope carbon-13, which makes
up 1.11% of all carbon atoms.
Mechanism A sequence of steps showing the path taken by electrons in a reaction.
Molecular formula The actual number of atoms of each element in a molecule.
Molecular ion, M
+
The positive ion formed in mass spectrometry when a molecule loses an electron.
Moles Mass/molar mass
Monomer A small molecule that combines with many other monomers to form a polymer.
Nomenclature The system of naming compounds.
Nucleophile
An atom or group of atoms that is attracted to an electron deficient centre or atom, where it donates a pair of
electrons to form a new covalent bond.
Percentage yield
Actual amount in mol of product/theoretical amount in mol of produce x100 (i.e. the efficiency of converting reactants
into products.)
Pi-bond
The reactive part of a double bond formed above and below the plane of the bonded atoms by sideways overlap of p-
orbitals.
Polymer A long molecular chain built up from monomer units.
Propagation The two repeated steps in radical substitution that builds up the products in a chain reaction.
Radical substitution A type of substitution reaction in which a radical replaces a different atom or group of atoms.
Radical A species with an unpaired electron.
Rate of reaction The change in concentration of a reactant or products in a given time.
Reflux
The continual boiling and condensing of a reaction mixture to ensure that the reaction takes place without the contents
of the flask boiling dry.
Repeat unit
A specific arrangement of atoms that occurs in the structure over and over again. Repeat units are included in brackets,
outside of which is the symbol n.
Saturated hydrocarbon A hydrocarbon with single bonds only
Skeletal formula
A simplified organic formula with hydrogen atoms removed from alkyl chains leaving just a carbon skeleton and
associated functional groups.
Specific heat capacity The energy required to raise the temperature of 1g of a substance by 1

c
Standard conditions A pressure of 100kPa, 298K and a concentration of 1.0 mol dm
-3
for reactions with aqueous solutions.
Standard state The physical state of a substance under the standard conditions.
Stereoisomers Compounds with the same structural formula, but with a different arrangement of the atoms in space.
Stratosphere The second layer of the Earth's atmosphere containing the ozone layer about 10 km to 50 km above the Earth's surface.
Structural formula The minimal detail for the arrangement of atoms in a molecule.
Structural isomers Molecules with the same molecular formula but with different structural arrangements of atoms (structural formula).
Substitution reaction
A reaction in which an atom or group of atoms is replaced with a different atom or group of atoms. 2 reactants -> 2
products.
Surroundings What is outside of the chemical system
Termination The step at the end of a radical substitution when two radicals combine to form a molecule. All radicals are removed.
The greenhouse effect
The process in which the absorption and subsequent emission of infrared radiation by atmospheric gases warms the
lower atmosphere and the planet's surface.
Troposphere
The lowest layer of the Earth's atmosphere extending from the Earth's surface up to about 7 km above the poles and 20
km above the tropics.
Unsaturated hydrocarbon A hydrocarbon containing carbon-carbon double bonds
Volatility The ease that a liquid turns into a gas. Volatility increases as boiling point decreases.
Z or Cis isomer Together