Civil Depth Notes For Mar 15th-SOIL

FE DS Civil Review Soil Mechanics and Foundations
i
Table of Contents

1.0 Index Properties and Soil Classification .......................................................... 1
1.1 Index Properties ................................................................................................. 1
1.2 AASHTO Classification System ........................................................................ 4
EXAMPLE 1-2 .................................................................................................. 5
1.3 Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)....................................................... 6
EXAMPLE 1-3 .................................................................................................. 8
2.0 Phase Relationships .......................................................................................... 9
EXAMPLE 2-1 ................................................................................................ 12
EXAMPLE 2-2 ................................................................................................ 13
3.0 Laboratory and Field Tests .............................................................................. 15
3.1 Proctor Laboratory Tests ................................................................................. 16
4.0 Vertical Total and Effective Stress .................................................................. 18
4.1 Total Vertical Stress ......................................................................................... 18
4.2 Pore Water Pressure ........................................................................................ 19
4.3 Effective Vertical Stress ................................................................................... 20
EXAMPLE 4-1 ................................................................................................ 20
5.0 Retaining Walls ................................................................................................. 21
5.1 Earth Pressure Introduction ............................................................................ 21
5.2 Rankine Earth Pressure Theory ...................................................................... 21
EXAMPLE 5-1 ................................................................................................ 22
EXAMPLE 5-2 ................................................................................................ 23
6.0 Shear Strength .................................................................................................. 24
6.1 Intro to Shear Strength Parameters ................................................................ 24
7.0 Shallow Spread Foundations .......................................................................... 26
7.1 Types of Foundations ...................................................................................... 26
7.2 General Bearing Capacity Theory ................................................................... 26
EXAMPLE 7-1 ................................................................................................ 27
EXAMPLE 7-2 ............................................................................................... 27
8.0 Consolidation .................................................................................................... 28
8.1 Load Distribution in Soils ................................................................................ 28
EXAMPLE 8-1 ................................................................................................ 28
EXAMPLE 8-2 ................................................................................................ 28
EXAMPLE 8-3 ................................................................................................ 29
8.2 Consolidation in Clay Soils ............................................................................. 30
8.3 Rate of Consolidation ...................................................................................... 32
EXAMPLE 8-4 ................................................................................................ 33
9.0 Permeability & Seepage ................................................................................... 34
9.1 Coefficient of Permeability Laboratory Tests ................................................ 34
EXAMPLE 9-1 ................................................................................................ 35
EXAMPLE 9-2 ................................................................................................ 36
9.2 Flow Nets........................................................................................................... 37
EXAMPLE 9-3 ................................................................................................ 38


1
1.0 Index Properties and Soil Classification

1.1 Index Properties

Box 1-1: Grain-Size Indices
(Reference FESRH, Pg 134)

Sieve Analysis used to obtain the grain size distribution of coarse-grained soils
(sands and gravels) larger than 0.075 mm (retained above No. 200 Sieve).
Hydrometer Analysis used to obtain the grain size distribution of fine-grained
soils (finer sands, silts and clays) smaller than 0.150 mm (passing No 100
Sieve).

Box 1-2: Sample Grain Size Distribution Curves

2
Grain Size Distribution Curve (Box 1-2) is a plot of percent finer vs. particle
diameter in mm on a log scale.

Distribution shape indices, coefficient of uniformity, C
u
and coefficient of
curvature, C
c
indicate the general shape of the curve.
60
10
u
D
C
D
and
2
30
60 10
( )
c
D
C
D D

D
n
is the particle size (diameter in mm) at which n percent of the particles are
finer.

The effective particle size (D
10
) is the particle size at which 10% of the
particles are finer.

Example 1-1:
Determine the coefficient of uniformity and the coefficient of gradation of the gap-
graded and well-graded soils shown in Box 1-2 on the previous page.

Solution:
Gap-Graded Soil:

D
60
_____ mm, D
30
_____ mm, D
10
_____ mm

60
10

__________

u
D
C
D

2
30
60 10

_________

z
D
C
D D

Well-Graded Soil:

D
60
1.0 mm, D
30
0.15 mm, D
10
0.02 mm

60
10
1.0 mm
50
0.02 mm
u
D
C
D

2 2
30
60 10
(0.15 mm)
1.13
(1.0 mm)(0.02 mm)
z
D
C
D D

(Answers given in Appendix)

3

Box 1-3: Atterberg Limits

The Atterberg Limits tests (Box 1-3) are designed to determine the plasticity
of finer grained soils. These tests are performed on the fraction less than 0.425
mm (passing the No. 40 Sieve).

The liquid limit (LL) is the moisture content at which the soil sample passes
from the plastic state to the liquid state.

The plastic limit (PL) is the moisture content at which the soil sample passes
from the semisolid to the plastic state.

The plasticity index (PI) is the difference in moisture content from the threshold
of the plastic to liquid state to the threshold of the semisolid to plastic state.

PI = LL - PL


4
1.2 AASHTO Classification System

Classification Procedures

1. Identify the percent passing the No.10, No. 40, and No. 200 sieves.
Identify the LL and PI of the fraction passing the No. 40 sieve.

2. Use AASHTO Classification Table (Box 1-4). Move from left to right
using process of elimination until the first group consistent with the
laboratory data is identified.

3. Calculate the group index or partial group index using the given
equations. If the equation yields a negative number, report it as zero.
Always round the Group Index (GI) to the nearest whole number.

Box 1-4: AASHTO Classification Table

5

EXAMPLE 1-2
Determine the AASHTO Classification of soils A, B & C

Sieve No
Soil A
% Passing
Soil B
% Passing
Soil C
% Passing
No. 10 82 74 100
No. 40 46 52 90
No. 200 23 30 87
LL NP 25 71
PL NP 14 40

Solution:

Sample A:

LL = NP PI = _____

A) A-1-a
B) A-1-b
C) A-3
D) A-2-4

GI = ______

AASHTO Classification: ________

Sample B:

LL = 25 PI = _____

A) A-2-4
B) A-2-5
C) A-2-6
D) A-2-7

GI = ______

Classification: ________

Sample C:

LL = 71 PI = _____

A) A-5
B) A-6
C) A-7-5
D) A-7-6

GI = ______

Classification: ________


IMPORTANT TEST TIP:

Pay attention to the difference
between the PL and PI. If
the plastic limit is given:
PI = LL - PL

6
1.3 Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)

Group Symbols

First Letter: G Gravel
S Sand
M Silt
C Clay

Second Letter: For Course-Grained Soils - G or S
P Poorly Graded
W Well Graded
M Silty
C Clayey

For Fine-Grained Soils M or C
L Low Plasticity
H High Plasticity or Elastic

Box 1-5: USCS Classification Table


7

Classification Procedures:

1. Identify the percent gravel, percent sand and percent fines (using No. 4
and No. 200 sieves). Note that fines refer to soils passing the No. 200
sieve.

2. If the percent passing the No. 200 sieve is less than 50%, then the soil is
coarse-grained.

For soils with less than 5% fines, determine C
u
& C
c
to determine
group symbol (GW, GP, SW, or SP).

For soils with greater than 12% fines, determine the LL and PI of
fraction passing the No. 40 sieve and plot results on the
Casegrande Plasticity Chart to determine group symbol (GM, GC,
SM, or SC). If the fines plot in the CL-ML area, the group symbol
will either be GC-GM or SC-SM.

3. If the soil has 5 to 12 % fines, the soil will have a dual symbol.

First symbol will be GW, GP, SW, or SP, depending on values of C
u
& C
c
. Second symbol will be GM, GC, SM, or SC according to
where fines plot on the Casegrande Plasticity Chart. Only the
following combinations are possible:

GW-GM SW-SM
GW-GC SW-SC
GP-GM SP-SM
GP-GC SP-SC

4. If the percent passing the No. 200 sieve is greater than or equal to 50%,
then the sample is fine-grained.

Determine the LL and PI and plot results on Casagrande Plasticity
Chart. Note that non-plastic soil (PI < 4) classifies as non-plastic
silt (ML).


8
EXAMPLE 1-3
Determine the USCS Classification of soils A & B & C

Sieve No % Passing
Soil A
% Passing
Soil B
% Passing
Soil C
No. 4 100 98 77
No. 40 90 46 42
No. 200 87 23 10
LL 75 20 22
PI 20 6 5
C
u
26
C
c
0.2

Solution:
Sample A:
LL = 75 PI = 20

Gravel = _____ % Sand = _____ % Fines = _____ %

Coarse-grained or fine-grained?

USCS Group Symbol = _____

Sample B:
LL = 20 PI = 6




Sample C:
LL = 22 PI = 5






9

2.0 Phase Relationships

Total Volume V = V
a
+ V
w
+ V
s
Total Weight W = W
w
+ W
s

V = V
v
+ V
s

Box 2-1: Phase Diagram

Box 2-2: Common Soil Properties


10
Water content (ratio of weights) and saturation (ratio of volumes):

Moisture Content,
Weight of Water
100%
Weight of Solids
w
s
W
w
W

Degree of Saturation,
Volume of Water
100%
Volume of Voids
w
v
V
S
V

[True or False] The moisture content can be greater than 100%.

[True or False] The degree of saturation can be greater than 100%.

If the moisture content is 0%, what is the degree of saturation? _____

If the degree of saturation is 100%, what is the moisture content? _____


Unit weight is a generic term to describe a weight per unit volume. The
descriptive terms total, saturated, dry, and effective all indicate a specific
weight-volume relationship.

Total unit weight:
Total Weight
Total Volume
W
V

Saturated unit weight is a special case of total unit weight, when 100% of soil
voids are filled with water (S = 1.0)

( ) ( ) Total Weight of Saturated Soil
Total Volume 1 1
sat s w s
sat
t
W G e G e
V e w

Dry unit weight:
Weight of Solids
Total Volume 1 1
s s w
d
W G
V e w

[True or False] If the dry unit weight of a soil is 100 pcf, the moisture content
must be 0%.



11

Unit weight of water represents the weight of water per unit volume of water:

3
lb
ft
Weight of Water
62.4 (see pg 19 of FESRH)
Volume of Water
w
w
w
W
V

Unit weight of solids represents the weight of solids per unit volume of solids:

Weight of Solids
Volume of Solids
s
solids s w
s
W
G
V

Void ratio and porosity are both volume ratios. These parameters are directly
related.

Volume of Voids
Volume of Solids 1
v
s
V n
e
V n

Volume of Voids
Total Volume 1
v
V e
n
V e

Specific gravity:
Unit Weight of Solids
Unit Weight of Water
solids s
s
w s w
W
G
V

Notes: Weight-volume relationships (weight, W, and unit weight, ) can also be
expressed as mass-volume relationships (mass, M, and density, ), for
example:

or
s s
s s
s w s w
W M
G G
V V

Where the relationship of weight to mass is as follows:

W Mg where g = 32.2 ft/s
2
(English) = 9.81 m/s
2
(SI)


12

EXAMPLE 2-1
A soil has a volume of 0.3 ft
3
and weighs 36 lbs. The specific gravity (G
s
) of the
soil sample is 2.67 and the moisture content (w) is 18%. Determine the moist unit
weight ( ), dry unit weight (
d
), void ratio (e), porosity (n), and degree of saturation
(S):

V (ft
3
) W (lb)
A 0
W
S
V
t
= 0.3 W
t
= 36

Solution:

Compute the weight of water:
0.18
w s s
W wW W

Compute the weight of solids:
36 lb
s t w w
W W W W

therefore:
36 0.18
30.5 lb and 5.5 lb
s s
s w
W W
W W

Compute the volume of water:

3
5.5 lb
0.088 ft
62.4 pcf
w
w
w
W
V

Compute the volume of solids:

3
30.5 lb
0.183 ft
(2.67)(62.4 pcf )
s s
s
s s w
W W
V
G

Compute the volume of voids:

3 3 3
0.3 ft 0.183 ft 0.117 ft
v t s
V V V


13

Solve for required parameters:

Moist unit weight:
3
lb
3
ft
36 lb
120
0.3 ft
t
t
W
V

Dry unit weight:
3
lb
3
ft
30.5 lb
101.7
0.3 ft
s
d
t
W
V

Void ratio:
3
3
0.117 ft
0.64
0.183 ft
v
s
V
e
V

Porosity:
3
3
0.117 ft
0.39
0.3 ft
v
t
V
n
V

Degree of Saturation:
3
3
0.088 ft
0.75 (75%)
0.117 ft
w
v
V
S
V

Relative density, D
r
, is a special weight-volume relationship used in sands and
gravels (not applicable to fine-grained soils).

Expressed in terms of void ratio or dry unit weight as determined by lab test
(see FESRH, pg 134):

( ) ( )
(%) 100% 100%
( ) ( )
max d d min d max
r
max min d max d min d
e e
D
e e

EXAMPLE 2-2
For a given sandy soil (
d
)
max
= 116.6 pcf, (
d
)
min
= 90.9 pcf and G
s
= 2.71. What is
the in-situ void ratio if D
r
= 65%?

What do you need to do first?

Can you write an equation for e in terms of
d
and G
s
?


14

Solution:

Use the relative density equation to solve for the in-situ dry unit weight:

( ) ( )
100%
( ) ( )
d d min d max
r
d max d min d
D

( )
1
( )
d min
d
r
d d
max min
d max
D

d
90.9 pcf
106.1 pcf
0.65
1 116.6 pcf 90.9 pcf
116.6 pcf

Solve for the void ratio:

2.71(62.4 pcf )
1 1 0.59
106.1 pcf
s w
d
G
e



15

3.0 Laboratory and Field Tests

Table 3.0: Summary of Common Laboratory Tests for Soils
Test Appropriate for Properties Measured
See
Chapter
Mechanical Sieve,
D422
gravel, sand
Fraction of particle size
distribution > 0.075 mm
1
Hydrometer, D422
fine grained
soils
(silt, clay)
Fraction of particle size
distribution < 0.075 mm
1
Relative Density,
D4253
coarse sand,
gravel
Relative density, D
r
2
Proctor, Std, D698,
Mod, D1557
sand, silt, clay Moisture-Density Relationship 3
CU Triaxial
Compression,
D4767
sand, silt, clay
With pore pressure
measurements, total, c, , and
effective, c, , shear strengths
6
Consolidation,
D2435
clay
Preconsolidation stress,
settlement properties
8
Falling Head
Permeability,
D5084
fine sand, fine
grained soils
Hydraulic conductivity, k,
soils with
k < 10
-3
cm/sec
9
Constant Head
Permeability,
D5084
coarse grained
soils
Hydraulic conductivity, k,
soils with
k > 10
-3
cm/sec
9


16
3.1 Proctor Laboratory Tests

Compaction is densification of soil by the reduction of air in the soil voids. The
degree of compaction is measured in dry unit weight (dry density).

Standard Proctor Test (ASTM D698) and Modified Proctor Test (ASTM D1557)

Proctor curve cannot plot above the zero voids line, which is a plot of dry unit
weight (
d
) vs. moisture content (w), at 100 percent saturation (S=100%).

Box 3-1: A typical compaction test proctor curve


17

EXAMPLE 3-1
Standard proctor test results are given in the following:

Volume of Mold
(ft
3
)
Wt. of Moist Soil
(lb)
Moisture Content
(%)
1/30 3.53 11
1/30 3.85 13
1/30 4.01 15
1/30 3.97 17
1/30 3.77 19

Determine the maximum dry unit weight of compaction and the optimum moisture
content.

Solution:
Prepare the following table:

Volume of
Mold
(ft
3
)
Wt. of Moist
Soil
(lb)
Moist Unit
Weight
(lb/ft
3
)
Moisture
Content
(%)
Dry Unit
Weight
(lb/ft
3
)
1/30 3.53 11
1/30 3.85 13
1/30 4.01 15
1/30 3.97 17
1/30 3.77 19

Use the data in this table to estimate the maximum dry unit weight (
d
) and the
optimum moisture content (w).

Maximum dry unit weight = _____ pcf

Optimum Moisture Content = _____%


Relative compaction is the ratio of the field dry unit weight to the maximum dry
unit weight.

( )
Field Dry Unit Weight
100%
( )
Max Dry Unit Weight
d field
d max
RC

18
4.0 Vertical Total and Effective Stress

Box 4-1: Vertical Stress Parameters
(Reference FESRH, pg 135)

4.1 Total Vertical Stress

Total vertical stress,
v
, is generated by gravitation force acting on the soil
mass.

v i i
z

where:
v
= Total vertical stress

i
= Total unit weight of the soil layer(s)
z
i
= Thickness of soil layer(s)

Box 4-2: Example for Total Stress

The total vertical stress at Point A for the soil profile shown in Box 4-2 can be
calculated as:

1 1 2 2 v
z z


19

4.2 Pore Water Pressure

Pore water pressure is the result of buoyant force, u, exerted by water in the
soil mass.

CASE 1: Pore water pressure in hydrostatic conditions (no flow). Use this
case by default unless otherwise specified.

w w
u z

where: u = Pore water pressure

w
= Unit weight of water
h
u
= z
w
= Depth below the groundwater surface
(for no flow = phreatic surface)

CASE 2: Pore water pressure in seepage conditions (1-D upward or
downward flow).

w p
u h

where: u = Pore water pressure

w
= Unit weight of water
h
u
= h
p
= Pressure (piezometric) head at the point of interest

Box 4-3: Case 1 (hydrostatic conditions with no flow) and
Case 2 (seepage conditions)


20
4.3 Effective Vertical Stress

Effective Stress is the portion of the total stress that will be supported through
grain contact. The vertical effective stress,
v
, in a soil element at a depth, z, is
the difference of the total vertical stress imposed by the weight above, minus
the pore water pressure, u.

Effective vertical stress,
v
:

u
v v
'

where:
v
= Total vertical stress (lb/ft
2
or kN/m
2
)

v
= Effective vertical stress (lb/ft
2
or kN/m
2
)
u = Pore water pressure (lb/ft
2
or kN/m
2
)

EXAMPLE 4-1
Assuming hydrostatic conditions, determine the total and effective vertical
stresses at Points A and B for the soil profile shown:

Solution:

Total vertical stress:

Point A:
3 2
lb lb
ft ft
(62.4 )(10 ft) 624
v

Point B:
2 3 2
lb lb lb
ft ft ft
(624 ) (130 )(20 ft) 3224
v

Effective vertical stress:

Point A:
2 3 2
lb lb lb
ft ft ft
' 624 (62.4 )(10 ft) 0
v

Point B:
2 3 2
lb lb lb
ft ft ft
' 3224 (62.4 )(30 ft) 1352
v


21

5.0 Retaining Walls

5.1 Earth Pressure Introduction

Earth pressure is the force per unit area exerted by soil. The ratio of horizontal
to vertical stress is called coefficient of lateral earth pressure (K).
'
and
'
h h
v v
K K

Earth pressure forces can be at-rest (a), active (b) or passive (c).

Box 5-1: Nature of Lateral Earth Pressure on a Retaining Wall
(Source: Das, 2007)

5.2 Rankine Earth Pressure Theory

For level backfill ( = 0):

2
tan (45 )
2
A
K and
2
tan (45 )
2
P
K

The total active resultant force (where = 0) is solved for by:

2
1 1
2 2
A A A
P p H K H

The total passive resultant force (where = 0) is solved for by:

2
1 1
2 2
p p p
P p H K H


22

EXAMPLE 5-1
A 10 ft high gravity retaining wall with flat backfill ( = 0) retains a clean sand for
which = 120 lb/ft
3
and = 32 . Using Rankines earth pressure theory, calculate
the total active earth pressure, and the active resultant force.

Solution:

Calculate the active earth pressure coefficient:

2 2
32
2 2
tan (45 ) tan (45 ) 0.307
A
K

Calculate the active earth pressure and resultant force:

(120 pcf )(10 ft)(0.307) 368 psf
A A
p HK

1 1
(368 psf )(10 ft) 1842 plf
2 2
A A
P p H


23

EXAMPLE 5-2
The sandy soil with an internal angle of friction of 30 degrees is retained behind a
9-foot retaining wall has moist unit weight of 128 pcf. Due to poor drainage, the
water table has risen to 6 feet above the base of the wall. The saturated unit
weight of the soil is 135 pcf. What is the total active resultant force acting on the
wall?

Solution:
Determine the resultant active earth force, P
a
:

2
30
tan (45 ) 0.333
2
A
K
1 2 3 A A A A W
P P P P P
1
1 1 1
2
0.5 (0.333)(3 ft)(128 pcf ) (3 ft) 191.8 plf
A A
P K H H
2 1 2
(0.333)(3 ft)(128 pcf ) (6 ft) 767.2 plf
A A
P K H H

1
3 2 2
2
' 0.5 (0.333)(6 ft)(135 pcf - 62.4 pcf ) (6 ft) 435.2 plf
A A
P K H H

1
2 2
2
0.5 (6 ft)(62.4 pcf ) (6 ft) 1123.2 plf
W w
P H H
191.8 767.3 435.2 1123.2 2517.5 plf
A
P


24
6.0 Shear Strength

6.1 Intro to Shear Strength Parameters

Box 6-1: Shear Strength References


25

EXAMPLE 6-1
A triaxial test is performed on a soil sample consisting of dry sand. Failure occurred
at a normal stress of 6,260 psf and a shear stress was 4,175 psf. Determine the
internal angle of friction and the major and minor principal stresses.

Solution:
Compute the internal angle of friction:

When c = 0,
1 1
4175 psf
tan tan 34
6260 psf
F
N

Solve for
I
and
III
by writing two equations using the geometry of the Mohrs circle
and shear strength plot:

2( ) 2(4175 psf)
cos 10, 072 psf
cos(34 )
2
F F F
I III
I III
I III
t

2
sin +3.49 28,122 psf
2
I III
N
I III N N
I III
I III I III
s
t
By solving simultaneously: 14,092 psf and 4,020 psf
I III


26
7.0 Shallow Spread Foundations

7.1 Types of Foundations

Foundations can be classified as shallow or deep:

(a) Shallow: spread footings and mats
(b) Deep: Driven piles, drilled shafts, and piers

For shallow foundation, depth is shallower than its width.

For deep foundation, depth (D
f
) is larger than its width (B). Generally, deep
foundations have the ratio (10 D
f
/B).

7.2 General Bearing Capacity Theory

The ultimate bearing capacity is theoretically the bearing pressure at which
shear failure will occur.

Terzaghis general bearing capacity equation is given as:

0.5 q cN D N BN
ult c f q

where: q
ult
= Ultimate bearing capacity
c = cohesion
D
f
= Depth of footing
= Unit weight of the soil
B = Width or diameter of footing
N
c
, N
q
, N = Bearing capacity factors based on

The allowable bearing capacity is the maximum bearing pressure the soil can
safely support with a reasonable factor of safety (typically 2 to 3 for
foundations):
q
q
ult
q
all
FS

Note that bearing capacity and bearing pressure can be thought of in terms of
supply and demand. The allowable bearing capacity is the available supply,
which must be greater than or equal to the applied bearing pressure, which is
the demand placed on the soil.

all applied
q Q


27

EXAMPLE 7-1
Determine the ultimate and allowable bearing capacities for a continuous footing
with a width of 3.5 feet. The foundation is bearing 2 feet below the ground surface in
sand with unit weight of 130 psf, and an internal angle of friction of 36 degrees (c =
0). Assume a factor of safety of 3.0.

Solution:

Determine bearing capacity factors:

Nc = 50, N = 56, Nq = 38

1) Solve for the ultimate bearing capacity.

0.5
ult c f q
q cN D N BN

2 3 3
lb lb lb
ft ft ft
(0 )(50) (130 )(2 ft)(38) 0.5(130 )(3.5 ft)(56) 22,620 psf
ult
q

2) Solve for the allowable bearing capacity.

22,620 psf
7,540 psf
3
ult
all
q
q
FS

EXAMPLE 7-2
Determine the factor of safety for a continuous footing with a width of 3.5 feet
carrying a load of 18 kips per lineal foot (plf). The foundation is bearing 2 feet below
the ground surface in sand with unit weight of 130 psf, and an internal angle of
friction of 36 degrees (c = 0).

Solution:

1) Solve for the ultimate bearing capacity (from previous solution)
2 3 3
lb lb lb
ft ft ft
(0 )(50) (130 )(2 ft)(38) 0.5(130 )(3.5 ft)(56) 22,620 psf
ult
q

2) Solve for the bearing pressure.
18,000 lb
9000 psf
2 ft 1 ft
P
Q
A

3) Solve for FS
q
.
22,620 psf
2.5
9,000 psf
ult
q
q
FS
Q


28
8.0 Consolidation

8.1 Load Distribution in Soils

EXAMPLE 8-1
A point load with a magnitude of 180,000 lbs acts at the ground surface. Determine
the vertical stress increase due to the applied point load at a vertical distance of 10
feet, and depth of 20 feet from the point of application.

Solution: (Reference FESRH, pg 139)

For uniformly loaded circular and rectangular areas, the increase in vertical
stress is determined by:
s z
p q I

where: q
s
= Applied bearing pressure
I
z
= Influence factor

and:
load
area
s
q

EXAMPLE 8-2
A flexible rectangular area measures 10 by 20 ft in plan. It supports an applied
pressure of 3,000 psf. Determine the vertical stress increase due to the applied load
at a depth of 20 ft below the corner of the rectangular area.

Solution: (Reference FESRH, pg 140)

( )(3000 psf ) 360 psf Iq

2 2
10 ft
0.5 0.2733
20 ft
180, 000 lbs
(0.2733) 123 psf
(20 ft)
r
r
r
C
z
P
p C
z
10 ft 20 ft
0.5 1.0
20 ft 20 ft
B L
m n I
z z

29

EXAMPLE 8-3
A cylindrical concrete tank has an outer diameter of 80 feet and a height of 40 feet.
The concrete is 24 inches thick along the walls and base. The tank is designed to
hold water with a maximum depth of 35 feet. Determine the maximum increase in
vertical stress (psf) induced by the tank at a depth of 20 feet (Point A) and 40 feet
(Point B) below the base of the tank.

Solution:
Find the volume of concrete and volume of water:

2 2
3
4
80 ft 40 ft 76 ft 38 ft 28,676 ft
conc OD ID
V V V

2 3
4
(76 ft) (35 ft) 158,776 ft
w
V

Determine applied bearing pressure:

3 3
2
3 3
lb lb
ft ft lb
2
ft
4
150 28, 676 ft 62.4 158, 776 ft
2827
80 ft
conc conc w w
V V
q
A
q

Determine p at Point A:

Note the maximum increase in stress will occur at the center of the loaded area.
(See FESRH, pg139)

20 ft 0 ft
0.5 0
40 ft 40 ft
z
z r
I
R R

( )(2827 psf ) 2587 psf
A z s
p I q

Determine at Point B:

40 ft 0 ft
1.0 0
40 ft 40 ft
z
z r
I
R R

( )(2827 psf ) 1826 psf
B z s
p I q



30
8.2 Consolidation in Clay Soils

Settlement of fine-grained soils occurs in three stages. Immediate settlement
occurs rapidly and is based on the theory of elasticity. Primary consolidation
occurs due the extrusion of water from soil pores. Secondary compression (aka
creep) occurs as soil particles readjust and compress.

Box 8-1: Three phases of settlement in fine-grained soils
(Source: Lui and Evett 2005)

The stress history of soils is summarized by:

For normally consolidated soils:
0 c
p p

For overconsolidated soils:
0 c
p p

where: p
o
= Initial (present) effective overburden pressure
p
c
= Preconsolidation pressure


31

Normally Consolidated:
0 c
p p

For a normally consolidated (NC) soil, primary consolidation settlement can be
calculated using the Compression Index, C
c
:

0
0
0 0
log
(1 ) (1 )
TOT
ULT v s s s
p p
Cc
p
e
S H H H
e e

Overconsolidated Case I:
0 0
and ( )
c c
p p p p p

For an overconsolidated (OC) soil where the final effective overburden pressure
does not exceed the preconsolidation pressure, primary consolidation
settlement can be calculated using the recompression index, C
r
:

0
0
0 0
log
(1 ) (1 )
TOT
ULT v s s s
p p
Cr
p
e
S H H H
e e

Overconsolidated Case II:
0 0
and ( )
c c
p p p p p

For an overconsolidated (OC) soil where the final effective overburden pressure
does exceed the preconsolidation pressure, primary consolidation settlement
can be calculated using the recompression index, C
r
and the compression
index, C
c
:

0
0 0 0
log log
(1 ) (1 )
TOT s c
ULT v s s
c
e H p p p
S H H Cc Cr
e e p p


32
8.3 Rate of Consolidation

Degree of consolidation U
AV
= S
t
/S
ULT

S
t
= settlement of the layer at time, t
S
ULT
= total settlement

The average degree of consolidation, U, of a saturated clay layer is a function
of the nondimensional time factor, T
v

where: T
v
= Time factor
c
v
= coefficient of consolidation
t = time
H
dr
= length of the drainage path
= H
s
/2 for two-way drainage
= H
s
for one-way drainage
(where H
s
is thickness of the layer)

Box 8-2: Two-Way and One-Way Drainage Paths

2
v
v
dr
c t
T
H

33

EXAMPLE 8-4
A 15-ft thick clay is bounded by sand at the top and bottom. The clay has a
coefficient of consolidation of 0.3 ft
2
/day. Determine the time when 50% and 90% of
the total settlement will occur.

Solution:
Double drainage H
dr
= _______

From Table FESRH, pg 141: For U = 50% T
v
= ____

For U = 90% T
v
= ____

Calculate the time for 50% and 90 % of consolidation to occur:

2
2 2
50
ft
day
(____)(7.5 ft)
37 days
0.3
v d
v
T H
t
c

2
2 2
90
ft
day
(____)(7.5 ft)
159 days
0.3
v d
v
T H
t
c


34
9.0 Permeability & Seepage

9.1 Coefficient of Permeability Laboratory Tests

Constant head permeability test:

Box 9-1: Constant Head Apparatus
(Source: Coduto, 1999)

Appropriate for coarse-grained soils with permeability greater than 10
-3
cm/sec.
The coefficient of permeability via constant head is solved for by:

QL
k
hAt

where: Q = Volume of water

L

= Length of specimen between piezometers
A

= Cross-sectional area of specimen
t

= Duration of water collection
h

= Head difference


35

EXAMPLE 9-1
A constant-head permeability test was performed on a 110 mm diameter, 270 mm
tall fine sand sample in a permeameter similar to the one shown in Box 9-3. The
piezometers are spaced 200 mm apart and had readings of 1809 and 1578 mm. The
graduated cylinder collected 910 ml of water over 25 min 15 sec. Calculate the
hydraulic conductivity of the soil in cm/sec.

Solution:

Define the following parameters:

3
2 2
4
910 ml 910 cm
(11 cm) 95 cm
20 cm
180.9 cm 157.8 cm 23.1 cm
1515 sec
Q
A
L
h
t

Solve for k:

3
3
cm
sec
2
(910 cm )(20 cm)
5.5 10
(23.1 cm)(95 cm )(1515 s)
QL
k
hAt

Falling head permeability test:

Appropriate for fine-grained soils with permeability less
than 10
-3
cm/sec. The coefficient of permeability via falling
head is solved for by:

0
10
1
2.303 log
h aL
k
At h

where: h
0
= Head at the start of the test (t
0
)
h
1
= Head at the end of the test (t
1
)
L

= Length of specimen
A

= Cross-sectional area of specimen
a

= Cross-sectional area of standpipe
t

= Duration of water collection (t
1
-t
0
)

36

Box 9-2: Falling Head Apparatus
(Source: Coduto, 1999)

EXAMPLE 9-2
A falling-head permeability test was performed on a silty clay in a permeameter
similar to the one shown in Box 9-4. The diameter and length of the sample were
10.20 and 16.20 cm, respectively. The cross-sectional area of the standpipe was
1.95 cm
2
. The water in the standpipe dropped from a height of 100 cm at the start of
the test to 92 cm at the end of the test. The test duration was 35 minutes. Calculate
the coefficient of permeability in cm/sec.

Solution:
Define the following parameters:
2
2
81.7 cm
1.95 cm
16.2 cm
2100 sec
A
a
L
t

0
1
100 cm
92 cm
h
h

Solve for coefficient of permeability:
2
5
0
cm
10 10 sec
2
1
(1.95 cm )(16.2 cm) 100 cm
2.303 log 2.303 log 1.5 10
92 cm
(81.7 cm )(2100 s)
h aL
k
At h


37

9.2 Flow Nets

Laplaces Equation represents energy loss through a resistive medium (i.e. flow
through soil). A flow net is a 2D graphical solution of Laplaces Equation.

A flow net is a combination of flow lines and equipotential lines.

A flow line is a line along which a water particle travels.

There is no flow along equipotential lines, which are 90 degrees to flow lines.
The total head along an equipotential line is equal at all points.

The total flow rate (per unit width) though a flow net, is solved for by:

f
d
N
Q k h
N

where: Q = Total flow rate
N
f
= Number of flow channels in a flow net
N
d
= Number of potential drops
h = Head change from upstream to downstream
k = Coefficient of permeability


38

EXAMPLE 9-3
For a flow net shown in the following figure, determine head loss at points A, B, and
C. The structure is approximately 100 feet long. Determine the flow rate in ft
3
/min
through the permeable layer. Assume hydraulic conductivity, k = 1.64 10
-4
ft/min.

.

Solution:

N
f
= ____ N
d
= ____

Total head loss (H) = ____

Head loss per drop = ____

Head loss at Pnt A = ____ Pnt B = ____ Pnt C = ____

Calculate seepage:

3
ft
__________
min
f
d
N
Q kH L
N


APPENDIX

Example 1-1

D
60
6 mm, D
30
0.3 mm, D
10
0.08 mm

60
10
6mm
75
0.08mm
u
D
C
D
;
2 2
30
60 10
(0.3mm)
0.1875
(6mm)(0.08mm)
z
D
C
D D

Example 1-2

Sample A
PI = NP
Classification: A-1-b

Sample B
PI = 11
Classification: A-2-6

Sample C
PI = 31
(87 35)[0.2 0.005(71 40)] 0.01(87 15)(31 10) 33.58 GI
Classification: A-7-5 (34)

6 mm
0.08 mm 0.3 mm
APPENDIX

Example 1-3

Sample A
Gravel: 100 100 = 0; Sand: 100 87 = 13; Fines: 87
Fine-Grained
Classification: MH

Sample B
Coarse-Grained
Classification: SC-SM

Sample C
Coarse-Grained
Classification: SP-SC

[True or False] The moisture content can be greater than 100%. - TRUE
[True or False] The degree of saturation can be greater than 100%. - FALSE
If the moisture content is 0%, what is the degree of saturation? 0 %
If the degree of saturation is 100%, what is the moisture content? > 0%

[True or False] If the dry unit weight of a soil is 100 pcf, the moisture content must
be 0%. - FALSE

Example 2-2

What do you need to do first?

Known information: (
d
)
min
, (
d
)
max,
D
r
= 65%

(
d
)
in-situ

G
s
= 2.71

Can you write an equation for e in terms of
d
and G
s
?

1 1
1
s w s w s w
d
d d
G G G
e e
e

APPENDIX

Example 3-1

Volume of
Mold
(ft
3
)
Wt. of Moist
Soil
(lb)
Moist Unit
Weight
(lb/ft
3
)
Moisture
Content
(%)
Dry Unit
Weight
(lb/ft
3
)
1/30 3.53 105.9 11 95.4
1/30 3.85 115.5 13 102.2
1/30 4.01 120.3 15 104.6
1/30 3.97 119.1 17 101.8
1/30 3.77 113.1 19 95.0

Maximum dry unit weight = 105 pcf; Optimum Moisture Content = 15 %

Example 8-2
(1.20)(3000 psf ) 360 psf Iq

Example 8-3
(0.915)(2827 psf ) 2587 psf
A z s
p I q

(0.645)(2827 psf ) 1826 psf
B z s
p I q

Example 8-4
Double drainage H
dr
= (15ft/2) = 7.5 ft

2
2 2
50
ft
day
(0.196)(7.5 ft)
37 days
0.3
v d
v
T H
t
c
;
2
2 2
90
ft
day
(0.848)(7.5 ft)
159 days
0.3
v d
v
T H
t
c

Example 9-3

N
f
= 4; N
d
= 8; Total head loss (H) = (20 ft 8 ft) = 12 ft;

Head loss per drop = (12 ft/8 drops) = 1.5 ft/drop

Head loss at Pnt A = (1.5ft/drop) x 2 drops = 3 ft
Head loss at Pnt B = Pnt C = (1.5ft/drop) x 5 drops = 7.5 ft

3
4
ft
min
4 ft
(1.64 10 )(12ft) (100ft) 0.0984
8 min
f
d
N
Q kH L
N

Civil Depth Notes For Mar 15th-SOIL

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FE DS Civil Review Soil Mechanics and Foundations

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