GEOTECHNICAL INSTRUMENTATION

David Marks
AdvDipLab(Civil), OMIEAust, CEngO
Abstract
Recent above average.rainfall intensities have had
an adverse impact on the stability of slopes and
embankments across Queensland's state controlled
road network. Both during times of exceptionally
wet weather and during normal weather conditions,
data derived from geotechnical instrumentation and
tools have been invaluable in enabling Queensland
Department of Transport and Main Roads (TMR)
technical staff in the areas of site investigation, design
verification, construction specification, quality control
and legal protection. A further benefit has been the
confidence it gives geotechnical engineers in providing
safety for the state's road users.
This article gives a brief insight into the range of
instruments used to gather geotechnical data to
aid technical decision-making as part of normal
construction practice or before undertaking road and
embankment rehabilitation. It concludes with a case
study of their use on TMR's South West Transport
Corridor project.
Background
Events worldwide have led to the conclusion that the
world's climate is changing. It is believed that this
will lead to higher average temperatures and increased
extreme weather conditions. From a slope and
embankment stability aspect, increased rainfall causes
surface erosion, rock slides and increased infiltration
of water into the underlying strata. The effects of
this water infiltration are increased bulk density and
a reduction of the shear strength properties of the soil
or rock. If adverse weather conditions continue, it is
likely there will be increased emphasis on geotechnical
instrumentation to monitor the safety of the road
network.
Geotechnical instrumentation
Instrumentation is an integral part of geotechnical
engineering, providing an essential tool for monitoring
safety and performance during the construction
and maintenance phases of many civil engineering
projects. It supplies data on a variety of engineering
parameters such as rainfall, pore water pressures,
horizontal and vertical deformations, temperature, and
stresses and strains induced in soils, rock and structural
steel members. This information is often applied to
infrastructure projects involving embankments on soft
ground, earthen embankment dams, excavated and
natural slopes, underground excavations and tunnelling
applications.
The effective use offield instrumentation requires a
thorough understanding of geotechnical principles and
careful planning of instrumentation projects. Each
step (equipment installation, monitoring, data analysis
and reporting) is critical to the success or failure of the
overall project and depends heavily on the combined
capabilities of the instruments and their operators.
Structural design engineers and geotechnical engineers
use data derived from geotechnical instrumentation
to obtain a factor of safety to enable a reliable
estimate 'of performance. The technological advances
made in instrumentation equipment are mirrored by
stakeholders' increased levels of confidence in civil
engineering construction activities. Not only do
projects benefit in terms of cost and time, so too does
the general community.
QUEENSLAND ROADS Edition No 11 September 2011
25
TMR's Geotechnical Services Unit is a fully
NATA endorsed geotechnical laboratory within
Engineering and Technology Division. It is part of the
Geotechnical Branch, it is comprised of geotechnical
engineers, engineering geologists, geologists,
technologists, draft persons, field and laboratory
staff and administration staff. The unit provides
geotechnical instrumentation services to districts and
external clients throughout the state.
Which instruments do what?
The following describes the range of instrumentation,
techniques and tools used by TMR's Geotechnical
Services Unit to collect data about road and
embankment performance.
Instrumentation for monitoring pore water
pressures - This includes observation wells,
hydraulic standpipes, pneumatic and vibrating wire
piezometers (VWP) and time domain refiectometry
(TDR) moisture probes (Figures 1-7). These
can provide data for the determination of safe
rates of fill placement, slope stability, lateral
earth pressures, uplift pressures and monitor the
effectiveness of drainage schemes.
o
Figure 1. Vibrating wire piezometers
Figure 2. VWP attached to inclinometer casing
to record pore pressures - South West Transit
Corridor (SWTC) project
Figure 3. Drilling and installation of sta",dpipe
piezometer casing - Toowoomba pilot tunnel
26
QUEENSLAND ROADS Edition No [1 September 201 [
Figure 4. Data loggers for VWP - T u ~ y Bypass
project
Figure 5. Setting up remote sensol" logging of
VWPs - Nundah Tunnel
Figure 6. TDR moisture probe monotor &
multiplexer unit - Gatton Bypass
Figure 7. TOR moisture probe installations-
Gatton Bypass
QUEENSLAND ROADS Edition No 11 Seplel11ber 2011
27


28
Measurement of vertical deformation - There a
number of instruments used for measuring vertical
deformation, including settlement cells, plates,
gauges (hydraulic and vibrating wire), horizontal
profile gauges, magnetic extensometers, spider
magnets and Sondex settlement systems. Data
from these instruments can confirm consolidation
predictions, final adjustments to grade/
embankment heights, and the performance of
engineered foundations. These will be explored in
more detail in" the following sections.
Magnetic and Sondex settlement
systems - These systems are used to monitor
settlement and heave in embankments at a number
of discrete points. The data indicates the depths
at which settlement occurs, as well as total
settlement.
Entry point for
readout probe
Base datum magnet
<I
q
4
Two types of magnetic extensometer are used
(Figure 8). The first has individual spider magnets at
set depths referenced to the base datum magnet. The
spider magnets are coupled to the surrounding soil and
move up or down on the outside of the plastic tube as
heave or settlement occurs. The second is the Sondex
system which has magnets attached to concertinaing
outer tubing which can compress or expand with the
surrounding soil.
Both systems are read by drawing a readout probe
between the bottom and the top of the casing. The
readout probe indicates the relative depth of each
magnet as it is passed and, when referenced against
the location of the base magnet, provides data on
incremental and total settlement.
q
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q
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4
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Spider magnets attached to
Inclinometer casing
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Figure 8. Magnetic extensometer
QUEENSLAND ROADS Edition No 11 September 2011
Horizontal Profile Gauge - The horizontal profile
gauge (HPG) or horizontal inclinometer is used
to obtain a high resolution profile of settlement
or heave typically associated with embankments
and landfill areas. The casing is installed in a
horizontal trench, with the far end attached to
an inaccessible dead end pulley unit. The probe
is pulled along the full length of the casing and
readings are recorded every 0.5m interval
(Figure 9).
The system consists of inclinometer casing, a
horizontal probe, a control cable, a pull-through cable
and readout unit. The initial survey establishes the
position of the casing and subsequent surveys reveal
the displacement of the casing if ground movement
has occurred. This is a low maintenance system since
there are no hydraulic lines or pressure sources and the
results ofthe surveys can provide a complete profile of
differential settlements along the given alignment.
Datum located away from embankment
Settlement plates and survey markers -
Settlement plates indicate the rate and extent of
settlement or heave usually within an embankment
structure when the natural material is surcharged.
The settlement plate consists of a base plate
and extension pipes which protrude through the
embankment (Figures 10,11). Extension pipes can
easily be added as the embankment is constructed.
Surveyors take levels on the pipe and from that
data produce a settlement history plot. The pipes
are robust and low cost but, as they protrude
through the embankment, are prone to damage by
construction traffic. They are also only temporary
units as they are cut off and covered once the
roadway is opened.
The survey markers are a simple device which can
be read by a surveying team to provide a history of
reduced levels and coordinates over a period of time.
The markers are generally small star pickets or similar
that can be easily placed in areas of interest. Typically
they are installed in areas not prone to traffic damage.
They can provide information on movements similar
to the settlement plates. Both the settlement plates and
survey markers require an accurate survey bench mark
which is used as the datum point for all subsequent
readings.
. .


...

..
. .
. 4
Figure 9. Installed horizontal profile gauge (HPG)
QUEENSLAND ROADS Edition No 11 September 2011
29
Extension pipes
Survey markers ~ - - - - L - ~ ~ - ~ - ~ - - ~
Figure 10. Settlement plate installed in an embankment
Figure 11 . Settlement plates during construction - Granard Road Interchange
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QUEENSLAND ROADS Edition No 11 September 20 11
Settlement gauges - Settlement gauges indicate
the rate and extent of settlement within an
embankment structure when the natural material
is surcharged. The overburden pressure created
by the embankment material can cause the natural
material to settle and consolidate.
A very simple settlement gauge consists of a
water-filled tube connected to a water settlement
indicator pipe buried within the embankment
and interconnected with a gauge readout box
located far enough away from the influence of any
embankment settlement (Figure 12).
The readout box hflS a graduated tape measure
inside which shows the level of the water within
the indicator (essentially a 'U' tube manometer).
The indicator has additional tubing connected to
it which allows the unit to be open to atmospheric
pressure, and also a drain pipe which removes
excess water during the actual reading phase.
The benefit of this type of unit is that once the
indicator has been effectively buried within the
embankment, the settlements can be reliably
monitored on a long-term basis well after the road
has been opened to traffic.
Distance varies
Settlement gauge
readout box
Water level
4
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., tl Embankment
., 4 ~ .
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.,
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Figure 12. Settlement gauge based on 'U' tube manometer principle
.'
QUEENSLAND ROADS Edition No 11 September 2011
31
Measurement of lateral deformation -
Measurement of lateral deformation can be
undertaken in a number of ways: load and strain
monitoring, including vertical inclinometers, rod
extensometers, electro level beam sensors, crack
meters, strain gauges and load bolts. These can
evaluate stability of slopes and embankments and
verify performance and safety of structures and
embankments (Figures 13-17).
Figure 13. Inclinometer casing prior to installation
- David Low Way
Figure 14. Installation of an inclinometer probe
with VWP attached - SWTC project
Figure 15. Monitoring of strain gauges - Barneys
Point Bridge NSW
Figure 16. Electro level beam sensors - SWTC
Bridge
Figure 17. Inclinometer probe and data logger
32
QUEENSLAND ROADS Edition No 11 September 2011
Measurement of total stress in soils - Earth
pressure cells measure stresses normal to the cell's
face and have either single or double-sided sensing
faces (Figure 18). Embedded earth pressure cells
are typically installed in fill and embankment
materials to determine the distribution, magnitude
and direction of total stresses.
Contact earth pressure cells are generally installed
at the interfaces between soils and retaining wall
type structures, culverts, and piles etc.
The cells are typically formed from two circular
stainless steel plates. The edges of the two discs
are welded together to form a sealed cavity which
is filled with hydraulic-type fluid. The pressure
transducer, either vibrating wire or pneumatic, is
attached to the cell via a connection pipe. The
cells are embedded in fill in a variety of different
configurations or mounted on structures with direct
burial cable trenched to a remotely located readout
unit.
Small "pockets" are excavated in the main fill
area and the cells are positioned for maximum
performance. The pockets are carefully backfilled
to the surrounding material density, thereby
minimising any possible bridging effects which can
prevent total stresses from being exerted onto the
cell face.
Figure 18. Various types of earth pressure cells
Rainfall gauges - Rainfall gauges monitor local
rainfall, particularly where the impact of rainfall
is critical to slope stability. Gauges can range
in complexity from a simple manual rain gauge
to a fully automatic gauge with internet remote
sensing (Figure 19).
Figure 19. Rain gauge set up for remote sensing
QUEENSLAND ROADS Edition No 11 September 2011
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Aerial photo studies - Stereo aerial photography
can be used.
Drilling/Geological mapping/Field testing -
Soil and rock core samples can be taken from a
series of borehole drill and test pits. A variety
of insitu field tests such as cone penetrometer
and field shear vane can be utilised to determine
insitu material properties. Analytical predictions
can be confirmed by combining the data from
field samples analysed in the laboratory and data
obtained from the insitu field tests.
Surface level monitoring - Surface surveying
techniques together with a number of surface
monuments can be used to establish surface
movement. Terrestrial laser scanning and radar
surveying can also be used to monitor small
surface movements.
Geophysical surveys - A ground magnetic survey
may be used to investigate the stratigraphy of
sub-surface layers, and could include ground
penetrating radar and seismic surveys.
Which parameter to measure?
Each project is unique and identifying which
parameters are critical for design and evaluating
performance will impact on the selection of the
instruments to be used. The keys to success depend
on adequate planning and execution of installations,
combined with the capabilities of the instruments and
the capabilities of our people.
Soil and rock mass are often complex and more
than one parameter may require investigation; it is,
therefore, useful to measure a number of parameters
that can be correlated from various measurements. For
example, inclinometer data showing an increased rate
of movement may be correlated with piezometer data
showing elevated pore pressures.
Ground conditions can also affect the choice of
instrumentation. Soils of high permeability with large
volume changes in groundwater can be adequately
captured by the use of a standpipe piezometer, whereas
soils with low permeability will require a diaphragm
type (pneumatic, vibrating wire) piezometer,
which offers faster response times due to increased
sensitivity.
As resource costs increase, the development of
remote onsite sensing and data logging is becoming
a necessity. Many companies now specialise in
providing remote access to data in near real time
via the internet. On some construction projects the
department has systems in place to provide SMS
messaging when certain critical parameter alarm
levels are reached. This contribution to an overall
site management plan ensures safety processes are
implemented quickly and efficiently.
Instrumentation used on some larger projects
The following is a snapshot of the range of projects
that have been instrumented by the department.
Barneys Point Bridge, RTA, NSW - Bridge
abutment instrumentation for construction and
long-term monitoring. Inclinometers, horizontal
profile gauges, use of strain gauge and load bolts
on geogrids, settlement gauges and pneumatic
piezometers.




Sunshine Motorway and Coombabah trial
embankments - Comprehensive installation
of monitoring devices including inclinometers,
Horizontal Profile Gauges, settlement gauges,
pneumatic and vibrating wire piezometers and
"geologger" data logging system.
Port of Brisbane Motorway Alliance Group -
Comprehensive installation of instrumentation for
construction over soft bridge abutment suspected
of differential movements.
Construction projects with high earth
embankment structures throughout
Queensland - Granard Road, David Low Way,
Maroochy Interchange, Goodings Corner, John
Luscombe Bridge (Mia Mia), Pacific Motorway
Oxenford on-ramps. Full suite of construction
instrumentation with an emphasis on monitoring
lateral movements.
Road construction projects over soft soil areas
throughout Queensland - External engineering
consultants and alliance groups including Bruce
Highway - Cardwell to Tully, Cooroy to Yandina,
East West Connector Road, Joint Levee Road
and Gateway Arterial. Full suite of construction
instrumentation biased to settlement and pore
water pressure devices.
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QUEENSLAND ROADS Edition No 11 September 2011
Instrumentation of earth dam structures
throughout Queensland - TMR and external
consultants including Queensland Alumina Ltd -
Red Mud Tailings Dams, Kinchant Dam. A range
of devices from inclinometers to remote sensor
vibrating wire piezometers were used.
Instrumentation of slip areas throughout
Queensland - TMR and external consultants
including Montville Road, Esk - Hampton Road,
The Leap - Mackay, Toowoomba Range, South
West Transport Corridor and Cunningham's Gap.
Case study - South West Transport
Corridor
The South West Transport Corridor (SWTC) is a
major transport corridor which extends the Centenary
Highway to the Cunningham Highway via Ripley.
During the advanced stages of earthworks constmction
of the Springfield to Yamanto section, large-scale
landslide activity was detected in the vicinity of
two large cuts (1). These cuts contained a complex
geology, comprising trachyte flows extmded on top of
sediments and older basalt flows .
.,.
"
~
The investigation of such a large-scale landslide was a
challenging process. The landslide activity is believed
to have resulted from the reactivation of a deep-seated
slow movement along shear planes associated with
an ancient land surface (Figure 20). This complex
movement could not have been detected despite the
extensive geotechnical investigations undertaken
during the planning and design stages. This moving
surface was subsequently detected by a suite of
geotechnical instmmentation some of which operated
at depths well below the normal drilling depths
normally accepted for site investigation.
In order to characterise the landslide mass, the
geometry of the failure surface and rate of surface
movement, inclinometers, together with a large number
of monitoring points, were installed to measure surface
movements. Instmmentation also included rain
gauges, piezometers and observation wells. Electro
Level (EL) sensor beams were also installed to provide
data on a bridge abutment which could have been
impacted by these differential movements.
._._-_._----.. .... -----.--.- .
I ~ . ~ . .. --------.. . . . ~ .
--------"'-- --
Inferred Failure Surface
.-._--_. ----------.......... ..
Figure 20. Section showing inferred deep-seated slip surface
QUEENSLAND ROADS Edition No II September 2011
35
The inclinometer is one of the primary instruments
used on site to determine subsurface lateral
deformations. Data obtained from inclinometers
(Figures 21, 22) assists in determination of the
magnitude, rate, direction and depth of ground
movements. Inclinometer instrumentation equipment
is comprised of a biaxial accelerometer probe,
graduated control cable, portable data logging system,
intemally grooved ABS plastic inclinometer casing and
a cable clamping pulley assembly. This set-up enables
the operator to survey the borehole from the base to
the top in O.5m increments. Subsequent readings
determine the change in the shape and position of the
casing relative to the initial casing profile.
A total of 54 inclinometers was installed onsite,
with depths varying between 25m and 104m. Where
possible, 85mm diameter inclinometer casing was
used as this diameter has proven longevity in terms
of allowing the probe to traverse through the inferred
failure zone area (2). As the casing deformation
increases, a point is reached where the passage of the
probe within the casing becomes blocked. A bore
hole with a larger diameter casing has a corresponding
greater serviceability life.
Unfortunately, highly fractured zones of trachytes
proved difficult during drilling operations and as a
result, several smaller diameter boreholes were drilled
and only 70mm diameter inclinometer casing could be
installed. Although not ideal, these devices provided
valuable data during their serviceable lifespan. A total
of 36 inclinometers remains on site and is monitored
monthly, except in times of high rainfall activity, when
the frequency of monitoring may increase to daily for
those devices in areas defined as critical.
The boreholes were drilled well below the potential
movement zone, which ensured that the inclinometer
bases were founded into competent, stable materials.
A lay-flat hose was attached to the bottom length of
the inclinometer casing and extended in a continuous
length from the base of the borehole to the surface.
This hose was used to deliver the grouting materials
which consisted of a water/cement/bentonite mix.
Attention to detail during the grouting phase was
critical as poor grouting technique can contribute to
voids being created between the inclinometer casing
and the sides of the borehole. This in tum can lead
to erroneous readings. Samples of each grout mix
were collected for laboratory testing. During the
inclinometer casing installation, the orientation of the
internal inclinometer grooves were aligned using a
hand-held compass bearing to ensure that the AO-A180
plane was in the anticipated direction of movement.
This was generally in a north-south direction and this
orientation of the casing was applied to all installed
inclinometers across the site.
The grout was allowed to set for 48 hours before
initial readings were taken on the newly installed
inclinometer. Again, high attention to detail was
shown by using the same inclinometer probe and cable
and, where possible, the same operator to take readings
on all devices across the site. The readings were
analysed and checked for systemic and random errors
(3). Each borehole profile was determined to confirm
that the installed inclinometer did not exceed 3 a from
the vertical. Calculated vector plots provided accurate
directions of movement. The presentation and report
plots were generated by commercially available
inclinometer software.
36
QUEENSLAND ROADS Edition No 11 September 2011
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50
INCLINOMETER MOVEMENT (mm) - NORTH TO NORTH WESTERLY DIRECTION
Figure 21. Inclinometer plot - the depth and extent of movement at the failure zone.
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Figure 22. Rainfall activity (blue line) triggers increased movement
QUEENSLAND ROADS Edition No 11 September 2011
54
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In addition to the inclinometers, a variety of ground
water monitoring devices was installed across the
site. Observation wells, consisting of slotted 50mm
PVC pipe encased in the borehole with a granular
sand medium, were installed to monitor ground water
levels. The backfill sand extended from the base of the
borehole to approximately 1.5m below the surface; this
provided an "intake" zone for any sub-surface ground
water. The top 1.5m was backfilled with a water/
cement/bentonite grout mix and capped with concrete
to prevent the ingress of surface runoff water.
Using conventional drilling techniques, standpipe
piezometers (comprising polyethylene water intake
elements attached to 25mm PVC riser pipes) were
installed to monitor groundwater levels/pressures
at specific depths. A granular sand intake zone was
created around the piezometer tip and sealed in place
with a layer of bentonite pellets above the sand layer.
The remainder of the borehole was backfilled with
water/cementibentonite grout mix and capped with
concrete at the surface. Vibrating wire piezometers
(VWP) were installed to monitor pore water pressures
(Figure 23). The VWP consists of a standard body
type pressure transducer, signal cable, surface data
logger and telemetry system. The pressure transducer
was installed in an inverted position with the tip de-
aired. Where possible, the VWP tip was attached to
the outside of the inclinometer casing at designated
depths and encased directly in the water/cement/
bentonite grout mix. If the borehole diameter was not
of sufficient diameter to allow the VWP to be attached
to the outside of the inclinometer casing, the tip was
attached to lengths of 20mm sacrificial conduit, which
acted as a delivery mechanism to lower the tip to the
precise depth location.
BH373 - PLOT OF GROUND WATER LEVEL RL and MAXiMUM DAILY RAINFALL
38
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Figure 23. Response of ground water levels (maroon line) to rainfall events
QUEENSLAND ROADS Edition No 11 September 2011
The signal cable was terminated at the surface into a
secure weatherproof enclosure and connected directl y
to a data logger. The telemetry/modem system was
located centrall y on site and the data collected via a
radio link and relayed to a remote server. A total of
70 vibrati ng wire devices was installed and monitored
across the site.
Summary
Engineers have an obligati on 10 design and build
safe infrastructure and structures. Geotechnical
instflnnenlalion and performance monitoring are an
integral part of the planning and construction process.
They also make a significant contribut ion 10 ensuring
the long-term safety of the road network.
References
I . Starr 0 , Di ssanayake A, Clements J, Marks 0,
Wijeyakulasuri ya V. SOll lh Wesl Corridor land
slide, Queensland Roads Edition 8. March 2010
2. DunniclifTe J. Geotechnical instrumentatioll/or
moniloringjield peiformance, New York: John
Wiley. 1988.
3. Mikkelsen P. Advances in Inclinometer Data
Allalysis, Symposium on Field Measurements in
Geomcchanics, FMGM, Oslo, Norway. September
2003
4. Guide 10 Geolechnical Inslrumen/alion, Durham
Geo Slope Indi cator. 2004
QUEENSLAND ROADS Edition No II Scptembcr2011
39