CONTINUING EDUCATION

On mechanical properties of square and rectangular

stainless steel wires tested in torsion
Tor st ei n R. Mel i ng, MD, a Jan ~ d e g a a r d , BDS, MS, Dr . Odont , b and Eva Q. Me l i ng, MD ~
Oslo, Stavanger, and Moi, Norway
Forty different sizes and types of square and rectangular stainless steel wires, supplied by five
different manufacturers, were tested in torsion. The study simulated the situation occurring when
torque is applied to an individual tooth. We used standard brackets with 0.018-inch slot heights,
with an interbracket distance of 4 mm. The results show that variation in cross-sectional dimension
and edge bevel leads to variable torsional play (third-order clearance). As an exampl e 0.016
0.022-inch wi res have a mean torsional play of as much as 18.5 , with a range of 16.6 to 20.4 .
We have shown that when 0.016 0.022-inch wi res are used, one must appl y from 24.6 to 29.2
of twi st to get 20 Nmm of torsional moment. This variation is mostl y due to a rather wide range in
torsional play. As a result, the prediction by which a predetermined torsional moment can be
delivered becomes uncertain. The results show that because the working range in torsion of
stainless steel wires is somewhat limited, precise del i very of torsional moment, based on the
condition present in the oral cavity, is difficult. Torsional stiffness varies considerable within the
various dimensional groups, this being the result of variation in cross-sectional geometry and
material properties. (Am J Orthod Dentofac Orthop 1997;111:310-20.)
T h e clinician should be familiar with the
mechanical properties of the wide spectrum of orth-
odontic wire alloys and aware of their relevant
clinical applications. The purpose of this investiga-
tion was to study the behavior of various square and
rectangular stainless steel wires in torsion for tor-
sional play (third-order clearance) and torsional
stiffness.
Springback is related to the ratio of yield
strength to the modulus of elasticity of the material.
Higher springback enables application of larger
activations with a resultant increased working time
of the appliance. Stainless steel wires have bot h a
lower springback and a lower stored energy or
resilience than those of newer titanium-based al-
loys. 1"2 This shows that stainless steel wires produce
higher forces that dissipate over shorter periods of
time than the titanium-based alloys, thus requiring
more frequent activations.
Stiffness, given by the slope of the load-deflec-
tion diagram, represents the force delivered by the
appliance, and is proportional to the modulus of
elasticity. 3 Low stiffness makes it possible for a lower
rate of deactivation and greater ease and accuracy in
aResearch Forum, Ullevfd Hospital, Oslo, Norway.
bVisiting professor, Department of Orthodontics, University of Hamburg,
Germany, and in private practice, Stavanger, Norway.
CPrivate practice, Moi, Norway.
Reprint requests to: Dr. Torstein R. Meling, Research Forum, Ullev~l
Hospital, 0407 Oslo, Norway.
Copyright 1997 by the American Association of Orthodontists.
0889-5406/97/$5.00 + 0 8/1/68899
310
applying a given force. 4,5 The large modulus of
elasticity of stainless steel wires requires the use of
smaller wires for alignment of moderately to se-
verely displaced teeth. However, high stiffness is
advantageous in resisting deformation caused by
intraoral and extraoral traction forces? In t orque
applications, wires with larger dimensions are nec-
essary to get bracket/wire engagement. Knowledge
of torsional stiffness of various wires is therefore
important.
Optimal t oot h positioning requires optimal con-
trol of the wire-bracket interaction, hence it is
significant to have some knowledge of the closeness
of fit bet ween wire and bracket. This is especially
important in t orque applications. Modern orthodon-
tic bracket-slots oft en have incorporated t orque
angulations (torque in base or torque in face),
reducing the t orque necessary in the arch wire. The
effective t orque will equal bracket t orque plus incor-
porat ed wire torque minus torsional play (third-
order clearance). The latter angle may be defined as
the amount of rotation that the wire initially, in the
passive state, must be twisted to engage the bracket
and to generate biomechanical torque. 6
Dellinger 7 and Creekmore s report ed on the ef-
ficiency of the pret orqued or preadjusted straight
wire appliances, and bot h published tables on the
amount of rotational play. The calculations were
based on information given by the manufacturers
and assumed ideal situations, i.e., perfectly sharp
wire corners and dimensional constancy of bot h wire
and bracket. Later, several investigators 6,9-11 tested
American Journal of Orthodontics and Dentofacial Orthopedics Meting, Odegaard, and Meling 311
Volume 111, No. 3
Tabl e I. Wi r es used in i nvest i gat i on
Manufacturer Type
Dimensions
1 6 1 6 [ 1 6 x 2 2 [ 1 7 2 2
Dentaurum Soft X X
Dent aurum Spring hard X X
Dentaurum Extra hard X X
GAC Nubryte standard X
GAC Nubryte gold X
GAC Nubryte Hi-T X
Masel Standard X X
Masel Golden X
Ormco Stainless steel X X
Unitek Resilient X X
Unitek Hi-T X
17x 25 [ 18x 18 18x 25
X
X X
X X
X X X
X X X
X X X
X X X
X X X X
X X
Values for dimensions are given in 1/1000 inch. For metric values, 0.016 inch = 0.4064 mm, 0.017 inch = 0A318 ram, 0.018 inch = 0.4572 mm, 0,022 inch
= 0.5588 mm and 0.025 inch = 0.6350 mm.
t he act ual devi at i on angl e in t or que- t est i ng appar a-
t uses and f ound val ues hi gher t han t hose r epor t ed
by Cr e e kmor e and Del l i nger. I n 1981, Ra pha e l et
al. 1 c omme nt e d on t he r ounded cor ner s of t he
or t hodont i c wi res used in t hei r i nvest i gat i on on
r ot at i on of r ect angul ar wi res in mol ar t ubes. Sebanc
et al. 6 i nvest i gat ed t he vari abi l i t y of effective r oot
t or que as a f unct i on of edge bevel on or t hodont i c
ar ch wire. On t he basi s of t he me a s ur e d val ues, t hey
cal cul at ed t he aver age cont r i but i on of ext ra t or -
si onal pl ay bet ween br acket and wire, due t o edge
bevel , but di d not me a s ur e t he act ual r oundi ng of
t he wire.
I n t hei r wor k on t orsi on, Ode ga a r d et al. a2 f ound
a t or si onal pl ay of 10.2 bet ween a Uni t ek Resi l i ent
0.016 0. 022-inch wi re in an Or mc o 0.018-inch
st andar d edgewi se br acket . The act ual me a n wi re
di mensi ons wer e 0.407 0.567 mm and t he br acket
slot hei ght was 0.473 mm. Wi t h t he f or mul a used by
Del l i nger, 7 such a wi r e- br acket combi nat i on shoul d
t heor et i cal l y give a devi at i on angl e of 7.0 . The
f or mul a gi ven by Mel i ng et al. 13 i ncor por at es play,
due t o edge bevel. The wi re used by Ode ga a r d et
al. 12 had an aver age edge bevel of 0.096 mm, whi ch
r esul t ed in a cal cul at ed t or si onal pl ay of 10.8 . Thus
t he f or mul a i ncor por at i ng edge bevel yields t he
mor e accur at e est i mat e of t he devi at i on angl e. I n a
l at er article, Ode ga a r d et al. 14 obser ved t or si onal
pl ay bet ween 0.016 0. 022-inch wi res in an 0.018-
i nch br acket rangi ng f r om appr oxi mat el y 9 t o 13 in
each di r ect i on f r om a cent r al posi t i on.
Manuf act ur er s of or t hodont i c appl i ances gener -
ally do not st at e t hei r t ol er ances, and accor di ng t o
Sernet z, 15 no nor ms ar e given. Whe n quest i oned,
t he manuf act ur er s of t en assert t hat t hei r squar e and
r ect angul ar wires ar e wi t hi n _+0.005 i nches of t he
st at ed val ues f or hei ght and wi dt h di mensi ons. Thi s
agr ees wi t h t he resul t s f r om an i nvest i gat i on by
Mel i ng et al. 16 Manuf act ur er s give no i nf or mat i on
about edge bevel . I t has been suggest ed by Ser net z a5
t hat edge bevel radi us shoul d be at l east 0.04 mm
(0.0016 i nches) f or pat i ent comf or t . An i nvest i gat i on
by Mel i ng et al. 16 demons t r at ed t hat edge bevel
var i ed consi derabl y.
MATERI ALS AND METHODS
Square and rectangular stainless steel wires commonly
used in 0.018-inch edgewise technique were tested. Five
manufacturers supplied a total of 40 different sizes or
types (Table I). The wires were supplied in straight
lengths, 10 pieces of each. Some manufacturers supplied
wires with the same dimension in various steel qualities. It
would be impossible to test all the wires on the market.
Four major manufacturers in the United States and one
from Germany were selected, tentatively representing the
market.
A piece, 5 cm in length, was cut from each wire length,
and subsequently measured. Height and width were mea-
sured to the nearest 0.001 mm with a digital micrometer,
accurate to +_1 p~m (model 293-521, Mitutoyo Corp.).
Several readings were taken along each segment. The
results are shown in Table II.
The results from edge bevel measurements, according
to the method described by Meling et al., 16 are given.
Cross-sectional cuts from each specimen were prepared,
by using standard metallurgical techniques, and were
magnified 720X onto a monitor (Zeiss Axioscope,
Hamamat su CCD combined with a Sony 14-inch Trinitron
color screen). With a clear acetate template that had a
series of quarter circles where the radius was varied with
0.01 mm increments, an estimate was made of the round-
ing of the corners. All four corners were measured and the
mean used in subsequent calculations. This method for
measuring edge bevel seems both valid and has a low
intraindividual and interindividual error. The intraindi-
vidual method error, based on 120 double measurements,
was 0.29, an average of 4% of the mean result. The
312 Meling, Odegaard, and Meling American Journal o f Orthodontics and Dentofacial Orthopedics
March 1997
Table I I . Summa r y of wi r e me a s ur e me nt s
Producer
and quality
Measured value
Height Width
(0.010 mm) (0.010 ram)
Edge bevel.
radius
(0.010 mm)
Torsional
stiffness
(Nmm/degree )
Angl e o f twist
at 20 Nmm
(degrees)
Calculated
play 17
(degrees)
Intercept
(degrees)
Diff. calc-lnt
(degrees)
0.016 0.016 inch
D S 41.32 .+ 0.09 41.42 0.09 8.51 .+ 0.53 1.52 .+ 0.06 45.29 + 0.32 33.72 32.16 ,+ 0.84 1.57
D SH 41.44 0.05 41.43 .+ 0.07 8.53 0.41 1,51 + 0,08 45A7 0,27 32.96 31.96 +_ 0.50 1.00
D EH 41.32 .+ 0.11 41.34 0.11 8.06 .+ 0.43 1.38 0.09 47.42 + 0.75 32.39 32.66 1.21 - 0. 27
G St 40.31 .+ 0.35 40.24 + 0.27 4.51 0.54 1.37 0.08 43.24 + 1.40 30.13 28.81 1.07 1.32
G Go 40.62 0.24 40.60 +_ 0.32 6.25 + 0.59 1.41 + 0.08 42.89 1.27 33.14 29.30 0.77 3.84
M St 41.02 .+ 0.20 41.03 + 0.25 5.00 0.41 1.06 0.04 50.32 -+ 0.68 26.68 32.04 + 0.81 - 5. 36
O SS 41.20 + 0.37 41.22 0.40 5.88 + 0.64 1.38 _+0.11 44.39 2.15 27.45 29.90 1.46 - 2. 45
U R 40.96 0.13 41.03 + 0.19 7.29 0.34 1.69 0.10 45.04 .+ 1.12 32.78 33.82 + 0.83 - 1. 03
U HT 40.01 ,+ 0.40 41.07 .+ 0.18 4.52 0.44 1.50 + 0.08 43.01 0.67 30.52 30.03 .+ 0.64 0.49
0.016 0.022 inch
D S 41.02 + 0.08 55.89 0.07 6.19 -+ 0.45 2.69 .+ 0.20 25.45 -+ 0.17 17.63 18.19 0.18 - 0. 56
D SH 40.83 .+ 0.10 55.94 + 0.14 4.93 .+ 0.45 2.52 0.20 25.23 + 0.22 17.14 17.49 + 0.51 - 0. 35
D EH 41.19 0.21 56.07 .+ 0.11 5.49 0.51 2.44 + 0.27 24.60 _+0.48 16.51 16.61 _+0.63 - 0. 10
G Go 40.72 .+ 0. l l 55.79 .+ 0.26 7.90 0.30 2.51 0.08 26.14 -+ 0.25 20.17 18.47 .+ 0.30 1.70
G HT 40.91 + 0.12 56.28 0.22 8.11 _+0.60 2.82 .+ 0.12 25.44 + 0.27 19.54 18.43 0.20 1.11
M St 41.21 0.26 56.33 .+ 0.19 8.53 0.51 2.04 + 0.09 29.23 _+0.49 18.99 19.77 .+ 0.55 - 0. 78
M Go 39.33 .+ 0.29 55.41 0.23 5.47 .+ 0.38 2.44 0.13 28.40 + 0.40 20.41 20.37 + 0.48 0.05
O SS 41.25 0.21 56.08 +_0.31 7.42 + 0.77 2.30 + 0.14 27.01 1.18 17.92 18.58 1.18 - 0. 66
U R 41.20 .+ 0.13 57.30 0.16 9.62 .+ 2.39 2.91 0.12 25.26 0.45 19.58 18.42 0.31 1.17
0.017 0.022 inch
G St 43.30 0.29 55.94 + 0.14 7.47 .+ 0.64 2.85 _+0.15 17.35 + 0.81 11.76 10.50 ,+ 0.51 1.27
G Go 42.97 0.18 55.06 .+ 0.17 4.58 0.94 2.51 + 0.25 18.20 0.45 11.37 10.36 0.69 1.00
M St 43.49 .+ 0.39 55,03 0.33 3.57 .+ 1.03 2.01 .+ 0.11 20.68 1.42 9.71 11.05 1.27 - 1. 35
O SS 43.75 0.33 55.96 _+0.61 7.11 0.78 2.94 _+0.14 17.90 -+ 1.20 10.25 11.22 .+ 1.09 - 0. 97
U R 42,89 + 0.13 56.13 0,08 9.49 .+ 0.65 2.92 .+ 0.11 20.47 0.82 14.38 13.80 0.62 0.58
U l i T 43.28 0.24 55.72 + 0,63 10.11 1.22 3.26 _+0.15 20.48 + 0.94 13.72 14.51 0.99 - 0. 79
0.017 0.025 inch
D SH 43,30 0.07 63.71 .+ 0,10 3,36 0.33 3.18 0.17 14.00 +- 0.10 8.42 8.07 +- 0.37 0.35
D EH 43.51 .+ 0.15 63.92 0,17 4.01 .+ 0.39 3.16 0.15 13.62 0.28 8.06 7.53 .+ 0.42 0.53
G St 43,60 _+0.12 63.02 + 0.20 9.72 .+ 0.46 3.81 0.11 14.45 + 0.28 11.12 9.25 + 0.22 0.87
G Go 43.40 + 0.20 63.45 0.18 8.09 + 0.41 3.47 _+0.10 13.94 0.32 9.83 8.39 0.42 1.44
M St 43,61 0.16 63.71 _+0,17 8.66 0.31 2.88 0.06 18.28 0.35 9.50 11.46 .+ 0.36 - 1. 96
U R 43,36 _+0.21 65.22 0.15 11.56 .+ 2.76 4.11 0.08 14.65 0.35 11.14 9.91 0.36 1.23
0.018 0.018 inch
U R 45,31 .+ 0.22 45.32 0.20 6.44 .+ 0.65 2.60 0.09 14.56 0.68 7.45 7.21 0.60 0.24
0.018 0.025 inch
D S 45.20 + 0.07 63.83 0.05 3.79 0.87 4.00 0.16 9.18 0.13 4.44 4.29 .+ 0.20 0.15
D SH 45.30 .+ 0.11 63.78 + 0.06 4.61 .+ 0.40 3.77 0.17 9.34 + 0.24 4.36 4.32 ,+ 0, 3I 0,04
D EH 45.63 + 0.24 64.02 0.15 4.61 + 0.56 4.08 0.17 8.33 0.39 3.64 3.57 0.34 0.07
G St 45.13 .+ 0.18 63.05 + 0.16 6.99 .+ 0.62 3.82 0.26 9.21 0.38 5.27 4.14 0.24 1.13
G Go 45,04 0.18 62.88 + 0.21 6.56 0.56 3.73 + 0.19 9.20 + 0.37 5.40 4.07 +_ 0.34 1.33
M St 46.01 0.33 63.20 .+ 0.21 6.34 0.28 3.24 0.13 10.67 .+ 0.51 2.98 4.56 0.57 - 1. 58
O SS 45.25 _+0.30 62.42 0.31 4.08 .+ 0.58 3.28 0.27 12.03 1.21 4.50 6.14 0.96 - 1. 64
U R 45.69 + 0.14 65.66 _+0.08 10.92 + 1.18 4.60 + 0.17 9.20 0.41 4.50 4.82 0.37 - 0. 32
U HT 44.77 0.43 63.21 _+0.60 7.75 .+ 0.68 4.79 + 0.26 9.91 -+ 0.81 6.31 5.76 .+ 0.70 0.55
D = Dent aurum; G = GAC; M = Masel; O = Ormco; U = Uni t ek; S = soft; SH = spring hard; E H - extra hard; St = standard; Go = gold; HT = Hi-T;
SS = stainless steel; R = resilient.
Calc. play denot es the t orsi onal play calculated wi t h a formul a devel oped by Mel i ng et al ) 3 Intercept denot es t orsi onal play based on the abscissal i nt ercept
of a regression line fitted to the linear port i on of the t orsi onal stress/strain diagram. Diff. Calc-Int describes the difference between the calculated play and
the actual intercept. The measured values for height, width, and edge bevel radius have previously been report ed by Mel i ng et al. 16
i nt e r i ndi vi dual me t h o d error, ba s e d o n 80 do ubl e me a -
s u r e me n t s , was 0. 20, an ave r age o f 3% o f t he me a n
res ul t .
The t es t pi e c e s we r e t hen pl aced i n a t orque me as ur -
ing i ns t rument wi t h an i nt erbracket di st ance o f 4 mm. Thi s
i ns t rument was des cri bed by Odegaard e t a l . , t 4 , 1 7 and is a
further de v e l o pme nt o f t he apparatus previ ous l y report -
ed. 12 Onl y a short pr e s e nt at i on wi l l be gi ven here.
The pri nci pl e o f t he i ns t rument desi gn (Fi g. 1, A) is
that the t est piece: is hel d in pos i t i on by t hree bracket s.
The cent ral bracket ( A) is stati onary, mo u n t e d o n a
pedes t al . Two support i ng bracket s ( B) , al i gned wi t h t he
American Journal of Orthodontics and Dentofacial Orthopedics Mel i ng, Odegaard, a n d Me l i n g 313
Volume 11], No. 3
Central
axis
G I
' [ 3
D
i " 1
I I
Cross-bar Pulley Lase
Laser dot ~ -
\ 6 ram.
\ ng
\
B L a s e r
Fi g. 1. A, Schemat i c di agr am of t est appar at us. B, Posi t i on of t est i ng appar at us i nsi de
measur i ng scal e. Di st ance f r om axi s- cent er t o mi l l i met er - gr i d paper on i nsi de of arc is 716
mm.
central bracket, are fixed to a crossbar (C) that can rotate
around its long axis. The supporting brackets are fixed to
the crossbar through sliding plates (D), permitting varia-
tion in the interbracket distance. Cold cure acrylic was
used to bond the brackets. When mounted, the bracket
slots are oriented such that an orthodontic wire passing
through the brackets will have its central axis coinciding
with the central axis of the crossbar.
Torque is applied to the crossbar by adding weights to
a basket attached to a pulley (E) that is fixed to the
crossbar. Weights are added in increments that corre-
spond to increases in applied torque of 2.5 Nmm, up to a
maximum of 20 Nmm. Previous tests had shown that a
load of 20 Nmm would not lead to permanent deforma-
tion (unpublished results). Weights were added with care
and the system allowed to settle before the angle of twist
was recorded.
Onto the ends of the crossbar are mounted two
mirrors (F) that rotate with the crossbar. The degree of
torsional twist can be measured with laser lamps (G) that
project thin beams of light via the mirrors onto a measur-
ing scale (Fig. 1, B). The scale is a full half arc of a circle
and has a radius of 716 mm. The long axis of the crossbar
coincides with the center of the measuring scale. The
inside of the half circle is covered with millimeter-paper,
constituting the scale. The scale can be read to the nearest
0.5 mm, allowing the angle to be read accurate to 1/50 .
The maximum angle that can be recorded is 60 .
The instrument has been tested for method error in a
very comprehensive manner. Both the accuracy in mea-
suring the deflection and the accuracy in mounting the
brackets have been evaluated. To test for correct orienta-
tion of the brackets, a series of wires were twisted in both
directions. No statistically significant difference in the
mean degree of twist was observed, which proves that the
brackets were correctly aligned.
Ten test pieces cut from separate lengths of each wire
sample were tested twice with at least 1 week in between.
314 Meling, ~)degaard, and Meling American Journal of Orthodontics and Dentofacial Orthopedics
March 1997
Stainless Steel Wire 0.016" x 0.016-
20.0
17.5
15.0
12.5
10.0
7.5
5.0
2.5
0.0
20,0
MramS:~S:ta:dnlasnffsSteel /
/ / j /
25.0 30.0 35.0 40.0 45.0 50.0 55.0
Angle of Twi st in De g r e e s
F i g . 2 . T o r q u e 4 w i s t d i a g r a m s f o r f i v e d i f f e r e n t 0 . 0 1 6 x 0 . 0 1 6 - i n c h w i r e s f r o m f i v e d i f f e r e n t
m a n u f a c t u r e r s .
Stainless Steel Wire 0 . 0 1 6 x 0.022-
20.0 -
17.5
15.0
E 12.5
E
-~ 10.0
7.5-
5.0-
2.5.
0.0
Dentaurum, Spring Hard J /
- O- GAC, Hi-T
Masel, Golden
- ~ - Ormco, Stainless Steel
~ U n i t e k , Resilient / / / /
/
14,0 16.0 18,0 20.0 22.0 24.0 26.0 28.0 30.0
Angl e of Twi st in De g r e e s
F i g . 3 . T o r q u e - t w i s t d i a g r a m s f o r f i v e d i f f e r e n t 0 . 0 1 6 0 . 0 2 2 - i n c h w i r e s f r o m f i v e d i f f e r e n t
m a n u f a c t u r e r s .
The mean for each test pi ece was used in the subsequent
calculations, and for each test pi ece a torsional moment
versus angle of twist diagram was calculated. A regression
l i ne was fitted to the linear portion of the curves, with the
least square method. The intercept of the l i ne with the
abscissa represents the amount of torsional play between
wire and bracket. The sl ope of the l i ne represents tor-
sional stiffness. A mean diagram for 10 test pi eces was
then estimated, later referred to as a torque-twist dia-
gram. The intercept and the slope of the line of these
torque-twist diagrams are based on the mean of 10
individual curves. Torque-twist diagrams for the various
di mensi ons, except for 0.018 x 0.018-inch wires, are
shown in Figs. 2 through 6. As the diagrams of some wires
were very close, only one wire from each manufacturer is
shown for each di mensi on for the purpose of clarity.
Torsional play was also estimated with the formula
gi ven by Mel i ng et al., ~3 substituting the measured val ues
for wire di mensi ons and edge bevel. Fig. 7 shows a
rectangular wire with rounded corners (edge bevel )
A m e r i c a n J o u r n a l o f O r t h o d o n t i c s a n d D e n t o f a c i a l O r t h o p e d i c s Meling, Odegaard, and Meling 315
V o l u m e 1 1 1 , N o . 3
20.0
17.5
15,0
E 12.5
E
.~ 10.0
7 . 5 -
5 . O -
2 , 5 -
0 , 0
7 . 0
Stai nl ess Steel Wi re 0. 01T x 0 . 0 2 2
2:';;:::0 / / 9
- - - - O 0
i i i i 1 i i
9.0 11.0 13.0 15.0 17.0 190 21.0
Angle of Twist in Degrees
Fig. 4. Torque-t wi st di agrams for f our different 0.017 0.022-i nch wires from four
different manufacturers.
Stainless Steel Wire 0.01T x 0.025
2/ /
Oentaurum, Super Hard
17.5 -O-- GAC, Standard
-II--Mgsel, St an da rd / / / /
15"0--~' -*-Ufl Jtek' ____ Res' l i ent -- ~ ~ ~
12.5
._c 10.0
7.5
2 , 5
0 . 0 i ~ i J i i
4.0 6.0 8.0 10,0 12.0 14.0 16.0 18.0
Angle of Twist in Degrees
I
2 0 . 0
Fig. 5. Torque-t wi st di agrams for four different 0.017 0.025-i nch wi res from four
different manufacturers.
twisted within a bracket slot. The angle of twist or play is
% and is the difference between the angle a and the angle
13. The diagonal "d" is t he distance between the centers of
rounding, and is given by formul a (1). I n the t wo triangles
used for calculating c~ and 13, d is the hypothenuse. Fr om
geometric considerations we t hen have:
d = ( ~ - 2 r ) - + ( h - 2 r ) 2 (1)
where w is wire width and h is wire height, while r is the
radius of rounding.
The angle % representing the third-order clearance,
can t hen be found by the following formula:
- / = c ~- 13
[ H- 2 r ] . [ h - 2 r ]
- / = a s i n [ ~ ] - a s , n [ ~ ] (2)
When applying t orque t o a tooth, the torsional play
t hat has to be negat ed will be the play from a central
position t o one extreme in two brackets. The first met hod
will give this total torsional play, whereas t he formul a will
give the amount of torsional play from a central position
to one extreme. The latter value has t herefore been
multiplied by two in Table II.
Stainless Steel Wire 0. 018' x 0. 025
O z
D e n E r a H r d . . . . .
- O - GAC, Standard
Masel, St andard
Ormco, St ai nl ess Steel
Uni t ek, Hi - T
20. 0
t 7. 5
15.0
~ 12.5
~ 10.0
7. 5
5. 0
2. 5
0. 0
2. 0 31o , i o L L 71o 81o oio lOO 11'.o 1~'8
A n g l e of T w i s t i n Degrees
m
F i g . 6 . Torque-twi st diagrams for fi ve different 0.018 x 0.025-inch wi res from fi ve different
manufacturers.
3 1 6 Meling, ~)degaard, and Mel i ng American Journal of Orthodontics and Dentofacial Orthopedics
March 1997
F i g . 7. Position of twi sted rounded rectangular wi res
within bracket slot. H = bracket slot height, h = wire
height, w = w i r e w i d t h , r = r a d i u s o f w i r e rounding
(edge bevel).
The amount of torsional moment was measured
through activation. To test whether the deactivation curve
for stainless steel wires would closely follow the activation
curve until the departure from linearity, three different
wires were tested. Ten test pieces that were cut from
separate lengths of each sample wire were subjected to
loading and unloading. The resulting curves are presented
in Fig. 8.
S T A T I S T I C A L A N A L Y S I S
Means and st andar d devi at i ons wer e cal cul at ed
wher e applicable. The me t hod er r or was est i mat ed
wi t h doubl e meas ur ement s and t he Dahl ber g f or mu-
la. 18 Systematic er r or s wer e t est ed for, wi t h a pai r ed
t test. An analysis of var i ance wi t h Scheff6 t est was
used t o anal yze di fferences bet ween wires and man-
ufact urers.
R E S U L T S
The met hod er r or f or t he t orsi onal measur e-
ment s, based o13 400 doubl e measur ement s at 10
Nmm, wa s 0. 106 . 14 A t t est f or systematic er r or
bet ween t he first and second meas ur ement gave no
significant resul t s (t = 0.02), i ndi cat i ng t hat no
per manent def or mat i on of t he wires or bracket s
occur r ed duri ng t he exper i ment ,
Tabl e II summari zes t he results f r om this exper-
i ment . The height, width, and edge bevel measur e-
ment s wer e r epor t ed in a previ ous article and are
i ncl uded in t he t abl e f or t he sake of compl et eness.
The mean cal cul at ed t orsi onal play, t he i nt er cept
(t orsi onal pl ay based on t he t orque-t wi st di agrams),
t he sl ope of t he l i near por t i on of t he t orque-t wi st
di agram, and t he degr ee of twist at 20 Nmm of
t orsi onal force, al ong with st andar d deviations, are
provi ded. Wi t h r espect t o hei ght , all but f our wires
satisfied t he manuf act ur er s' st at ement of bei ng
within _+0.0005 i nch (0.0127 ram) of t he st at ed
values. Seven wi res di d not fulfill this r equi r ement
on width. For edge bevel, little i nt er sampl e vari at i on
was obser ved except f or f our wires pr ovi ded by
Uni t ek. A l arge vari at i on in edge bevel f or similar
di mensi ons was observed.
The torsional[ play, as est i mat ed with t he i nt er-
cept , demons t r at ed a rel at i vel y large vari at i on, bei ng
American Journal of Orthodontics and Dentofacial Orthopedics Meling, Odegaard, and Meling 317
Volume 111, No. 3
Stainless Steel Wires tested in
Loading and Unloading
20. 0
17.5
15.0
12.5
10.0
7. 5
5. 0
2. 5
0. 018"x 0.025" 0. 01T' x 0.022" 0.016"x 0.022"
n
4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
Angle of Twist in Degrees
_+S.E.
Fig. 8. Activation and deactivation curves for three stainless steel wires, all Unitek resil-
ient.
T a b l e I I I . Summa r y of t or que me a s ur e me nt s
Wire dimensions and Angle of twist at
samples tested 20 N-mm
Mean Range
Dimensions n ( degr ees ) (degrees)
Torsional play based on intercept
with deformation-axis Torsional st i ~ess
Mean Range Mean Range Span
(Nmm/degree) (Nmm/degree) ( de gr e e s ) ( d e g r e e s ) (degrees)
0.016 x 0.016 90 45.2 42.9-50.3 1.44
0.016 x 0.022 90 26.3 24.6-29.2 2.52
0.017 x 0.022 60 19.2 17.4-20.7 2.75
0.017 x 0.025 60 14.8 13.6-18.3 3.44
0.018 x 0.018 10 14.6 2.60
0.018 0.025 90 9.7 8.3-12.0 3.92
1.1-1.7 31.2 28.8-33.8 5.0
2.0-2.0 18.5 16.6-20.4 3.8
2.0-3.3 11.9 10.4-14.5 4.1
2.9-4.1 9.1 7.5-11.5 4.0
7.2
3.2-4.8 4.6 3.6-6.1 2.5
Working range
per 10 N-ram
Mean Range
(degrees) (degrees)
7.0 6.9-9.4
4.0 3.4-4.9
3.6 3.1-5.0
2.9 2.4-3.5
3.8
2.6 2.1-3.1
highest for t he 0.016 x 0.016-inch wires (range 5.0 )
and lowest for the 0.018 x 0.025-inch wires (range
2.5 ) (Table III). Similar vari at i on was observed in
t he cal cul at ed play, based on t he formulas. The
differences bet ween t he two est i mat es of t orsi onal
play were subjected t o an analysis of variance. There
were no significant differences bet ween the two
estimates for the different wire di mensi ons (F =
0.94). Differences bet ween manuf act ur er s were
not ed. The results show t hat GAC, on the average,
demonst r at ed larger values for this difference,
whereas Masel and Or mco displayed smaller values.
Dent aur um and Uni t ek t ook up an i nt er medi at e
position. The differences bet ween these t hree
groups were statistically significant (Scheff6 t es t p <
0.01).
Tabl e III gives a summary of t he t orque mea-
surement results for the various di mensi onal groups
of wires wi t h t hei r correspondi ng ranges. The angle
of twist at 20 Nmm is r educed with increasing
di mensi on, whereas the torsional stiffness increases
with increasing dimension.
In a previous article, t he accuracy and precision
by which t he manuf act ur er s make t hei r wires were
evaluated. 16 By precision is meant t he st andard
deviation ar ound t he observed mean for each sam-
ple, i.e., the stability of t he cal cul at ed i nt ercept
(torsional play), t he slope of t he line (torsional
stiffness), and t he degree of twist at 20 Nmm. Fr om
a clinical poi nt of view, t he l at t er value woul d be
consi dered t he most i mport ant . Tabl e II shows t he
amount of vari at i on in these st andard deviations for
each t est ed wire. To get a general i mpressi on of the
precision, mean st andard deviations for these t hree
variables were cal cul at ed for each manuf act ur er on
t he basis of t he t ot al vari ance and are given in Table
IV. Ther e is little vari at i on bet ween t he manufac-
t urers concerni ng torsional stiffness. The ability to
318 Meling, Odegaard, and Meling American Journal of Orthodontics attd Dentofacial Orthopedics
March 1997
Tabl e IV. P r e c i s i o n o f ma n u f a c t u r e r s
Torsional Twist at 20 Torsional
Producer stiffness N- mm play
De n t a u r u m --0. 159 +-0.335 -+0.551
GAC +-0.149 +-0.676 +0. 522
Masel -+0.095 -+0.705 +-0.705
Or mc o +0. 169 +1. 435 1. 140
Uni t ek +-0.134 +-0.702 -+0.610
The aver age var i at i on a r ound t he me a n me a s ur e d val ue, expr essed by t he
s t andar d devi at i on, f or each pr oduc e r wi t h r espect t o t or si onal stiffness,
angl e of twist at 20 N- mm and t or si onal pl ay.
del i ver 20 Nmm of t or que preci sel y varies consi der-
able, this bei ng di rect l y r el at ed t o t he t orsi onal play.
Lack of preci si on on t orsi onal pl ay will be a resul t of
lack of preci si on in cross-sect i onal di mensi ons. 16
DI SCUSSI ON
Appl i cat i on of a t orsi onal mome nt is consi der ed
by many or t hodont i st s as one of t he most difficult
tasks in or t hodont i c t r eat ment . It may be ar duous t o
put t or que into t he wi re f r om a t echni cal poi nt of
view, and human ability t o est i mat e t or que angles at
t he desi red level of accuracy is i nadequat e. I ncom-
pl et e knowl edge of t he appr opr i at e degr ee of twist
necessary to del i ver a pr edet er mi ned amount of
t orsi onal moment , coupl ed with vari abl e degr ees of
t orsi onal play, due t o vari at i ons in t he or t hodont i c
appliances, f ur t her compl i cat e t he mat t er . The re-
sults f r om this i nvest i gat i on may not make t he t ask
easier, but emphasi ze some i mpor t ant points.
The fact ors t est ed in t orsi on exper i ment s depend
on t he wi re mat eri al and t he cross-sect i onal geom-
et ry of t he wire. Manuf act ur er s differ in t hei r ability
t o pr oduce wires wi t h r espect t o t hei r accuracy and
preci si on. 16 General l y, or t hodont i c wires have an
edge bevel t hat significantly i nfl uences bot h t he
t orsi onal pl ay bet ween wire and bracket , 16 as well as
t he pol ar moment of inertia. The l at t er is also
affect ed by devi at i ons in hei ght and wi dt h measur e-
ment s f r om t he st at ed, nomi nal value. Thus a wi re
t hat is t oo high or t oo wide will appear stiffer and
have less t orsi onal play ( t hi r d- or der cl ear ance) t han
expect ed, wher eas a wire with a hi gh degr ee of edge
bevel will appear weaker and have mor e pl ay t han
expect ed. Because t he amount of t orsi onal pl ay
bet ween t he wire and t he br acket is dependent on
t he di fference bet ween slot hei ght and wire di men-
sions, as well as t he degr ee of wire roundi ng, 13 a
r educt i on in wire size results in poor e r fit in t he
br acket and may resul t in less cont r ol duri ng t oot h
movement .
In this study, t he amount of t orsi onal mome nt
has been measur ed t hr ough activation, but has also
been t est ed in unl oadi ng. The l i near por t i on of t he
act i vat i on curve cor r es ponded closely t o t he l i near
por t i on of t he deact i vat i on curve (Fig. 8). The dat a
and t he t orque-t wi st di agrams can t her ef or e be used
t o eval uat e t he si t uat i on taking pl ace in t he del i very
of t or que.
Tabl e II shows t hat t he degr ee of twist necessary
to pr oduce 20 Nmm of t orsi onal mome nt varies
considerably. Tabl e III gives t he means f or t he
vari ous di mensi onal groups of wires wi t h t hei r cor-
r espondi ng ranges. It is appar ent t hat mor e twist
must be appl i ed t o a t hi nner wire t o get a pr edet er -
mi ned moment . For t he smal l er squar e wi res
(0.016 0.016 inches), t he angl e of twist at 20 Nmm
r anged f r om appr oxi mat el y 43 t o 50 . The mor e
commonl y used wire f or r et r act i on and t or que ap-
pl i cat i on in t he 0.018 t echni que is t he 0.016
0.022-inch wire. The angl e of twist necessary t o
cr eat e 20 Nmm or mome nt r anged f r om 24.6 t o
29.2 f or t he di fferent wire types. Thus t he wi re must
be twisted a consi derabl e amount bef or e any appr e-
ciable moment will be gener at ed bet ween wire and
bracket -sl ot .
The vari at i on in t orsi onal stiffness bet ween t he
vari ous manuf act ur er s is gr eat er f or t he t hi nner
wires. But even f or t he heavi er wires, t her e is a
r ange bet ween t he mi ni mum and t he maxi mum
me a n val ues of about 4 at 20 Nmm of t orsi onal
moment . The variability is t he resul t of several
factors. First of all, t he wire di mensi ons and edge
bevel varies, whi ch leads t o vari at i on in t orsi onal
pl ay and t orsi onal stiffness. A mor e r ounded wi re
will be mor e flexible. Lastly, vari at i on in t he modu-
lus of rigidity will i nfl uence t he results.
The amount of t orsi onal pl ay is gr eat er t han t hat
r epor t ed by ot her aut hors, a fact also not ed in
previ ous articles. 12,14 Tabl e III gives a summar y of
mean t orsi onal pl ay and r ange f or t he vari ous wire
dimensions. The 0.016 0.022-inch wires have a
mean t orsi onal pl ay of as much as 18.5 , with a r ange
of 16.6 t o 20.4 . Wi t h a span of al most 4 , or 14% of
t he mean angl e of twist at 20 Nmm, it becomes
evi dent t hat preci se cont r ol of t or que appl i cat i on is
difficult. The span in t orsi onal pl ay vari ed f r om 2.5
t o 5.0 for t he di fferent wi re di mensi ons, r epr esent -
ing a consi derabl e difference, part i cul arl y when re-
l at ed t o t he worki ng range.
Tor si onal pl ay was est i mat ed in two di fferent
ways, and t her e wer e no significant di fferences be-
t ween t he t wo est i mat es f or t he di fferent wi re di-
mensi ons. However , di fferences bet ween manufac-
t ur er s wer e not ed. GAC showed, on t he average, a
American Journal of Orthodontics and Dentofacial Orthopedics Meting, Odegaard, and Meting 319
Volume 111, No. 3
l arger discrepancy, Masel and Or mco wires showed
smal l er discrepancies, wher eas De nt a ur um and
Uni t ek t ook up an i nt er medi at e posi t i on. Cl oser
eval uat i on r eveal ed t hat this is due t o vari at i on in
t he est i mat e of t he edge bevel. Al t hough it was
possible t o assess r epeat edl y an edge bevel wi t h a
small me t hod er r or , t he obt ai ned est i mat e l ead in
some i nst ances t o an i mpreci se comput at i on of t he
t orsi onal play. General l y, t he cor ner s were not per-
fect l y semicircular. Some wire cor ner s l ooked as i f
t hey had been r emoved at a 45 angle, whereas, in
ot her instances, t he cor ner s appear ed poi nt ed. 16
The di fference bet ween t he two est i mat es f or t he 40
sampl es t est ed was 0.0007 , suggesting t hat t he
degr ee of t orsi onal pl ay cal cul at ed by t he f or mul a
compar es favorabl e with t he t orsi onal play f ound by
fitting a straight line t o t he l i near por t i on of t he
t orque-t wi st diagrams. The exper i ment al dat a are
t her ef or e in good agr eement wi t h t he t heor et i cal
calculations. Fur t her mor e, t he met hod used t o esti-
mat e t he degr ee of bevel is r easonabl y accurat e.
The i mpor t ant quest i on in this analysis is t he
worki ng range. The pr esent i nvest i gat i on has simu-
l at ed t he appl i cat i on of t or que on a single t oot h. Let
us, f or t he sake of discussion, assume t hat 1500 gmm
or 15 Nmm is an i deal mome nt f or faciolingual r oot
movement of a single t oot h, and accept 20 Nmm as
t he upper limit and 5 Nmm as t he l ower limit. The
change in t orsi onal stiffness as expressed by t he
slope of t he line, r anged f r om 2.5 Nmm/ degr ee f or a
0.016 0.022-inch wi re t o 3.9 Nmm/ degr ee f or a
0.018 0.025-inch wi re ( Tabl e III). I f we accept a
worki ng r ange of 15 Nmm, t he worki ng r ange in
degr ees varies bet ween 6.0 and 3.8 , r es pect i vel y.
Compar i ng t he worki ng range wi t h t he obser ved
span of t orsi onal play, one real i zes t hat t he rat i o
bet ween t hese two is relatively small. Thus it is
difficult t o appl y t or que with a desi rabl e degr ee of
certainty. Let us illustrate this by an exampl e: The
mean t orsi onal pl ay f or a 0.016 x 0.022 i nch wi re
was 18.5 . To obt ai n 20 Nmm of moment , a mean
addi t i onal twist of 7.8 must be appl i ed f or a t ot al of
26.3 . On t he ot her hand, if we base our cal cul at i ons
on a 0.016 x 0.022-inch wi re wi t h t he least amount
of pl ay (16.6 ) and t he hi ghest val ue f or t he sl ope
(2.9 Nmm/ degr ee) , t he resul t i ng moment at t he
same 26.3 of t ot al twist woul d be 28.1 Nmm. The
i nverse cal cul at i on woul d yi el d 11.8 Nmm. Thi s
disparity is about 40% in bot h directions. It shoul d
be kept in mi nd t hat t he vari at i on obser ved in this
exper i ment is based on devi at i ons in wi re cross-
sections alone. Var i at i on in bracket -sl ot di mensi on
will definitely i ncrease this uncert ai nt y.
Unf or t unat el y, t he manuf act ur er s do not indi-
cat e what t ol er ances t hey wor k with or do t hey give
any i nf or mat i on about edge bevel. A pr evi ous article
by Mel i ng et a l . 16 i l l ust rat ed t hat devi at i ons f r om
st at ed di mensi onal val ues did exist, and t hat t her e
was bot h significant i nt er manuf act er ur and i nt ra-
manuf act ur er vari at i on. The manuf act ur er s also de-
liver vari ous wire qualities with di fferent t ol erances.
The results f r om this i nvest i gat i on show di fferences
bet ween wi re manuf act ur er s and bet ween wire qual-
ities on t he amount of t orsi onal play, and t hat t hese
di fferences are due t o devi at i ons f r om st at ed di men-
sional values, as well as edge bevel. I f an or t hodon-
tist who is used t o wires wi t h small di mensi ons and
bevel l ed edges t urns to pr oduct s f r om a manufac-
t ur er t hat makes wires with l arger di mensi ons and
shar per edges, t oo large t orsi onal forces can easily
be t he result. One i mpor t ant poi nt t o not e f r om this
exper i ment is t hat even small vari at i ons in wire
di mensi ons can have an i mpor t ant effect on t he
t orsi onal play. To this must be added t he effect of
var i at i on in br acket slot height.
A compar i son of individual results shows t hat
di mensi onal vari at i on is not t he onl y cause f or
var i at i on in t or s i onal stiffness. Compa r i s on be-
t ween si mi l ar di mensi ons of wi re pr oduc e d by
Masel and Uni t ek, as an exampl e, cl ear l y show
t hat Uni t ek Hi - T wi r e is st i ffer t han Masel st an-
dar d wi re. Thi s var i at i on c a nnot be expl ai ned by
var i at i on in cr oss- sect i on al one, but must be due
t o var i at i on in physi cal pr ope r t i e s of t he di f f er ent
mat er i al s.
Ma nuf a c t ur e r s wer e eval uat ed wi t h r es pect t o
pr eci si on t hr ough an est i mat e of t he over al l me a n
s t andar d devi at i on f or t hr e e var i abl es ( Tabl e IV).
Var i at i on a r ound t he me a n sl ope is r el at i vel y
si mi l ar f or t he di f f er ent manuf act ur er s . The same
hol ds t r ue f or t he cal cul at ed i nt er cept , except f or
Or mc o t hat de mons t r a t e s a r el at i vel y l ar ge vari a-
t i on. Concer ni ng t he degr ee of twist at 20 Nmm,
De n t a u r u m wi res a ppe a r t o be mor e pr eci se;
GAC, Masel , and Uni t e k wi res t ake up an i nt er -
medi at e posi t i on; wher eas t he Or mc o wi r es show
t he l ar gest var i at i on.
The final est i mat e f or accuracy and preci si on will
be t he ability of a given wire t o del i ver a pr edet er -
mi ned t orsi onal force. Thi s will not onl y depend on
t he accuracy and preci si on by whi ch t he manufac-
t ur er s mai nt ai n wi re di mensi ons and f or m, but also
on t he homogeni ci t y of t he mat eri al and t he ability
of t he manuf act ur er t o pr oduce r epeat edl y t he same
qual i t y of wi re mat eri al . To t est t he l at t er, it woul d
be necessary t o have samples f r om vari ous pr oduc-
320 Meling, Odegaard, and Meling American Journal of Orthodontics and Dentofacial Orthopedics
March 1997
t i on bat ches. Thi s was beyond t he scope of this
investigation.
CLINICAL IMPORTANCE
Qual i t y cont r ol is an i mpor t ant aspect of or t h-
odont i c t r eat ment . Not onl y does it involve t he
cor r ect pl acement of t eet h t o t hei r sur r oundi ng
st ruct ures t o obt ai n a pleasing result, but also t he
cor r ect appl i cat i on of forces t hat cause t he least
amount of tissue damage. It is general l y acknowl-
edged t hat appl i cat i on of high f or ce levels is mor e
likely t o i nduce r oot r esor pt i on and possible loss of
t oot h vitality. Rei t an 19 and l at er Rygh 2 have shown
t hat high forces will l ead to hyal i ni zat i on of t he
per i odont al l i gament and subsequent under mi ni ng
resorpt i on. It follows t hat , if t or que is going t o be
appl i ed within physiologic limits, this may be diffi-
cult when stainless st eel wires are used under t he
pr esent st at e of affairs.
Al t hough t he manuf act ur er s' ability to pr ovi de
accurat e appl i ances may be sufficient, t her e are
i mpor t ant di fferences bet ween manuf act ur er s and
bet ween wi re samples, l eadi ng t o a wide r ange in
t orsi onal play, twist needed t o pr oduce 20 Nmm of
t orsi onal moment , and slope. Thus, for cor r ect
appl i cat i on of t or que, t he or t hodont i st shoul d be
given enough i nf or mat i on by t he manuf act ur er t o
est i mat e t he amount of t orsi onal pl ay in t he appli-
ances.
We have shown t hat when 0.016 0.022 i nch
wires are used, one must appl y f r om 24.6 t o 29.2 of
twist t o get 20 Nmm of t orsi onal moment , and t hat
this vari at i on is most l y due to a r at her wide r ange in
t orsi onal play. When t he rat i o bet ween t he worki ng
range in degr ees and t he obser ved r ange in t orsi onal
play is small, it becomes difficult t o appl y t orsi onal
f or ce accurat el y. One sol ut i on is to use mor e flexible
wires t o i ncrease t he worki ng range, whi ch pr esent l y
means using ni ckel -t i t ani um wires. The low f or m-
ability of t hese wires can be over come by using
pr et or qued bracket s. Fur t her mor e, t he possibility of
worki ng wi t hi n physiologic limits does in our opi n-
i on war r ant t he possible ext ra cost.
CONCLUSIONS
From the foregoing, the following conclusions seem
valid:
1. The amount of torsional play (third-order clear-
ance) is greater than previously observed by other
authors and there is considerable variation be-
tween manufacturers.
2. Variation in torsional play is mainly a result of
deviations from stated dimensional values and vari-
able edge bevel.
3. If an acceptable range for torque should lie be-
tween 10 and 20 Nmm, our results indicate that this
will give a narrow working range for the rectangu-
lar stainless steel wires investigated and that it will
be difficult to apply physiologic torsional moments
with a sufficient degree of accuracy.
4. The torsional stiffness and the degree of twist
required to produce 20 Nmm of torsional moments
varies considerably within the various dimensions.
The permission to use the equipment at the Stavanger
Tekn. Fagskole, Stavanger, Norway for measuring edge
bevel, and the assistance of Mr. Alf Skartveit in this
respect is greatly appreciated. We also acknowledge the
material put at our disposal from the various manufactur-
ers.
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