Year 11 Module 1 The Chemical Earth

The Earth is made up of a large number of different substances: elements,

compounds & mixtures
We can classify elements & compounds as pure substances. These are always
HOO!E"EO#$. ixtures are not pure substances and can be either homogeneous
or HETE%O!E"EO#$.
&ure substances ha'e a fixed composition
eg copper metal, sulfur, carbon dioxide ()O*+, methane ()H,+.
ixtures ha'e 'ariable composition and can also be separated into its components
relati'ely easily.
Eg. -lloys . brass )u: /01 2n 301
Elements are pure substances that cannot be bro4en down into any other
substance. )ompounds can be bro4en down, but this re5uires chemical means and
is not as easy as separating mixtures.
The Spheres of the Earth
-tmosphere:
Hydrosphere: define each,
6ithosphere: and gi'e an example of a mixture
7iosphere: found in each.
Separating Mixtures
$olids of different si8es 9 sei'ing
$olids & li5uids . e'aporation, filtration, distillation, decanting
:issol'ed solids . crystallisation by e'aporating
$ol'ents 9 distillation
Two li5uids . immiscible li5uids using a separating funnel
9 fractional distillation due to different boiling points
H/W P.18 Qu. 11-18
Identifing Pure Su!stan"es
Colour . some substances ha'e a characteristic colour, eg )u$O, ; blue. We can
use this 4nowledge in a 5ualitati'e way to determine if a sample has impurities.
Melting & Boiling Point . The mp & bp of a substance is a good indicator of its
purity. - pure substance will ha'e a sharp melting point and its mp & bp will not
change after further attempts at purification.
<mpurities can lower or raise bp, but only lower mp.
Density ; mass='olume . pure substances ha'e characteristic densities . eg glass.
#ra$i%etri" &na'sis
This is a method used to determine the composition by mass of a substance.
> ining . determine the 1 of a mineral in an ore deposit
> ?uality control of products
> :etermining the composition of a product made by a ri'al company
> )omposition of a soil
> &ollutant in air or water
Calculating % composition
1 - in -7) ; mass of - present x @AA
ass of total sample (-7)+
Eg 1 7a$O
,
in Ore sample
3./@g of sample
ass of 7a$O
,
; @.0*g
ass of g$O
,
; *.ABg
Total returned mass ; 3.0Cg
1 7a$O
,
; @.0*=3./@ x @AA ; ,*1
1 g$O
,
; @AA . ,* ; 0D 1
; *.AB=3./@ x @AA ; 0D1
&.*0 ?u */ & *B for */ @ ppm ; @ mg=6
Physical Properties & Uses of Elements
etals & non9metals ha'e differing properties. The properties of an element will
determine what it is used for.
Metals $hiny, ductile, malleable, good conductors of electricity, 'ariable (but mostly
high melting point+
Eg . !old . Eewellery as itFs shiny
-luminium, <ron . car parts as malleable
)opper . wire as it is ductile, a 'ery good conductor
Tungsten . light bulb filaments due to '. High m.p
Nonmetals: :ull, poor conductors, brittle, usually soft, 'ariable mp ('.low . '.high+
Eg. )arbon (graphite+ can conduct, so used as electrodes
)arbon (diamond+ used a tools
6i5uid "
*(l+
used in cooling
$ome elements ha'e properties of both metals & non9metals, these are classified as
semi9metals or metalloids
Eg silicon.
(o%paring (he%i"a' ) Phsi"a' (hanges
)hemical changes are reactions . they are difficult to re'erse, at least one new
substance formed, mass will be conser'ed, often a large input=output of heat.
&hysical changes . "o new substances are formed, easily re'ersed and only small
energy changes are re5uired=produced.
E.g *H
*
O
(l+
G E H *H
*(g+
G O
*(g+
. chemical change
H
*
O
(l+
G E H H
*
O
(g+
. physical change
Other physical changes are: free8ing, melting, condensing, e'aporating, subliming,
dissol'ing & crystallisation.
<n the electrolysis of H
*
O
"egati'e electrode: ,H
G
(a5+
G ,e
9
H *H
*(g+
&ositi'e electrode: ,OH
9
(a5+
H O
*(g+
G *H
*
O
(l+
G ,e
9
E$iden"e of (he%i"a' *ea"tions
> "ew products formed (eg precipitate+
> %eactants consumed
> )olour change
> $mell
> !as e'ol'ed
> $ignificant change in temperature
!ifferent reaction classes include"
@. :ecomposition - H 7 G ) eg )u)O
3(s+
H )uO
(s+
G )O
*(g+
*. $ynthesis - G 7 H ) (combination reactions+
*g
(s+
G O
*(g+
H *gO
(s+
3. %edox %eduction & oxidation
,. )ombustion)xHy G (*x G @=*y+ O
*
H x)O
*
G I y H
*
O
Or )H
,(g+
G *O*
(g+
H )O
*(g+
G * H
*
O
(g+
%eactions may be EJOTHE%<) . release energy or E":OTHE%<) . absorb energy.
-ll reactions re5uire a small amount of E to get them started . acti'ation energy.
&to%s+ Mo'e"u'es ) Ions
The smallest particle that is still recognisable as an element is called an atom. They
consist of protons, neutrons & electrons and ha'e no o'erall charge.
$ome elements, such as hydrogen, chlorine, oxygen etc do not exist as indi'idual
atoms. They are found in KmoleculesL H
*
, )l
*
& O
*
. These are diatomic molecules
and the other ones that form are: M
*
, 7r
*
, <
*
, "
*
. - molecule is the smallest unit of a
substance that can exist separately.
olecules are not always elements, eg: )O
*
, H
*
O etc. $ome elements also exist as
monatomic molecules: noble gases, whilst others ha'e larger molecules: $
,
& $
D
, &
,,
)
/A
.
$ymbols . come from the first letter, first two letters, a combination of the @
st
and
other letter or !ree4, 6atin or !erman. $ome are names after places, others after
people.
)f, Mr, !e, -m, &u, 74, Hg, #, !a, $c, "p, Es, )m,
&.3CN ?ues ,, 0, /, B . (odd letters if easyOO+
&to%i" Stru"ture
-ll matter is made up of tiny indi'isible particles called atoms. Each chemical
element contains the same types of atom.
-toms consist of three sub9atomic particles
Particle #ym$ol Mass Charge %ocation
&roton & @ G@ <n the nucleus
"eutron " @ A <n the nucleus
Electron E P A 9@
Orbiting the nucleus (in
shells+
- -tomic "umber ; "o of & ; "o of E
- ass "umber ; "o of & G "o of "
"umber of &rotons ; atomic number
"umber of Electrons ; atomic number
"umber of "eutrons ; mass number . atomic number
)alculate &," & E for -u, Me, -r & #*30
-u & ; E ; " ;
Me & ; E ; " ;
-r & ; E ; " ;
# & ; E ; " ;
Isotopes
These ha'e different numbers of neutrons. $ome elements exist only as one isotope
. eg -l *B, whereas others may ha'e * or more. Eg )l 30 & )l 3B.
)l 30 . B01
)l 3B 9 *01
%elati'e -tomic ass ; the weighted mean of all naturally occurring isotopes.
%.-. ; (30 A.B0+ G (3B A.*0+ ; 30.0
)alculate the %- of potassium . Q3C ; C3.31 Q,A ; A.A@1 Q,@ ;
/./C1
He
2
4
Electron Structure/configuration
The electrons in atoms do not all group together in one shell. They are arranged in
sub9shells or orbitals. There are many types:
#su$shells: can hold * electrons, these represent the lowest energy sub9shell in
each complete shell.
Psu$shells: each can hold * electrons and each complete shell has 3 p sub9shells
(total ; /+
!su$shells: each can hold * electrons, each complete shell has 0 d sub9shells (total
electrons ; @A+
&su$shells: each can hold * e
9
, there are B in each complete shell (total ; @,
electrons+
The sub9shells fill up in order of increasing energy:
@s
*
*s
*
*p
/
3s
*
3p
/
,s
*
3d
@A
,p
/
0s
*
,d
@A
0p
/
/s
*
Eg H @s
@
@
He @s
*
*
6i @s
*
*s
@
*,@
7e @s
*
*s
*
*,*
7 @s
*
*s
*
*p
@
*,3
Etc . $c
2n
Qr
Ext9 R, %h, <, )s, (u+ (r
Sta!'e e'e"tron "onfigurations
The number of electrons in the outer shell of an atom is the same as the group
number (except transition metals+. Eg all !roup @ (6i, "a, Q ha'e @ electron in their
outer shell+.
The outer shell is sometimes called the 'alence shell, and 4nowing that the most
stable atoms ha'e a KfullL outer shell of D electrons (* for He+, we can determine
the reacti'ity and 'alency (combining power+ for elements.
'roup ( (( ((( () ) )( )(( )(((
)alency @ * 3 , 3 * @ A
Charge G@ G* G3 G,=9, 93 9* 9@ A
,or%ation of Ions - *chie+ing No$le 'as #tatus
Ha'ing a full outer shell of electrons, li4e the noble gases is the most stable state
to be in. -toms will lose, gain or share electrons to get to this state.
(i+ Morming ions
etal atoms will tend to lose electrons, forming positi'e ions (cations+ whose charge
is determined by the number of electrons lost.
Examples see written notes diagrams eg 6i 6i
G
, g g
*G
, -l -l
3G
"on9metal atoms tend to gain electrons, forming negati'e ions (anions+, achie'ing a
stable structure.
Examples see written notes diagrams eg )l )l
9
, O O
*9
, & &
39
Ioni" !onding
etal atoms tend to Kgi'eL their electrons to non9metal atoms, forming a cation &
anion that attract each other as an ionic bond. The G & 9 attract through
electrostatic force.
Examples see written notes diagrams eg "a G )l, "a G O, g G )l, -l G O
Writing Ioni" ,or%u'ae
<f we 4now the 'alency of the two substances reacting together, we can determine
the formula by ensuring that the number of electrons lost ; no of electrons gained.
Eg. "a )l both ha'e a 'alency of @ "a)l
@ *
6i G O * 6i ions are needed to balance O 6i
*
O
?u. &ractice 5uestions
<ssues occur with transition metals, 'alencies are gi'en as (<<+ etc.
Eg. )u(<<+, Me(<<<+
<f a polyatomic ion is used, brac4ets are re5uired if more than one is needed.
$ulfate ; $O
,
*9
)arbonate ; )O
3
*9
"itrate ; "O
3
9
&hosphate ; &O
,
39
Hydroxide ; OH
9
-mmonium ; "H
,
G
?u. &ractice 5uestions HW . &.BC ?u: @@9@/
(o$a'ent -onding
This occurs between non9metal atoms that both need to gain electrons. They do this
by $H-%<"! electrons in their outer shell.
The number of electrons that they need to share is determined by their 'alency.
)arbon ; share ,
"itrogen ; 3
Oxygen ; *
Hydrogen, )hlorine, Mluorine ; @
Examples see written notes diagrams eg H
*
, H
*
O, )H
,
, 9 all single
:ouble . two pairs of shared electrons . O
*
, )O
*
Triple 3 pairs of shared electrons "
*
, )
*
H
*
"aming . uses mono9, di9, tri9, tetra9, etc as prefixes
Eg )O
*
; carbon dioxide
?uestions . &.C*, @B9@C
,alancing Chemical E-uations
:ue to the 6aw of )onser'ation of ass, that states that matter cannot be created
or destroyed, merely transformed from one form to another, we need to ensure that
chemical e5uations ha'e e5ual number of each type of atom on each side.
Eg. )H
,(g+
G *O
*(g+
)O
*(g+
G *H
*
O
(g+
This has the following:
Element .eactants Products
) @ @
H , ,
O , ,
When balancing always use the following order:
etals, "on9etals, ), H, O
("a, Me+, ($, )l, ", &+
,alancing E-uations /re0rite in your $oo12
@. "a G )l
*
"a)l @A. H
*
G )l
*
H)l
*. Q)lO
3
Q)l G O
*
@@. )O G O
*
)O
*
3. H
*
G O
*
H
*
O @*. Q"O
3
Q"O
*
G O
*
,. & G O
*
&
,
O
@A
@3. &b
3
O
,
&bO G O
*
0. 2n G H
*
$O
,
2n$O
,
G H
*
@,. Me G H
*
O Me
3
O
,
G H
*
/. )H
,
G O
*
)O
*
G H
*
O @0. Me
*
O
3
G ) Me G )O
*
B. "
*
G H
*
"H
3
@/. "H
3
G O
*
"
*
G H
*
O
D. &b("O
3
+
*
&bO G "O
*
G O
*
@B. "aOH G H
*
$O
,
"a
*
$O
,
G H
*
O
C. )
B
H
/
O
*
G O
*
)O
*
G H
*
O @D. 7)l
3
G &
,
G H
*
7& G H)l
@C. )a(OH+
*
G H)l )a)l
*
G H
*
O
*A. "a
*
)O
3
G )a(OH+
*
"aOH G )a)O
3
*@. )
*
H
*
)l
,
G )a(OH+
*
)
*
H)l
3
G )a)l
*
G H
*
O
**. H)l G "a
*
)O
3
)O
*
G H
*
O G "a)l
*3. -l
*
($O
,
+
3
G "aOH -l(OH+
3
G "a
*
$O
,
*,. ("H
,
+
*
)r
*
O
B
"
*
G )r
*
O
3
G H
*
O
*0. 2n
3
$b
*
G H
*
O 2n(OH+
*
G $bH
3
Meta''i" -onding
When metal atoms bond together, their 'alence electrons become SdelocalisedF in a
Ssea of electronsF across the whole structure.
Diagram of metallic bonding
Properties of Su!stan"es
13 (onic su$stances
<onic lattices are massi'e 3: structures arranged in an orderly manner with
alternating G & 9 ions. Eg "a)l.
Insert diagram
The ions are held together by electrostatic force. This is an ionic bond. 7ecause the
lattice has millions of these strong bonds, ionic compounds are solid at room temp
and ha'e high melting & boiling points.
The regular structure means that they are hard & brittle.
-s a solid all its ions & electrons are in a fixed position, so it cannot conduct
electricity. Howe'er, when molten or dissol'ed in water, the ions are free to mo'e
and conduct.
43 Co+alent molecules
These are formed when * or more co'alent atoms share electrons forming
co'alent bonds. EgN H
*
O, )O
*
, )H
,
, "H
3
, )H
3
)OOH, )
*
H
0
OH.
They all ha'e low boiling & melting points because they ha'e 'ery wea4
forces between the molecules (<M ; intermolecular forces+.
When solid, most are soft
&ure co'alent substances do not conduct electricity as solids or li5uids as all
electrons are loc4ed up in co'alent bonds. When they dissol'e to form
a5ueous solutions, they donFt conduct unless they react with the water
forming ions.
53 Co+alent net0or1s
Eg, )arbon (graphite & diamond+, $iO
*
These networ4s ha'e millions of co'alent bonds
They all ha'e 'ery high melting & boiling points
ost do not conduct electricity (except graphite+
ost are hard and brittle
!raphite can conduct as one of its outer electrons is SdelocalisedF.
63 Metals
Tariable melting points from *0 U) for reacti'e metals and below AU) for Hg to
mid 3AAA U) for W
They all conduct electricity due to their freely mo'ing SdelocalisedF electrons.
alleable & ductile as the ions can mo'e o'er each other easily.